Machine Parts

Fasteners: Used to join two pieces together.

Types of Fasteners:
Temporary Fasteners: Can be easily separated without damage.
 Example: Threaded fasteners like bolts and nuts.
Permanent Fasteners: Join two parts together permanently.
 Examples: Welding, riveting, etc.
Fastening: The process of joining different machine parts or
engineering products.
Examples in Daily Life: Wooden furniture like desks, stools, and
t tables often use bolts, nuts, and screws.
Terminology:
 Threaded Fasteners: Bolts and nuts.
 Joining Process:
Temporary Fastening: Parts are joined temporarily
a and can be separated easily.
Permanent Fastening: Parts are joined permanently
a and require breaking the fastening for separation.
Screw Thread:
 A continuous helical groove on a cylindrical surface.
 Essential for temporary fastening.
Application:
 Found on most engineering products.
 Used for temporary fastening and power transmission between
machine parts.
External Thread:
 A helical groove on the external surface of a cylinder.
 Found on bolts, studs, screws, etc.
Internal Thread:
A thread on the internal surface of a hollow cylinder, such as the
threads of a nut.
Screw Pair:
Consists of a bolt and a nut. Used to join two parts together.
Parallel and Taper Thread:
Parallel or straight threads run uniformly along the cylinder's surface.
Right-hand and Left-hand Threads:
o Right-hand Threads (RH): Tighten when rotated clockwise.
CccccccccccccccccccccccccCommon in daily-use bolts
n and nuts.
o Left-hand Threads (LH): Loosen when rotated clockwise.
Often found in jewelry mating
pieces.
Pitch (P):
Definition: The distance between corresponding points on adjacent
thread surfaces measured parallel to the axis.
Lead (L):
 Definition: The distance a nut or bolt moves axially in one
complete rotation.
Single Start and Multi Start Threads:
 Single Start Thread: One helix runs on the cylinder. Lead (L)
equals pitch (P).
 Multi Start Threads: Multiple helices on the cylinder. Lead
increases with the number of helices.
Crest:
 External Thread: Farthest edge from the axis.
 Internal Thread: Nearest edge to the axis.
Root:
 External Thread: Nearest edge to the axis.
 Internal Thread: Farthest edge from the axis.
Flank: Connects the crest and root of a thread surface.
Thread Angle:
 Definition: Angle between the flanks measured in an axial plane.
Major Diameter or Outside Diameter:
 Diameter of an imaginary coaxial cylinder touching the crest of
external threads or roots of internal threads.
 Largest diameter of a screw thread.
Minor Diameter or Root Diameter or Core Diameter:
 Diameter of an imaginary coaxial cylinder touching the roots of
external threads or crest of internal threads.
Nominal Diameter:
 Diameter of the cylinder from which external threads are cut.
 Specifies the screw/bolt.
Standard Profile/Form of Screw Threads:
Two basic profiles:
Triangular or 'V' thread & Square thread.
V-Threads:
 Have inclined flanks forming a V or triangular cross-section.
 Used for tightening parts together in bolts, nuts, studs, and
screws.
 Clearance is necessary between external and internal threads.
Interchangeability:
 Standardized V-thread profiles like B.S.W. and Metric threads
ensure interchangeability between screws and nuts of the same
nominal diameter and form.
Square Thread:
 Definition: Thread with a square cross-section where flanks are
vertical and parallel.
 Usage: Primarily for power transmission in feed mechanisms of
machine tools, screw jacks, etc., due to reduced frictional
resistance.
 Application: Used in applications requiring smooth and efficient
power transmission.
Standard Square Thread Profiles:
o Square Thread: Basic square thread profile.
o Knuckle Thread: Another type of square thread to be
studied in the syllabus
ISO Metric Thread Profile:
 Description: The ISO (International Organization for
Standardization) profile is recommended by the Bureau of Indian
Standards for the metric screw thread system.
 Unified Thread: Also known as the unified thread, it standardizes
the shape of external and internal threads.
 Basic Designation: The thread is specified using the basic
designation format.
 Format: Letter M followed by the nominal size (major diameter in
mm) and then the pitch in mm.
Example: M20 x 1.5 signifies a metric thread with a major diameter of
20mm and a pitch of 1.5mm.
External V-Threads Representation:
Description: Represents external V-threads in a simplified manner to
save drawing time.
Method:
 Crest Representation: Two continuous thick lines.
 Root Representation: Two continuous thin lines.
 Useful Length Limit: Indicated by a thick line perpendicular to the
axis.
Internal Thread Representation:
 Description: Shows a sectional view of a threaded hole in the
front view.
 Crest and Root:
 Front View: Crest indicated by a thick line, root by a thin line with
hatching lines extended up to the thick lines.
 Side View: Crest represented by a thick circle, roots by thin
incomplete circles.

Bolts Overview:

 Description: In everyday scenarios, machine parts are often

connected using bolts and nuts. Let's delve into the characteristics
of bolts.
 Composition: A bolt comprises a cylindrical body with one end
threaded and the other fashioned into a head.
 Usage: Bolts are inserted through clearance holes (slightly larger
in diameter than the nominal bolt diameter) in aligned parts. A
nut is then secured onto the threaded end to fasten the parts
together.
 Variety: Different types of bolts serve varying purposes, with the
head shape tailored to the specific application.
 Length: The total length of a bolt, exclusive of the head height or
thickness.
 Thread Representation: The external thread of a bolt is depicted
by a "discontinuous, minor diameter circle."
Hexagonal Headed Bolt:
 Type: Hexagonal bolts are widely used in various applications.
 Head Shape: Hexagonal prism with a conical chamfer rounded off
at a 30° angle on the outer end face for safety.
 Head Thickness: Approximately 0.8 times the diameter of the bolt
(0.8d).
 Threaded End: A small portion (about 3mm) of the threaded end
should protrude outside the nut for proper fastening.

Square Headed Bolt Overview:

 Description: Square headed bolts are commonly used where the

bolt head needs to fit into a recess.
 Purpose: Ideal for applications where the head of the bolt
requires accommodation within a square-shaped recess.
 Recess Design: The recess is typically square-shaped to provide a
snug fit for the bolt head with slight clearance.
 Functionality: The square recess design prevents the bolt head
from rotating when the nut is being screwed on or off.
T-Bolt and Hook Bolt Description:
T-Bolt:
 Application: Commonly used in machine tool tables.
 Function: Corresponding T-slots are cut into the table (Fig 2.16(II))
to accommodate the T-head of the bolt.
 Design: Typically features a square neck with the head for stability
and alignment.
Hook Bolt:
 Appearance: The head of a hook bolt is in the form of a hook (J-
shape) projecting from the side of the shank.
 Usage: The shank passes through a hole in one part, while the
other part to be joined rests under the head of the bolt.
 Stability: Provided with a square neck to prevent rotation during
tightening, ensuring secure fastening.

Nuts Overview:
Description:
A nut is a machine element with a threaded hole that mates with the
threaded end of a bolt. Various types of nuts are utilized in engineering
applications.
Types of Nuts:
Hexagonal Nut:
 Common Usage: Widely used hexagonal prism nut with a
threaded hole.
 Design Features:
 Shape: Hexagonal in shape.
 Corners: Upper corners are chamfered or rounded-off for safety.
 Chamfer Angle: Typically chamfered at a 30° angle with the base
of the nut.
 Chamfering Effect: Results in arcs on the vertical faces and a circle
on the top surface of the nut.
 Chamfering Circle: Touches the midpoints of all sides in the top
view.
  Dimensions: Similar to those of the corresponding hexagonal bolt,
except for the height/thickness of the hexagonal head.
Square Nut:
 Overview: Another common type of nut used in various
applications.
 Design: Square in shape, with a threaded hole.
 Application: Suitable for situations where a square shape is
preferred over a hexagonal one.
 Square Nut Details:
 Type: Square nuts are a primary form of nut, featuring a square
prism with a threaded hole.
 Design: Upper corners of square nuts are chamfered, similar to
hexagonal nuts.
 Dimensions: The dimensions of a square nut match those of a
square bolt, excluding the height/thickness.
Additional Information:
Hexagonal Nut: Hexagonal nuts are favored over other nut types.
Tool Usage:
Spanner: A spanner is employed to tighten or loosen nuts from bolts.
Spanner Operation:
Hexagonal Nut: Turning a hexagonal nut requires a 60° angle for each
hold change.
Square Nut: Turning a square nut necessitates a 90° angle for each hold
change, making it less convenient than a hexagonal nut.
Octagonal Nut: While an octagonal nut requires a 45° turn for each
hold change, it is seldom used due to complexity.
Practicality:
In confined spaces, it is easier to manipulate a spanner on a hexagonal
nut due to the smaller turning angle compared to a square nut.

Washers and Studs Overview:

Washers:
Types: Two primary types are used in machinery:
 Plain Washer: Discussed in detail in the syllabus.
 Spring Washer: Not covered in the current syllabus.
Plain Washer:
 Description: Circular plate with a central hole.
 Function: Placed beneath a nut to provide a flat bearing surface.
 Benefits: Smoothens rough machine part surfaces for nut seating.
Prevents nut from cutting into metal, enabling tighter screwing.
Studs:
 Definition: Cylindrical metal piece with threads at both ends.
Variants:
 Plain cylinder.
 Cylinder with square cross-section/square neck.
 Cylinder with a collar in the central portion.
Application:
 One end (metal end) screws into a threaded hole in one part.
  The other end (nut end) passes through a clearance hole in
another part.
 Nuts are fastened onto the open end of the stud.
Functionality:
Studs serve as headless bolts suitable for spaces with limited head
clearance.
Rivets and Riveted Joints Overview:
Rivets:
 Definition: Permanent fasteners widely used in steel structures.
 Applications: Found in bridges, boilers, pressure cookers,
kitchenware, shoes, belts, etc.
 Structure: Simple round rods with a head at one end and a
formed head at the other when assembled.
 Variety: Rivet heads come in various shapes to suit different
applications.
Riveted Joints:
Types:
 Lap Joint
 Butt Joint
Single Riveted Lap Joint:
Description: Plates overlap with a single row of rivets passing through
both.
Keys in Engineering:
Key Definition:
A piece of metal used to fasten two parts, commonly circular
components like pulleys and flywheels to shafts.
Nature: Considered a temporary fastener, allowing for easy removal
when needed.
Components:
 Key Seat: Groove on the shaft for key accommodation.
 Keyway: Corresponding groove in the mating piece for key
insertion.
Types of Sunk Keys:
Rectangular Taper Key:
 Designated by width x thickness x length (W x T x L).
Woodruff Key:
 Special sunk key resembling a segment of a circular disc.
 Key Seat: Semi-circular; Keyway: Rectangular.
 Advantage: Easy adjustment in the recess.
 Usage: Common in machine tools and automobile applications.
Double Head Feather Key with Gib Head on Both Ends:
Feather Key:
 Type of sunk parallel key used for fastening components.
 In parallel keys, the thickness remains consistent along the length
of the key.
Description:
 Design: Feather key with gib heads on both ends.
 Function: Grips the hub between its two heads for secure
fastening
 Bearings
Purpose of Bearings:
 Bearings reduce friction in moving parts, facilitating smooth
operation.
 Regular oiling/greasing of bearings enhances performance and
longevity.
Industrial Significance:
Bearings are crucial for the smooth operation of shafts in machines.
Shafts: Rotating circular rods transmitting power between machines.
Shaft Bearings:
 Mechanical components supporting or guiding shafts, enabling
rotational or sliding motion.
 Widely used in various applications like automotive, aerospace,
and industrial machinery.
Classification:
 Bearings are broadly categorized based on motion types:
 Plain/Sliding Contact Bearings
 Anti-Friction Bearings/Rolling Bearings
Plain/Sliding Contact Bearings:
 Description: Rotating shaft with sliding contact on a stationary
bearing.
  Optimal Performance: Achieved when materials in contact are
dissimilar.

Further Classification Based on Loading Conditions:

 Journal Bearings
 Thrust Bearings
 Pivot Bearings
Journal Bearings: Open Bearings
Overview:
 In journal bearings, the load on the bearing is perpendicular to the
shaft axis.
 The term 'journal' refers to the part of the shaft that makes
contact within the bearing.
Types:
 Open Bearing
 Bush Bearing
Assembly and Disassembly:
Essential processes for ensuring proper positioning and maintenance of
machine components.
Open Bearings:
Description:
 Consists of a 'U'-shaped cast iron body with a collared brass,
bronze, or gun-metal bush.
 Bush replacement possible when worn out.
  Base plate recessed with padding for stability and reduced
machining area.
 Elongated drilled holes in sole plate aid in misalignment
adjustments during fitting.
Application:
Suitable for linear and zigzag shafts with slow rotational speeds.
Bush Bearing:
Overview:
 A type of journal bearing where the bush is crafted from soft
materials like brass, bronze, or gun metal.
 Ideal for handling higher loads at medium speeds effectively.
Construction:
 The bush is snugly fitted into a bored hole within the bearing
body.
 Internally bored bush provides a precise fit for the shaft.
 Recessed sole enhances stability on the surface.
Lubrication:
A counter-sunk hole at the top of the body allows lubricant pouring to
reduce friction between the shaft and bush.
Design Features:
 Elongated holes in the sole plate aid in width-wise bolt
adjustments.
 Typically positioned at or near the ends of the shaft due to end-
wise shaft insertion constraints.
Rod Joints and Cotter Assemblies:
Tractor Trolley Connection:
 Tractor and trolley joints simplified with pins or cotters for easy
attachment and detachment.
 Fork end on the tractor and eye end on the trolley connected
using a round pin.
Cotter Assembly:
Definition:
 Cotter: Temporary fastener linking two collinear rods under axial
forces.
 Wedge-shaped mild steel block, uniform in thickness but tapered
in width (usually 1 in 30).
 Taper aids in insertion, withdrawal, and lateral adjustments of
connected parts.
Cotter Joints:
Sleeve and Cotter Joint (using two cotters):
 Joining two round rods with cotters securing a sleeve in place.
Socket and Spigot Joint (using one cotter):
 Connection method for round rods involving a socket and spigot
joint secured by a cotter.
Gib and Cotter Joint (using one gib and one cotter):
 Cotter joint variant for joining two square rods, incorporating a
gib and cotter for secure linkage.
Sleeve and Cotter Joint:
 Description:
 Purpose: Connects two round rods effectively.
  Rods are forged, increasing diameter to compensate for material
loss when creating rectangular holes for cotter insertion.
 Chamfered rod ends prevent burring and ease insertion into the
hollow steel sleeve.
Components:
 Rods: Equal dimensions, chamfered ends.
 Hollow Sleeve: Fits over both rods, contains two rectangular
cotter insertion holes perpendicular to rod axes.
Assembly:
 Clearance Margin: Allows automatic cotter adjustment within the
sleeve.
 Cotter Positioning: Slots are strategically placed to drive the rods
closer within the sleeve during cotter insertion.
Mechanical Behavior:
 Under Tensile Force: Cotter experiences shearing force.
 Suitability: Ideal for light transmission of axial loads.