What is meant by the term biomolecule?

Biomolecules are organic molecules produced by

living organisms that are essential for various biological processes. Examples include proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

What is meant by the term metabolism? Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions that
occur within an organism to maintain life. It includes both anabolic reactions (building up
molecules) and catabolic reactions (breaking down molecules).

What is meant by the term hydrophobic? Hydrophobic refers to substances that repel
water. These molecules do not dissolve in water due to their nonpolar nature.

Identify the functional groups in the following molecule.

The functional groups present in this molecule are:

1. Amino group (NH₂) – This is attached to the alpha carbon.

2. Carboxyl group (-COOH) – There are two carboxyl groups present:

o One at the end of the chain (attached to the alpha carbon).

o Another one in the side chain (attached to the gamma carbon).

3. Hydroxyl group (-OH) – This is part of the carboxyl groups.

Name four classes of small biomolecules. In what larger biomolecules are they found?

• Amino acids – Found in proteins.

• Nucleotides – Found in nucleic acids (DNA/RNA).

• Monosaccharides – Found in polysaccharides (e.g., glycogen, starch).

• Fatty acids – Found in lipids (e.g., triglycerides, phospholipids).

Why do anabolic processes consume energy and catabolic processes release energy?
Anabolic processes involve the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, which
requires energy input. Catabolic processes break down complex molecules into simpler ones,
releasing energy stored in chemical bonds.

In some biochemical processes, a reaction will not occur by itself unless its product is a
reactant in a more favorable reaction. What principle is involved in this phenomenon? This
is an example of coupled reactions, where an unfavorable reaction is paired with a favorable
one to drive the process forward, often utilizing the energy from the favorable reaction.

Of the three thermodynamic quantities ΔH, ΔG, and ΔS, which provides the most useful
criterion of spontaneity in a reaction? Explain. ΔG (Gibbs free energy) is the most useful
because it indicates whether a reaction is spontaneous (ΔG < 0) or non-spontaneous (ΔG > 0).

In addition to providing support, the cytoskeleton also immobilizes enzymes and

organelles in the cytoplasm. What advantage does this immobilization have over allowing
cell contents to freely diffuse in the cytoplasm? Immobilization of enzymes and organelles
ensures that biochemical reactions occur in specific locations, increasing efficiency and
allowing for compartmentalization of processes within the cell.
 What are the ways in which the plasma membrane of a eukaryotic cell is asymmetric?
The plasma membrane is asymmetric because its inner and outer layers have different lipid
compositions and membrane proteins that serve different functions, such as signal
transduction on the outer layer and anchoring the cytoskeleton on the inner layer.

11. Match the organelles with their principal function:

• Nucleus: (d) Contains genetic material.

• Mitochondrion: (e) Aerobic energy metabolism.

• Endoplasmic reticulum: (b) Synthesis of phospholipids; synthesis of membrane and

secretory proteins.

• Golgi apparatus: (f) Modification and sorting of protein products.

• Lysosome: (c) Intracellular digestion.

• Chloroplast: (a) Photosynthesis.

12. Tay-Sachs disease is an example of a lysosomal storage disease.

• (a) How does this disease develop?

Tay-Sachs disease develops due to a deficiency in the enzyme hexosaminidase A,
which leads to the accumulation of gangliosides (a type of lipid) in neurons, causing
nerve cell damage.

• (b) What are the symptoms?

Symptoms include developmental delay, muscle weakness, loss of motor skills, and
seizures.

• (c) Cell destruction occurs in this disease. Explain this.

The accumulation of gangliosides in lysosomes leads to swelling of neurons, disrupting
their function and ultimately causing cell death.

13. What is an integral protein? Integral proteins are proteins that are embedded in the
plasma membrane and span across the membrane, interacting with both the interior
and exterior environments of the cell.

14. Humans have been described as superorganisms consisting of human cells in

combination with a larger number of microorganisms. Explain. Is this a symbiotic
relationship? What effect can the consumption of antibiotics have on this
relationship? Humans coexist with trillions of microorganisms (microbiota) in a
mutualistic relationship where both the host and microorganisms benefit. Antibiotics
can disrupt this balance by killing beneficial bacteria, potentially leading to negative
health effects, such as susceptibility to infections and digestive issues.

15. Describe the use of cofactors in the conversion of apoenzymes to holoenzymes.

Cofactors are non-protein molecules (metal ions or organic molecules) that bind to an
enzyme (apoenzyme), converting it into its active form (holoenzyme). They are essential
for enzyme activity.

16. Determine the major enzyme class to which each of the following belongs:

• (a) Carboxypeptidase – Hydrolase.

• (b) Asparagine synthetase – Ligase.

• (c) Aspartate transcarbamoylase – Transferase.

• (d) Triose phosphate isomerase – Isomerase.

• (e) Sucrase (sucrose + H₂O → glucose + fructose) – Hydrolase.

• (f) Alcohol dehydrogenase (ethanol + NAD⁺ → acetaldehyde + NADH + H⁺) –

Oxidoreductase.

• (g) Histidine decarboxylase (histidine → histamine + CO₂) – Lyase.

• (h) Aspartate transaminase (aspartate + α-ketoglutarate → glutamate +

oxaloacetate) – Transferase.

• (i) Carbonic anhydrase (H₂O + CO₂ → H₂CO₃) – Lyase.

17. Why are glycerophospholipids, rather than triacylglycerols, found in cell

membranes? Glycerophospholipids contain a hydrophilic (water-attracting) phosphate
head and two hydrophobic (water-repelling) fatty acid tails, making them ideal for
forming the bilayer structure of cell membranes. Triacylglycerols are primarily used for
energy storage and are fully hydrophobic, which would not allow for proper membrane
formation.

18. How does facilitated diffusion differ from simple diffusion? Facilitated diffusion
requires the assistance of membrane proteins (e.g., channels or carriers) to transport
molecules across the cell membrane, while simple diffusion does not require any
proteins and occurs with molecules that can freely pass through the lipid bilayer.

19. Identify each of the following coenzymes and indicate the vitamin from which it is
derived:

• (a) Cosubstrate for the reduction of a ketone (such as pyruvate) to a secondary

alcohol (such as lactate) – NAD⁺ (derived from Vitamin B3/Niacin).

• (b) Cosubstrate for the oxidation of a primary alcohol (such as ethanol) to an

aldehyde (such as acetaldehyde) – NAD⁺ (derived from Vitamin B3/Niacin).

• (c) Prosthetic group for ATP-dependent carboxylation reactions, such as the

carboxylation of pyruvate to form oxaloacetate – Biotin (derived from Vitamin B7).

• (d) Prosthetic group for decarboxylation and aldehyde-transfer reactions, such as

the decarboxylation of pyruvate to form acetaldehyde – Thiamine pyrophosphate
(derived from Vitamin B1/Thiamine).

• (e) Cosubstrate for transfer of formyl or methylene (hydroxymethyl) groups –

Tetrahydrofolate (derived from Vitamin B9/Folate).

• (f) Cosubstrate for transfer of acetyl (two-carbon) or longer acyl groups – Coenzyme
A (derived from Vitamin B5/Pantothenic acid).

• (g) Prosthetic group for the removal and replacement of groups from the α-carbon of
amino acids – Pyridoxal phosphate (derived from Vitamin B6).
20. A sample of mammalian liver is homogenized in a mixture of chloroform and water.
In which phase would you find each of the following: vitamin A, vitamin B6, vitamin
C, and vitamin D?

• Vitamin A – Chloroform phase (fat-soluble).

• Vitamin B6 – Water phase (water-soluble).

• Vitamin C – Water phase (water-soluble).

• Vitamin D – Chloroform phase (fat-soluble).