Groundwater
Exploration and
Development
(GEOL-4101)
Abraham M. (PhD in Hydrogeology)
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University (AASTU)
Geology Department
[email protected]
Course objective and outcome
Course objective:
Understand how groundwater occur in different of rocks.
Familiar with the different groundwater exploration techniques and be
able to locate appropriate site for successful drilling site.
Acquire skills and knowledge required in well design and drilling
technology.
Conduct pumping test and analyze pump test data to determine
aquifer properties
Administer a drilling contract document/agreement
Understand the concepts of safe and sustainable yield of
groundwater aquifers
CHAPTER ONE
GROUNDWATER OCCURRENCE
Groundwater Occurrence
Groundwater is a water Stored and Flows beneath the earth
surface, filling the Porous spaces in soil, sediment, and rocks
Hydraulic properties of rocks
Govern the groundwater occurrence depends on the Storage
and Transmitting characteristics of any geologic formation.
o Porosity
o Permeability
o Hydraulic conductivity
o Transmissivity
o Storativity
o Specific yield
o etc.
The groundwater occurrence depends on
Lithology,
Stratigraphy,
Structure
Relationship between Geology and Groundwater
The controls of: Lithology, Stratigraphy, and Structure
The nature and distribution of Groundwater occurrence (aquifers and aquitards)
in a geologic system is controlled by: the lithology, stratigraphy, and structure
of the geologic deposits and formations.
Lithology is the physical makeup, including the mineral composition, grain
size, and grain packing, of the sediments or rocks that make up the geological
systems.
Stratigraphy: describes the geometrical and age relations between the various
formations in geologic systems of sedimentary origin.
Structural features: produced by deformation after deposition or crystallization
(such as cleavages, fractures, folds, and faults)
In most regions, knowledge of the lithology, stratigraphy, and structure
leads directly to an understanding of the distribution of aquifers and
aquitards.
Groundwater occurrence in different rocks
The occurrence of groundwater is controlled by the hydraulic behavior of
geologic formations.
1. Sedimentary Rocks
1.1 Unconsolidated sediments
Consists of materials ranging in texture from clay to coarse gravel
The most productive aquifers (fine sand to coarse gravel)
The sediments should be well sorted and free of silt and clay
Shallower than sedimentary and fractured rock aquifers
Aquifer water levels often fluctuate due to varying recharge and pumping
rates.
Due to their shallow and unconfined nature, alluvial aquifers are
susceptible to contamination and pollution.
Present in depressions such as lowlands or wide valleys
1.1.1 Alluvial valleys
Usually exist along river channels
Can be an excellent sources of groundwater
Coarse gravels are deposited in the stream channel, sands and fine gravels
from natural levees along banks, and silts and clays on the flood plains.
Shallow unconfined or multi-layer (Semi-confined) aquifers are very
common in such environment
Alluvial valley
Unconsolidated sediments
1.1.2 Tectonic Valleys
Products of tectonic activity
Continues erosion from valley mountains creates talus
slopes, alluvial fans and lacustrine deposits
Can be very coarse with high hydraulic conductivities (fan
gravels and channel deposits)
On the other hand, Lacustrine clays can be fine with Low
hydraulic conductivity
Productive well in tectonic valleys should located
Source of recharge is available
Where the aquifers material is coarse and thick
Tectonic Valley (Kobo-Raya)
In general unconsolidated sediments:
The groundwater occurrence (transmissivity and storage capacity)
depends
Grain size
Grain shape
Degree of sorting
Thickness of sediments Highly sorted sediments
Usually good because of their filter like nature
(removes bacteria and other pollutants)
But due to their high hydraulic conductivity
and transmissivity can also be strongly exposed
to any type of pollution
Why the groundwater potential is low in clay?
1.2.Consolidated sedimentary rocks
Consolidated Sedimentary rocks are:
Clastic type…Conglomerates, Sandstone, Silt stone, and Clay stone
Chemical type… Lime stone, Dolomite, and Gypsum
1.2.1 Clastic sedimentary rocks
Formed from fragments of other rocks (igneous ,sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks) which is latter changed to rocks through
sedimentation processes
Usually occur as alternating layers with varying thickness in sedimentary
sequences
Clasts (Sand)
Shale
Sandstone Conglomerates
Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition
§ Weathering breaks rocks
down
§ Erosion involves weather
and the removal of rock
§ Deposition is the dropping
of sediments
§ Sediments are
deposited according to
size
Compaction and Cementation
§ Compaction is the
process that squeezes
the water out of the
sediments. It is caused
by the weight of the
sediments.
§ Cementation takes
place when dissolved
minerals are deposited • Cementing holds the
sediments together.
in the tiny spaces among
the sediments.
Gravel
Sand stone
Clay
Sand stone
Dolomite
Rarely do sedimentary rocks occur
as a single unit; therefore, there is
Dolomite typically a sequence of many beds.
Limestone They form Interbedded sedimentary
sequence
Springs
discharge Groundwater occurs and transmit
through Intergranular pore spaces,
bedding planes, weathering and
fractures
The occurrence of groundwater (transmissivity and storage capacity) of
clastic sedimentary rocks is a function of
Grain size, shape and sorting of the sediment Primary
Degree of diagenesis and cementation (silica, calcite...) porosity
Degree of fracturing Secondary
Degree of weathering porosity
Shallow unconfined, semi-confined
and confined aquifers can be found
The yield to a well is proportional to
the aquifer thickness and hydraulic
conductivity (T=K x b)
Layered sandstone
1.2.2 Chemical Sedimentary rocks (Lime stone, dolomite…)
Formed from mineral grains that fall of a solution (precipitate) by
evaporation or chemical action.
The primary porosity and permeability of limestone and dolomites is
extremely variable (highly anisotropic and heterogeneous) and quit low.
The groundwater occurrence depends on:
Primary porosity and permeability e.g. bedding planes
Secondary porosity
Dissolution process of bedding planes
The rate of dissolution is a function of the amount of
groundwater moving through the system and the degree of
saturation with respect to calcite and dolomite
The dissolution processes favors the development of larger
openings (Sinkholes and caverns or Krast)
Sinkholes
Illustrations of occurrence of groundwater in krastified carbonate terrain
Growth of a carbonate aquifer
drainage system starting in the
recharge area and growing toward
the discharge area.
A. At first, most joints in the
recharge area undergo
solution enlargement.
B. As the solution passages grow,
they join and become fewer.
C. Eventually, one outlet appears
at the discharge zone.
Sinkhole is a depression or hole formed when the land surface sinks due to
underground bedrock dissolution or cave collapse.
Krast is spaces or conduits form in the subsurface that allow for rapid movement
of groundwater. Water moves quickly from the earth's surface underground in
these places.
Cave/cavern is a natural void in the ground, specifically a space large enough
for a human to enter. Naturally formed underground spaces that people can enter
are called caves.
Groundwater effects in Carbonate rocks
Subsurface dissolution and precipitation effects
1) Carbonate rock is dissolved and forming Caves/Caverns
Cave formed above the water table
Caves form below the water table
2) Speleothems: are secondary mineral deposits formed in caves by
flowing, dripping, ponded, or seeping water.
The main speleothems are:
1) Stalactites which grow from the cave roof;
2) Stalagmites which grow from the cave floor;
3) Columns stalactites and stalagmites merging
Stalactite
Column
Stalagmite
Surface features
• Karst topography is a pitted looking Earth surface
resulting from subsurface solution action and include
sinkholes and solution valleys.
c
c
c
Karstified limestone
Fracturing such as faults, joints, and folds
Closely bedded carbonate rocks interconnected by fracture
(if they are close to each other and connected by fracturing)
In general
Carbonate aquifers show a very wide ranges of hydrogeologic
characteristics
For example
There are a number of underground rivers where a
surface stream disappears and flows through caves as
open channel flow
At the other extreme, some carbonate aquifers behave
almost like a homogeneous and isotropic porous medium
Generally, most aquifers lie between these two
extremes
