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Prof MM Nieman
Dr WM Liebenberg
University of South Africa
Pretoria
© 2020 University of South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

TMN3702/1/2021–2023

10000917

Shutterstock.com images used

InDesign

PR_Tour_Style
 CONTENTS
 Page

Prefaceix
Learning unit 1: From outcomes-based education to the National Curriculum
Statement Grades R-121
1.1 INTRODUCTION1
1.2 NORMS AND STANDARDS 2
1.3 AN OUTCOMES-BASED APPROACH TO EDUCATION (OBE) 3
1.4 ‌CURRICULUM 2005 3
1.5 ‌THE CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS) 2011 4
1.6 ‌OVERWIEW OF THE LEARNING UNIT 9
1.7 ‌CONCLUSION 9
Learning unit 2: Teaching a home language in a multicultural context10
2.1 INTRODUCTION11
2.2 HOME LANGUAGE, FlRST AND SECOND ADDlTlONAL LANGUAGES 12
2.3 MULTILINGUALISM13
2.4 SWITCHING AND MIXING CODES 14
2.5 ‌TRANSLANGUAGING 16
2.6 LANGUAGE TEACHING IN A MULTICULTURAL CONTEXT 18
2.7 CULTURE AND LANGUAGE TEACHING 19
2.8 LANGUAGES WITH HIGH AND LOW STATUS lN SOUTH AFRlCA 22
2.9 OVERVlEW OF THE LEARNING UNlT 23
2.10 CONCLUSION24
Learning unit 3: Listening and speaking instruction25
3.1 INTRODUCTION25
3.2 ‌WHAT THE CAPS SAYS ABOUT LISTENING AND SPEAKING 26
3.3 ‌UNPACKING THE LISTENING SKILL 29
3.3.1 ‌The listening process as an active process 29
3.3.2 Listening with different objectives 30
3.3.3 What “good” listeners do 31
3.4 ‌WHY IS LISTENING INSTRUCTION NECESSARY? 32
3.5 ‌HOW TO TEACH LISTENING 33
3.5.1 Selecting suitable listening material 33
3.5.2 A framework for teaching listening 34
3.5.2.1 ‌Pre-listening activities 34
3.5.2.2 ‌While listening activities 36
3.5.2.3 ‌Post-listening or follow-up activities 37
3.6 ‌USING STORIES DURING LISTENING INSTRUCTION 38
3.7 ‌TEACHING INTERACTIVE LISTENING 39
3.8 TEACHING LEARNERS TO LISTEN AND CARRY OUT INSTRUCTIONS 40
3.9 ‌USE LEARNING SUPPORT MATERIALS 41
3.10 TEACHING ACTIVITIES DESIGNED TO DEVELOP LEARNERS’
LISTENING SKILLS 42
3.11 INTEGRATING LISTENING WITH OTHER SKILLS 44
3.12 ASSESSING LISTENING 45
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3.13 TEACHING SPEAKING 46

3.13.1 Introduction46
3.13.2 What the CAPS says about speaking 47
3.13.3 ‌The important role of the teacher 47
3.13.4 ‌Unpacking speaking 47
3.13.5 Teaching learners how to present a prepared speech 48
3.13.5.1 Pre-speaking activities 48
3.13.5.2 The actual speaking activities 50
3.13.5.3 Post-speaking activities 52
3.13.6 Speaking skills to be taught 52
3.13.7 Integrating speaking with other skills 56
3.14 OVERVIEW OF THE LEARNING UNIT 57
3.15 CONCLUSION58
Learning unit 4: Teaching reading and viewing59
4.1 INTRODUCTION59
4.2 ‌WHAT THE CAPS SAYS ABOUT READING AND VIEWING 60
4.3 ‌UNPACKING THE READING AND VIEWING SKILL 62
4.3.1 ‌Defining “reading” 62
4.3.2 ‌Reading as an active process 63
4.3.3 ‌Bottom-up and top-down reading 64
4.3.4 ‌What good readers do 66
4.4 ‌WHY IS READING AND VIEWING INSTRUCTION IMPORTANT? 67
4.5 HOW TO TEACH READING 67
4.5.1 ‌Selecting suitable reading material 71
4.5.2 ‌A framework for teaching reading 73
4.5.2.1 ‌Pre-reading activities 73
4.5.2.2 While-reading activities 75
4.5.2.3 ‌Post-reading activities 87
4.5.3 ‌Teaching reading and viewing strategies 88
4.5.3.1 ‌Skimming for main ideas 88
4.5.3.2 ‌Scanning for supporting details 89
4.5.3.3 ‌Notes, summaries and mind maps 90
4.5.4 ‌Reading aloud 91
4.5.5 ‌Teaching short stories, poems, folklore, drama and novels 93
4.5.5.1 ‌Guidelines to keep in mind when teaching the reading of literary works 93
4.5.5.2 ‌Key features of a text 96
4.5.5.3 ‌A framework for teaching stories and drama 99
4.5.5.4 ‌Teaching poetry 103
4.6 ADDITIONAL LEARNING EXPERIENCES 106
4.7 OVERVIEW OF THE LEARNING UNIT 106
4.8 CONCLUSION107
Learning unit 5: Writing instruction108
5.1 INTRODUCTION109
5.2 ‌WHAT THE CAPS SAYS ABOUT WRITING AND PRESENTING 110
5.3 KEY ASPECTS OF WRITING INSTRUCTION 111
5.3.1 Integrating listening, speaking and reading with writing 114
5.3.2 The communicative function of writing 115
5.3.3 The influence of assessment on the writing task 115
5.3.4 Writing in the classroom 116
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5.3.5 Using examples 116

5.3.6 Writing anxiety 117
5.3.7 Process versus product 117
5.4 WRITING AS A PROCESS 117
5.5 HOW TO GUIDE LEARNERS THROUGH THE WRITING PROCESS 119
5.5.1 Pre-writing/planning (This can also be called orientation to the
writing task) 119
5.5.2 Writing a draft copy 122
5.5.3 Revising and improving the draft copy 122
5.5.4 ‌Editing/proofreading 123
5.5.5 ‌Publishing/presenting written work 124
5.5.6 Reflection125
5.6 TEACHING DIFFERENT TYPES OF WRITING EXERCISES 126
5.6.1 Writing sentences and paragraphs 126
5.6.2 Creative writing 129
5.6.2.1 Descriptive writing 130
5.6.2.2 Writing narratives (stories) 130
5.6.2.3 ‌Imaginative writing (e.g. short poems) 134
5.6.3 Transactional writing 136
5.6.3.1 Writing letters 136
5.6.3.2 Writing an instructional text 136
5.6.3.3 ‌Writing reports (newspaper reports and book reviews) 137
5.6.3.4 Writing a short summary 138
5.6.3.5 ‌Writing advertisements 138
5.7 ASSESSING WRITING 139
5.8 OVERVIEW OF THE LEARNING UNIT 142
5.9 CONCLUSION143
Learning unit 6: Teaching language structures and conventions144
6.1 INTRODUCTION144
6.2 ‌WHAT THE CAPS SAYS ABOUT THE TEACHING OF LANGUAGE
STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS 145
6.3 ‌GUIDELINES FOR TEACHING LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND
CONVENTIONS145
6.3.1 ‌Teaching language structures and conventions as part of the whole 148
6.3.2 ‌Revise on a regular basis 149
6.3.3 ‌Don’t go down the row of learners and ask them each to answer a
question150
6.3.4 ‌Make your lessons as interesting as possible 150
6.4 THE PROGRESSIVE APPROACH TO TEACHING LANGUAGE
STRUCTURES AND USE IN A HOME LANGUAGE 150
6.5 THE WHOLE-LANGUAGE APPROACH 151
6.6 ‌LEARNING VOCABULARY 153
6.7 ‌TEACHING SPELLING 156
6.8 TEACHING DICTIONARY USE 160
6.9 TEACHING IDIOMS AND PROVERBS 161
6.10 TEACHING PUNCTUATION 164
6.11 OVERVIEW OF THE LEARNING UNIT 164
6.12 CONCLUSION165
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Learning unit 7: Lesson planning, presentation and assessment166

7.1 ‌INTRODUCTION 166
7.2 WHAT THE CAPS SAYS ABOUT PLANNING 167
7.3 THE NATURE OF PLANNING AND PREPARATION 167
7.4 LONG-TERM PLANNING: THE ANNUAL TEACHING PLAN (ATP) 169
7.5 ‌SHORT-TERM PANNING 172
7.6 ‌PLANNING FOR AND CONDUCTING ASSESSMENT 172
7.6.1 ‌What the CAPS says about assessment 173
7.6.2 ‌Assessment of languages 174
7.6.3 ‌Types of assessment 174
7.6.4 ‌Programme of assessment (formal assessment) 178
7.7 ‌AT WHAT LEVELS SHOULD LEARNERS BE ASSESSED? 181
7.8 ‌ASSESSING DIFFERENT LANGUAGE SKILLS 185
7.8.1 ‌Using rubrics to assess reading and writing 185
7.8.2 ‌Providing constructive feedback 189
7.9 ‌OVERVIEW OF THE LEARNING UNIT 190
7.10 CONCLUSION191
BIBLIOGRAPHY193

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 PREFACE

Dear Student

i. Welcome
Welcome to Teaching of Home Language in the Intermediate Phase (TMN3702),
a module that is offered by Unisa’s Department of Language Education, Arts
and Culture. As a student, you may be a teacher who is already teaching or a
student who has absolutely no teaching experience. Whatever the case, if you
have enrolled for this course, you certainly wish to learn how to become a better
language teacher. I trust that, whether you are an aspiring or an experienced
teacher, you will derive enough information and preparation to enable you to
become an excellent teacher or a better teacher (if you are already teaching).

ii. The purpose of and outcomes for this module

The purpose of this module is to equip you with the knowledge, skills and values
to teach Home Language in the Intermediate Phase (Grades 4-6) of the General
Education and Training Band. All four language skills, namely speaking, listening,
reading and writing – as well as language structures and conventions – will be
dealt with in this Teaching of Home Language module.

The outcomes for the module are as follows:

Specific outcome 1 Understand home language acquisition theories,

as well as appropriate pedagogical approaches.
Specific outcome 2 Identify and implement a variety of roles that are
essential in learners’ acquisition of home language
listening and speaking skills.
Specific outcome 3 Classify different reading strategies and teach
different literature genres and critical language
awareness for learners to become competent
readers.
Specific outcome 4 Develop learners’ writing proficiency skills through
planning, drafting and refining their writing.
Specific outcome 5 Teach home language structures and use in an
integrated way.

iii. Overview
In this Preface, we will give you an overview of and some general information
about this module. We will also tell you more about how you can study in this
module, how to use myUnisa, and about the assessment in the module.
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Your study guide and tutorial letters contain everything you need to complete
this module. However, you may benefit from also using the module website
on myUnisa. It is actually of the utmost importance that you access this site. By
using the site, you can:

•• submit assignments (please note: it is advisable that you submit your

assignment online as this will ensure that you receive rapid feedback
and comments),
•• access your official study material,
•• have access to the UNISA Library functions,
•• “chat” to your lecturer or e-tutor and fellow students and participate in online
discussion forums, and
•• obtain access to a variety of learning resources (all study material is uploaded
onto myUnisa).

Check the site regularly for updates, posted announcements and additional
resources uploaded throughout the semester.

Please note that there are two sites you should use in studying the module. The
first is the module site, where you will find the learning units and where you
can communicate with your lecturer. In your list of modules, this usually has a
name in the following format:

Module code-year- semester e.g. TMN-21-S1.

iv. Tutor site

The second site is your e-tutor site, where you can communicate with your
e-tutor and fellow students. This site has the same name, but with ‘-1E’ or ‘-2E’
added at the end, depending on the semester, for example:

TMN-21-SI-1E

Your e-tutor is there to support your learning, and you can post any questions
to him or her in the site’s discussion forum, in the appropriate forum or topic
for general questions. In another forum, you will also be able to communicate
with your fellow students. You need to note that there will not necessarily be
an e-tutor for your module. The appointment of an e-tutor depends on the
number of students enrolled and the NQF level on which the module is pitched.

On the e-tutor site, you should also respond to discussion questions that are
given in the learning units. Your e-tutor may provide you with the opportunity to
engage in additional discussions or to do specific online tasks or activities; please
participate fully, as this will go a long way to assist you with your learning. Both
the lecturer and e-tutor may also send you announcements from time to time.

v. Study material for this module

Your study material for this module includes:

•• This study guide

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 Pr e f a ce

•• Tutorial Letter 101

•• Any other tutorial letters you may receive through the year
•• Any additional information provided on your e-tutor site or module site on
myUnisa
•• Any additional electronic communications you may receive, e.g.
Announcements from your lecturer or e-tutor

Tutorial letter 101 will be part of your study pack or will be posted to you, but
you can also access it on myUnisa. You can do this by clicking on ‘Official Study
Material’ in the menu on the left of the module portal.

Tutorial letter 101 is just one of the tutorial letters you will be receiving during
the year. It is extremely important that you should read this tutorial letter
carefully. You will also receive tutorial letter 201 during the course of the year
shortly after the due dates for submission of each assignment. This tutorial letter
is closely linked to Tutorial Letter 101 and will provide you with a guide to the
answers for the assignments.

vi. The course content

In this course you will be introduced to theory and terminology pertaining to
language teaching in the Intermediate Phase (IP).

As the Curriculum and Assessment Policy (CAPS) is the official curriculum used in
South African schools, you cannot start learning how to teach a Home Language
(HL) in the IP, before you have made a thorough study of the CAPS. Each learning
unit thus starts with a thorough unpacking of the CAPS for a HL in the IP. If you
haven’t got a copy of the CAPS for the home language that you are planning to
teach yet, it would be a good idea to download it now at:

https://www.education.gov.za/Curriculum/CurriculumAssessmentPolicyState
ments(CAPS).aspx.

vii. How the guide is structured

The first two learning units in this study guide deal with general issues related to
language teaching. First, we will give you an overview of the recent history of the
South African curriculum: you will see how a policy of outcomes-based education
in the country has developed into the current policy, namely the National
Curriculum Statement Grades R-12. We will then look briefly at first language
acquisition theories, the main components of language, teaching a home
language in a multicultural context and general principles of language teaching,
before focusing on your role as language teacher.

In learning units 3 to 6, we will explore the teaching of specific skills: listening and
speaking; reading and viewing; writing and presenting; and the use of language
structures and conventions.

In the final unit, you will learn more about planning a language teaching
programme and assessing learners.
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Consult the table of contents to see the titles and subsections of each of the
learning units.

viii. How should you go about studying this module?

Distance learning is not easy and you should not underestimate the time and
effort involved. Once you have received your study material, please plan how
you will approach and complete this module.

Your work on each learning unit should involve the following:

•• Skim through the unit and draw your own basic mind map of the content of
the learning unit. Then expand this map as your knowledge and understanding
of the unit increases. You can learn more about making mind maps on the
following web sites:

−− http://www.wikihow.com/Make-a-Mind-Map.
−− http://www.mind-mapping.co.uk/make-mind-map.htm.

•• Make your own summary of every unit.

•• Do the reflection exercise at the end of every unit. The learning units contain
some self-assessment exercises that you should do at the end of each learning
unit.
•• Do NOT wait until you have to do your assignments before starting to study
the content of this unit. If you study a learning unit over a period of three to
four weeks, you will benefit from this module and not feel overwhelmed by
the amount of work required.

This is a year module offered over 30 weeks and it requires at least 120 hours
of study time. This means that you will have to study at least four (4) hours per
week for this module.

Here is a suggested schedule that you could use as a guideline for studying this
module.

ACTIVITY HOURS
Reading and rereading Tutorial Letter 101 and the introduction to 3
the study guide
Skimming through the study guide to form a general but thorough 4
impression of the whole
First reading of learning units 1–7 and participating in the online 22
e-tutor site (2 hours per learning unit)
In-depth study of learning units 1–3, making summaries, doing 18
learning activities and participating in the online e-tutor site (6
hours for learning unit 1 and 2 and 12 for learning unit 3)
Completing Assignment 01 4
Completing Assignment 02 4

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In-depth study of learning units 4–7, making summaries, doing 48

learning activities and participating in the online e-tutor site (12
hours per learning unit)
Final examination revision 15
Final examination 2
Total 120

As you work, build up your own study and exam preparation file. This study file
will not be assessed, but it will be an extremely valuable tool for you in completing
your assignments and revising for the examination.

What is a study file? A study file is a folder or file in which you gather and compile
additional and/or summarised information during the year as you work through
the learning material.

Your study file should comprise:

•• The CAPS for the Home Language that you intend to teach
•• answers to each activity in each learning unit
•• a mind map/summary of each learning unit
•• your marked assignments (or a copy you made prior to submitting your
assignment)
•• your reflections on each learning unit
•• where relevant, any extra reading material taken from the internet, additional
books and/or scientific journals
•• a new vocabulary of words or glossary of new terms in your own words

Compile and revise the contents of your study file to ensure that you achieve
the learning outcomes for this module.

This is YOUR study guide. You can highlight, circle words, make notes in the
margins, etc. while working through it.

ix. Assessment in this module

•• Activities in the study guide

We would like to meet you and to be able to talk to you, but we realise that this is
unlikely since you are a distance education student. Most of our communication
will therefore be written communication. If we were in a classroom situation,
we would ask questions to which you will be able to respond immediately. But
since we are not in a face-to-face classroom situation, we have set questions,
which we would like you to answer in writing. These activities require you to
give your opinion or link the content in the study guide with your everyday life,
experiences and prior knowledge. You have the opportunity to be creative, to
do practical work, to offer an opinion and to say when you do or do not agree.
You need to post your responses to these activities onto myUnisa so that other
students can also read your views and start a discussion if necessary.
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•• Testing yourself

It is of the utmost importance that you test yourself on a regular basis in self-
assessment activities. Although each Learning Unit is concluded with an exercise
which expects you to reflect on what you have learned and whether you have
achieved the outcomes, it is important that you test yourself by constantly asking
yourself “what do I know now, that I didn’t know before? and “How can I apply
what I have learnt in my own classroom?” By making mind maps of each of the
learning units as explained in the previous section, you are also testing yourself.

•• Assignments and the examination

Your work in this module will be assessed by the following:

•• Two (or more) written assignments which will give you admission to the
examination and also count for your year mark
•• One written examination of 2 hours

Please consult Tutorial Letter 101 for details about the assessment in this module.
Be sure to read the following information in the tutorial letter:

•• How your assignment and exam marks will be calculated

•• The due dates and unique numbers of your assignments
•• How you should submit your assignments
•• Examination periods, admission and marks

Tutorial letter 101 also contains the actual assignment questions.

Remember that while Tutorial Letter 101 will be sent to you, you can also access an
electronic version on myUnisa, by clicking on the option ‘Official Study Material’.

x. Orientation to using myUnisa

You need to be able to use the various menu options on the myUnisa site. They
will enable you to participate actively in the learning process.

These options include the following:

myUnisa menu option What you will find here

Official Study Material Your study guide and tutorial letters will
be stored under this option, as well as past
examination papers.
Announcements From time to time we or your e-tutor will
use this facility to give you important
information about this module. You
should receive e-mail notification of new
announcements placed on myUnisa.
Calendar This tool shows important dates, such
as examination dates and deadlines for
your assignments. You will need this
information to help you manage your time
and plan your own schedule.

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Additional resources We (or your e-tutor) may use this folder to

provide any additional learning support
material that might help you in your
studies for this module. We will send an
announcement to inform you if we add
anything to this folder.
Discussions This tool allows us to hold discussions
as if we were in a contact setting. Check
your e-tutor site for any topics that the
e-tutor might have posted. You can also
post any specific queries to the lecturer
(on the main module site). There will also
be a forum for students, where you can
discuss issues among yourselves, or just
support one another.
Assessment info This tool allows you to submit your
assignments electronically, and to
monitor your results. Please submit your
assignments via myUnisa. If you do not
know how to do this, consult Tutorial
Letter 101.

In interacting online, always remember to be mindful of and respectful towards

your fellow students and your lecturers. The rules of polite behaviour on the
internet are referred to as netiquette – a term that means “online manners”.

You can access the web sites below to learn more about netiquette.

•• http://networketiquette.net/
•• http://www.studygs.net/netiquette.htm
•• http://www.carnegiecyberacademy.com/facultyPages/communication/
netiquette.html

Please observe the rules of netiquette during your normal, everyday

online communications with colleagues, lecturers, and friends. In particular,
remember to be courteous to your fellow students when using the Discussions
tool.

xi. Contact details

Our contact details, as well as those of the academic department, are provided
in Tutorial Letter 101. Should you need to contact the university about matters
not related to the contents of this module, consult the publication entitled Study
@ Unisa, which you received with your study material. This brochure contains
information on how to contact the university (e.g. to whom you can write with
different queries; important telephone and fax numbers; addresses and details
of the opening and closing times of particular facilities).

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xii. Teaching practice

You will be expected to spend some time in schools as part of your compulsory
teaching practice. Therefore, you will need to consult this study guide on a
regular basis when doing your teaching practice.

We wish you success in your studies!

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xiv
1 LEARNING UNIT 1

From outcomes-based education to the

1

National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12

One looks back with appreciation to the brilliant teachers, but with
gratitude to those who touched our human feelings.
Carl Jung

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Once you have worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:

•• clarify what the National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 and the Curriculum
and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) entail
•• explain the main curriculum changes in South Africa since 1994
•• express your views on the CAPS for home languages for the Intermediate Phase

Ac tivit y 1a
1. What is your expectation of a document entitled “Curriculum and
Assessment Policy Statement”? What do you think it contains?

You will not be able to teach the required content and know what the objectives
of Home Language teaching are if your do not make a through study of the
Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS).

1.1 INTRODUCTION
This learning unit aims to explain the changes in the South African education
system with regard to the curriculum’s moving from an outcomes-based education
system to a system guided by the National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12.

Since the onset of real democracy in South Africa, the education system of the
country has undergone many changes. At times, there were so many changes
that often it was quite difficult for teachers and teacher trainers to keep track
of the new developments. In this learning unit, we discuss a number of these
changes, with an emphasis on the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement
(CAPS), which is of critical importance to you as a teacher in the classroom.
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If you are enrolled for this module, chances are that you are also enrolled for
TMN3701 (Teaching First Additional Language in the Intermediate Phase). If you
are not enrolled for TMN3701 this year, you probably completed it last year or you
will study it next year. Some principles, issues and aspects of language teaching
are valid for both home and additional language teaching, while others differ.
Therefore, you might find that there is an overlap between the two modules.
This learning unit on the development of the curriculum in post-apartheid South
Africa is a case in point. The reason we are including this learning unit in both
study guides (modules) is because we don’t know in which order you will be
studying the two modules, that is, whether simultaneously or in different years.

1.2 NORMS AND STANDARDS

In 2000, the National Department of Education issued a document called the
Norms and Standards for Educators (NSE), which was the first formal policy in
terms of academic qualifications for educators in South Africa. This document
was later replaced in 2011 by the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education
Qualifications (MRTEQ). The MRTEQ document, as it is generally referred to,
was revised in 2015 and again in 2018. Here we will briefly introduce you to this
document because there are two short sections that are very applicable to the
teaching of language.

With the introduction of the initial Norms and Standards for Educators and the
different revisions of the MRTEQ, the teaching community was made aware that
the traditional role of the teacher had changed. The teacher was no longer seen
as the communicator of information, with the learners just passively accepting
what the teacher said. Learners had to take responsibility for their own learning
and to be independent. The teacher became the mediator of learning and was
no longer seen as the sole communicator in the classroom; the learners were
expected to form part of the communication process in the classroom. This
approach is well aligned with the communicative approach to the teaching of
language, which will be discussed in learning unit 3.

According to the MRTEQ document (2015:64), newly qualified teachers need

several competencies. Not only do they need sound subject knowledge, but
also knowledge of how to teach their subjects. They also need to know how
to communicate effectively in general, as well as in relation to their subject(s), in
order to mediate learning. Moreover, they need to have highly developed literacy,
numeracy and information technology (IT) skills. Apart from these competencies,
the MRTEQ (2015:15) emphasises that multilingualism forms an important basis
for the development of a multicultural society and that teachers must play an
important role in this regard. It is for this reason that all Intermediate Phase teachers
“must specialise in the teaching of two languages (comprising home language
teaching in one of the official languages and First Additional English language
teaching)” (MRTEQ 2015:24). It is thus clear that the importance of language in
the teaching and learning situation is something that every Intermediate Phase
teacher should be aware of. However, language should not be taught only during
the language period; it should be taught across the curriculum. This means that
language is the ‘vehicle’ that carries knowledge and, thus, the role that language
plays is important in every subject. As a result, every teacher is actually a teacher
of language. For example, when you are teaching Life Skills or Social Sciences,
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LE AR N I N G U N I T 1: Fro m o u tco m es- b as e d e du c ati o n to th e nati o nal cur r iculum s t ate m e nt gr a d es r-12

you need to be aware of the language that is used to explain a concept and
also explain certain language features or grammatical rules, if necessary – even
though you are busy teaching Life Skills or even Mathematics. You should make
sure that every learner in the classroom understands the language, especially
those who are not learning through their home languages.

Ac tivit y 1b
Apart from the above-mentioned competencies expected of newly
qualified teachers, the MrTEQ (2015:64) document requires that “newly
qualified teachers must understand diversity in the South African context
in order to teach in a manner that includes all learners”. What do you think
are the implications of this requirement for a home language teacher who
is teaching in a multicultural class where learners come from different
backgrounds and speak different home languages?

If you have learners with different home languages in one class, it is important
that you should acknowledge each learner’s home language and do no regard
one language as more important than another.

1.3 AN OUTCOMES-BASED APPROACH TO EDUCATION (OBE)

It was the vision of the newly elected African National Congress government
in 1994 to create a country of empowered learners and citizens. To ensure
equal educational opportunities for all and to improve the quality of education
in South Africa in the post-apartheid era, it was decided to develop a national
curriculum applicable to all schools. In 1997, outcomes-based education was
proposed as the model most likely to deal with the inequalities in the education
system. It was hoped that an outcomes-based approach to teaching and learning
would increase the quality of education that the learners were receiving. The
OBE model was designed in such a way that teachers had to move away from
a content-based mode of teaching.

OBE was subsequently introduced in 1998. According to the OBE model, learners
had to achieve certain specified outcomes. Language learning was facilitated
by having the teachers practise the language skills in the classroom by applying
various strategies.

One of the complaints that teachers in South Africa had about OBE was that it
was overloaded with administrative work and required a variety of resources
that most of the schools did not have. The teachers also complained about
insufficient training to apply OBE in their classrooms.

1.4 ‌CURRICULUM 2005

Curriculum 2005 was the ‘vehicle’ that was developed to implement an outcomes-
based approach in South Africa. It was approved as policy by the Council of
Education Ministers on 29 September 1997. This outcomes-based curriculum
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for the General Education and Training band, which could be regarded as the
most radical reorganisation in the education system of South Africa, was initially
received positively and implemented with much enthusiasm. Teachers became
“facilitators” and “educators”, pupils and students became “learners”, and old
forms of traditional education were replaced with notions of facilitation, learning
by discovery and group work. A learner-centred approach stood central in this
curriculum (DoE 2009:12). Assessment was no longer seen as a norm-referenced
one-off practice undertaken by means of tests and examinations. The focus
changed to continuous and criterion-referenced assessment. Curriculum 2005
was committed to the values of democracy, non-racialism and non-sexism. This
new curriculum also underlined competencies instead of specific knowledge.

Curriculum 2005 was, however, widely criticised. Teachers struggled to work

with it and concerns were raised that the curriculum was overloaded. In time,
Curriculum 2005 was revised and the so-called Revised National Curriculum
Statement (RNCS) (2003) followed. The RNCS was revised and followed by the
National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 (NCS Grades R-12) in 2011.

Teachers found it difficult to deal with the many documents that they had to
work with and apply in their teaching. And the fact that the documents issued
by the Department of Education kept on changing, just added to the teachers’
stress and confusion. The Department of Education ultimately had to admit
that not all the principles and strategies of OBE could be applied in the South
African school system.

1.5 ‌THE CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENT (CAPS)

2011
The National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 (NCS Grades R-12) consists of
three documents, namely the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement
(CAPS), the National Protocol for Assessment and the National Policy Pertaining
to the Programme and Promotion Requirements of the NCS Grades R-12. In
this module, we will focus on the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement
(CAPS), as it contains some background information as well as the general aims
of the South African curriculum, time allocation for different phases, content that
needs to be covered in each subject and phase, information on teaching plans,
as well as assessment guidelines for a particular subject. It is important that you
familiarise yourself with the CAPS document for the language that you intend
to teach in the Intermediate Phase. Always keep this document at hand when
studying this module because we will often refer you to it. The CAPS documents
are available at https://www.education.gov.za.

In the CAPS document, the important role that language plays in the teaching
and learning situation is acknowledged. Language is described as follows:

Language is a tool for thought and communication. It is also a cultural and

aesthetic means commonly shared among a people to make better sense
of the world they live in. Learning to use language effectively enables
learners to acquire knowledge, to express their identity, feelings and ideas,
to interact with others, and to manage their world. It also provides learners
with a rich, powerful and deeply rooted set of images and ideas that can be
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used to make their world other than it is, better and clearer than it is. It is
through language that cultural diversity and social relations are expressed
and constructed, and it is through language that such constructions can
be altered, broadened and refined (Department of Basic Education 2011:8).

As far as language teaching is concerned, the CAPS (2011) has the following
prescriptions:

Foundation Phase (Grades R-3)

All learners entering school should be taught in their home language in South
Africa. For many reasons, however, some non-English-speaking parents opt
to send their children – upon entering school for the first time – to schools
where English is the only language of learning and teaching (LoLT). This is
sometimes called the “straight-into-English” process. Many of these learners
struggle because not only do they have to master new skills and subject content,
such as reading, writing and mathematics, but they also have to master a new
language. Consequently, these learners often arrive in the Intermediate Phase
lacking the necessary proficiency in their home language, as well as in the
LoLT. Even though you will be teaching a home language, you will also have to
incorporate additional language teaching strategies and do a lot of scaffolding
to make sure that you accommodate these learners. Therefore, you need to take
note of what learners are taught in Grades R-3 so that you can build on these
skills and the content in the Intermediate Phase (IP).

Home language (HL) teaching in Grades R-3

Grade 1 learners have to learn their home language for seven hours per week.
Of these seven hours, 45 minutes per week are used for listening and speaking,
one hour and 15 minutes for phonics teaching, 45 minutes for shared reading and
two hours and 30 minutes for group reading. One hour per week is set aside for
handwriting and 45 minutes for writing. Regarding the assessment to be done for
the home language, almost 50% of the mark is allocated for reading. Therefore,
if young learners struggle to read, they will score poorly in their home language.

The CAPS document makes considerable provision for developing young learners’
thinking and reasoning abilities in the home language as they progress from one
grade to the next. Look, for instance, at the following points on listening and
speaking and the way in which learners should respond after listening to a story:

•• A Grade R learner listens to stories and acts these out.

•• A Grade 1 learner listens to stories and expresses feelings about the story.
•• A Grade 2 learner listens to stories and poems and answers higher-order
questions.
•• A Grade 3 learner listens for the main idea and details in stories and answers
open-ended questions.

Another example of the progress that is made from one level of reading to the
next and from one grade to the next is, for instance, the instructions for shared
reading (indicated below). Shared reading is when a teacher reads with the class,
with a group of learners or with an individual learner. The learners’ thinking and
reasoning skills are developed from one stage to the next.
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Grade R: Shared reading as a class with teacher

•• ‘Reads’ enlarged texts, such as poems, Big Books, posters

•• Makes links with own experience when reading with the teacher
•• Describes characters in stories and gives opinions
•• Predicts what will happen in a story through pictures
•• Answers questions based on the stories read
•• Draws pictures capturing main idea of the stories

Grade 1: Shared reading as a class with teacher

•• Reads Big Books and other enlarged texts

•• Uses pictures and the book cover to predict what the story is about
•• Discusses the story, identifying the main idea and characters
•• Sequences the events in the story
•• Recognises cause and effect in a story
•• Gives an opinion on what was read
•• Answers open-ended questions based on the passage read
•• Interprets information from posters, pictures and simple tables, such as a
calendar

Grade 2: Shared reading as a class with teacher

•• Reads Big Books and other enlarged texts (e.g. fiction and non-fiction books,
poems and songs)
•• Uses visual cues (e.g. pictures and the cover of a book) to predict what the
story is about
•• Identifies key details in what was read
•• Expresses whether a story was liked and can justify the response (e.g. “I didn’t
enjoy the story because …”)
•• Answers higher-order questions based on the text read (e.g. “In your opinion,
…”)
•• Discusses different cultures represented in stories
•• Interprets pictures and other print media (e.g. photographs, calendars,
advertisements, newspaper and magazine photographs, posters)

Grade 3: Shared reading as a class with teacher

•• Reads enlarged texts, such as fiction and non-fiction Big Books, newspaper
articles, dialogues and electronic texts (computer texts)
•• Reads a book and discusses the main idea, the characters, the ‘problem’ in
the story, the plot and the values in the text
•• Answers a range of higher-order questions based on the passage read
•• Reads different poems on a topic
•• Uses visual cues to talk about a graphical text, such as advertisements, pictures,
graphs, charts and maps
•• Finds and uses sources of information, for instance community members or
library books
•• Uses a table of contents, index and page numbers to find information
•• Uses keywords and headings to find information in non-fiction texts
•• Uses a dictionary to find the meanings of new words
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Intermediate Phase (Grades 4-6)

•• In the Intermediate Phase, the instructional time that is allocated for home
language teaching is six hours per week, and for the additional language,
five hours.

Home language teaching in Grades 4-6

In Grades 4-6, learners have to do various listening and speaking activities to

demonstrate their competence: They are expected to use different forms of
oral communication, such as the following:

•• prepared and unprepared speech

•• prepared and unprepared reading aloud
•• speaking: giving directions and instructions
•• storytelling
•• a vote of thanks
•• role-play
•• group discussion
•• debate
•• interview

From Grade 4 onwards, learners no longer learn to read; instead, they must read
to learn. This poses a major problem for learners who did not master the skill of
reading well in Grades 1-3. In the higher grades, most of the learning activities
and studying depend on learners’ reading abilities. For example, learners in
the Intermediate Phase have to read different literature genres: folklore, short
stories, dramas and poetry. They are also exposed to various text features and
visual literacy, such as advertising.

With regard to writing, learners have to plan, draft and refine their writing.
They are also taught certain language rules and grammar. Although only one
hour per week is allocated for this purpose, the teaching of language rules and
grammar will, in practice, take up much more time because the teaching of
language structures and conventions needs to be integrated when teaching
the four language skills.

First additional language teaching

It is important that you also take note of what language activities learners are
exposed to in their first additional language.

For listening and speaking activities in the first additional language, learners in
Grades 4-6 have to use various forms of oral communication, such as conversation,
giving directions and instructions, retelling stories, telling stories, role-play, group
discussions, short talks, short poems and rhymes.

For their reading activities, learners in the Intermediate Phase have to read
various forms of texts, such as
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•• stories (e.g. contemporary realistic fiction, traditional stories [myths and

legends, folk tales, fables], adventure stories, science fiction, biographies,
historical fiction); plays; poetry
•• information texts (e.g. procedures, factual recounts, general knowledge texts,
informative texts such as reports)
•• social texts (e.g. invitations, greeting cards, letters, notices)
•• media texts (e.g. advertisements, newspaper reports, magazine articles,
notices, pamphlets)
•• visual literacy (e.g. advertising [posters, pamphlets, advertisements], notices,
drawings, photographs, cartoons, comic strips, diagrams/graphs/tables/charts)
•• close reading of texts (e.g. comprehension activities, making summaries)
•• extended reading of texts (e.g. oral discussions, book reviews, projects)
•• prepared and unprepared reading aloud

It is a difficult task to put ideas that are in your head into words on a page in your
home language. However, finding the right words and writing them in a sensible
way in an additional language, such as English, becomes even more difficult.
Therefore, learners in Grades 4-6 must be well supported by their teachers when
they are required to do writing tasks. Cremin and Myhill (2012:40) propose that
young learners be allowed to “orally rehearse” what they plan to write. They
suggest that learners first do collaborative writing when they start to write in
an additional language. A writing partner might help an inexperienced young
writer by scaffolding what he or she plans to write. The scaffolding could consist
of supplying a word or changing the word order in a sentence. Teachers also
have a scaffolding role to play when young learners in their classrooms start to
write in an additional language.

Learners in Grades 4-6 have to write words such as those used in lists, sentences
and paragraphs. They also have to do creative writing, descriptive writing and
write dialogues, as well as understand and use certain language structures and
conventions, as set out in the CAPS document.

Ac tivit y 1c
Study the CAPS document for the specific home language that you are
preparing to teach in the Intermediate Phase. (If you do not have a copy,
you must please download it without any delay from:
https://www.education.gov.za/Curriculum/CurriculumAssessmentPolicy
Statements(CAPS)/CAPSIntermediate.aspx).
How can you use your knowledge of what learners have learnt in the HL
in the Foundation Phase when teaching in the IP?

It is important to build on what learners learnt in the FP in the IP. That is why you
need to be familiar with the CAPS for the Foundation Phase as well.
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1.6 ‌OVERWIEW OF THE LEARNING UNIT

In this learning unit we have given an overview of curriculum development in
South Africa and what CAPS entails.

Make sure you have achieved the outcomes for this module by explaining what
each of the following documents or concepts entail:

1. Norms and Standards for Educators:......................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
2. Outcomes-based education: ....................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
3. Curriculum 2005:...........................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
4. CAPS Foundation Phase (HL):....................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
5. CAPS Intermediate Phase (FAL): ..............................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
6. CAPS Intermediate Phase (HL):.................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

1.7 ‌CONCLUSION
The CAPS document will be the most important guideline for your teaching
practice, so you should familiarise yourself with its contents. In the learning units
that follow, you will have the opportunity to increase your knowledge of issues
relating to language teaching, such as multilingualism and teaching principles,
and of applying strategies to teach the various language skills identified in the
CAPS, including listening, reading and writing.

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2 LEARNING UNIT 2

Teaching a home language in a

2

multicultural context

Language is the road map of a culture. It tells you where its people come
from and where they are going.
Rita Mae Brown

If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If

you talk to him in his own language, that goes to his heart.
Nelson Mandela

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Once you have worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:

•• explain the implications of multilingualism, translingualism, multicultural classrooms

and high- and low-status languages for language teaching in schools and take
these into consideration in your own teaching
•• show an understanding of the learners’ cultural diversity and tolerance of mixing
and changing codes
•• distinguish between a home language and additional languages

This learning unit aims to explain the implications of a multicultural and multilingual
environment for home language teaching. We would like to start this learning unit
with an activity that you must first do. (You don’t need to write your answers down-
it is a thinking activity.)

Ac tivit y 2a
South Africa is a wonderful country with a diverse, multicultural population.
By answering the following questions, you will get a clear picture of your
involvement in this multicultural reality:
1. How many languages do you think are spoken in South Africa?
2. How many languages do you speak?
3. Can you also read and write all the languages that you speak?
4. How many people do you know in your environment that speak only
one language?
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5. Do you sometimes mix your languages when you speak? Do you

consciously change over to another language at times in order to
express yourself better?
6. How willing are you to communicate with others in a language that
is not your own?
7. Do you think that your home language is more important than other
languages?
8. What do you think is the biggest difference between teaching one of
South Africa’s official languages (e.g. lsiNdebele, isiXhosa) and teaching
German or French?

South Africa has 11 official languages and the Constitution of the Republic of
South Africa, 1996 recognises 15 others. If you are taking this course, there is a
good chance that you speak, read and write a minimum of three languages. We
don’t know of a single person who speaks only one language (small children
excluded) and we are sure that you don’t either. (See section 2.3 for more
information on multilingualism and its implications for language teaching.)
Did you indicate that you mix your languages? You need not feel guilty about
it. Multilingual people often mix their languages and it is not necessarily a bad
thing. People often change to another language because they are better able to
express themselves (see section 2.4), because they wish to impress their audience,
because they think their audience might understand them better or because
some terms are better known in one language than in another.

A person’s attitude towards another language is a personal matter, but you must
remember that you cannot expect others to respect your language if you do
not show respect for theirs.

Let’s now return to question 8 of activity 2a. IsiNdebele and isiZulu are widely
used and official languages in South Africa. Learners thus find themselves in
a situation where they hear the language over the radio or television, hear
the language being spoken in the community and often use the language
to communicate with people in the community. Magazines and newspapers
are also often available in the language. The chances are thus that learners will
unconsciously “pick up’’ many aspects of the language because they come into
contact with it. In the case of unofficial languages such as German, French or
Spanish, however, there is seldom an oral community; the learner’s only sources
of information are the teacher and the textbook, and his or her only contact
with the language is limited to a few hours each week in the classroom. Local
newspapers and radio and television programmes are not available in those
languages and learners seldom have contact with home language speakers.

Each question you answered in activity 2a has implications for language teaching
and we will discuss each of these implications in more detail below.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In a multicultural and multilingual society such as South Africa, it is most likely
that you will have to teach in a classroom characterised by linguistic diversity.
In other words, you will have to teach a home language to speakers who do not
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speak the language at home at all. For example, there are many children who
have more than one home language; they listen to and speak more than one
language at home. It sometimes happens that a child from a home where more
than one language is spoken speaks only the language of his or her mother,
but when this child goes to school, the father insists that the child be taught in
his home language. But what is the home language of this child? There are also
many children of foreigners in our schools and the home languages of these
children are not offered at school, even though, by law, a child, upon entering
school, has the right to be taught in his or her home language.

As a teacher, you should realise that the development of language tolerance

leads to an improvement in learners’ learning skills, which, in turn, contributes
positively to their development as people. It also changes their attitude towards
learning, because they become aware of diversity and learn to look critically at
the world; this, in turn, influences their thoughts and their self-image.

2.2 HOME LANGUAGE, FLRST AND SECOND ADDLTLONAL LANGUAGES

In a multilingual country, there will be people who have acquired a language
as their first language or home language (this is also referred to as their “native
language” or their “mother tongue”) and people who have acquired or learnt
a language as a second or third language. The National Curriculum Statement
Grades R-12 (2011:8) differentiates between “home language”, “first additional
language” and “second additional language”. (These terms replace “mother
tongue’’ or “first language’’ and “second language’’, “third language’’ and “foreign
language’’, which were previously used in the South African curricula.) The term
“home language’’ refers to the first language a child learns and uses most easily.
The debate about precisely what a second or a foreign language, third language
or additional language is will probably continue for a long time to come. Since
constraints of time and space prevent us from going into detail here, we will
consider only the following definitions.

The Home Language level provides for language proficiency that reflects the
basic interpersonal communication skills required in social situations and the
cognitive academic skills essential for learning across the curriculum. Emphasis
is placed on the teaching of the listening, speaking, reading and writing skills at
this language level. This level also provides learners with a literary, aesthetic and
imaginative ability that will provide them with the ability to recreate, imagine, and
empower their understandings of the world they live in. However, the emphasis
and the weighting for Listening and Speaking from Grades 7 onwards are lower
than those of the reading and writing skills.

The First Additional Language refers to a language which is not a mother

tongue but which is used for certain communicative functions in a society, that
is, medium of learning and teaching in education. The curriculum provides
strong support for those learners who will use their first additional language as a
language of learning and teaching. By the end of Grade 9, these learners should
be able to use their home language and first additional language effectively and
with confidence for a variety of purposes, including learning.
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The Second Additional Language is a language that a learner encounters only

within the classroom, but that is not used in the community. In other words, the
child is not exposed to the language outside the classroom.

The definitions of additional languages used above are quite contentious –

particularly in South Africa. Why do you think this is so?

If the situation in South Africa is taken as an example, it is obvious that this

distinction between a first and second additional language is very problematic
because many learners take, for example, Afrikaans as a first additional language,
but are never exposed to it in their communities. It is also possible that an
Afrikaans-speaking learner takes Afrikaans as the home language, English as
a first additional language and isiXhosa as a second additional language. The
learner, however, lives on a farm where he or she seldom comes into contact
with English-speaking people, but comes into contact with a large isiXhosa-
speaking community on a daily basis.

Food for thought: An interesting phenomenon with regard to literacy and

multilingualism is that many people can speak and understand one or more
languages, but are unable to read or write all of them. Are you able to read and
write all the languages you speak?

2.3 MULTILINGUALISM
The context of learners in South Africa is pre-eminently multicultural and
multilingual.

•• South Africans differ in terms of race, religion, ideology and descent and may
be broadly classified as black (80,8%), Asian (2,4%), coloured (8,8%) and white
(8%). (These figures are estimates from 2017.)
•• There are 11 official languages and 15 other languages that are recognised
by the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa.

Mncwabe (1990) explains the diversity of language groups by giving a few

examples: “The black people belonging to the Nguni and Sotho speaking tribes
can be divided in five major groups with different dialects. The Coloureds and
Whites speak Afrikaans and/or English and/or one/more European language(s),
whilst the Asians also speak Tamil or Hindi.’’

•• The census figures of 2011 indicate that 9,6 per cent of the total population
speak English as a first language, while isiZulu speakers constitute 22,7 per
cent, followed by isiXhosa (16%), Afrikaans (13,5%), Sepedi (9,1%), Setswana
(8%) and Sesotho (7,6%) speakers. Small percentages of the population also
speak isiNdebele, Siswati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga and sign language. The other
languages collectively lay claim to less than 1,6 per cent of the population.

Owing to the multicultural and multilingual nature of our country, few people
speak only one language: bilingualism or multilingualism has become an
important aspect of literacy. However, it is important to remember that each
language in the country is just as important as all the others – no one language
is more sophisticated or important than another. Whatever your teaching
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environment, as a language teacher you will have to convey your respect for
other languages and their associated cultures.

Language is an essential expression of a learner’s life. The value of languages in

a learner’s life should be reflected in all learning experiences. These experiences,
in turn, should increase learners’ appreciation for their own language, but also
cultivate an understanding of, and tolerance for, other languages and other
language users.

Many people are multilingual and use more than two languages in their everyday
life. Some of the languages are used only in private family life, while others are
used mainly in public, such as in schools or the business world. To be bilingual
or multilingual is not as exceptional as many people think; in fact, it is a normal
and essential practice for most people. Interestingly, according to Tucker (1998:4),
there are far more bilingual or multilingual people than monolingual people
in the world, and far more children are taught through the medium of a first
or second additional language for the full duration of their school career than
those who are taught in their home language.

2.4 SWITCHING AND MIXING CODES

We are sure you agree that the advancement of multilingualism in a country
such as South Africa is important for mutual understanding. In this regard, we
would like to suggest that the specific language or dialect a person chooses to
use in a given situation is a code or a communication system that is used for
interaction between two or more parties.

We have already mentioned that most South Africans speak more than one
language or dialect, which means that they are obliged to choose a specific
code when they speak; moreover, they can decide for themselves to switch
from one code to another or to mix codes within a sentence. This type of
situation, where speakers switch from one language to another, is called “code
switching” (Stockwell 2002:9). This may happen, for example, when you work
in an English environment, but speak isiZulu at home. When you tell your family
about something that was said at work, you switch from isiZulu to English:
“Emhlanganweni wanamuhla ekuseni kuthathwe isinqumo ukuthi the costing of
our services will from now on be done on an account based practice.”

In this case, we would say that the code switching can be ascribed to an attempt
to give an accurate representation of a decision that was made. There are,
however, other reasons for code switching, such as accommodating a colleague
who does not understand the language used for the discussion or preventing
young children, in particular, from understanding what is being said.

In a multilingual learner-centred language class, code switching (changing from

one language to another) will occur. Thinking skills are developed by learning to
read and write in your own language. These thinking skills are then used when
learning to read, write and speak in an additional language. When learners are
involved in activities that require cooperation from and discussion with their
peers, code switching should be permitted. When learners are involved in group
work, they may sometimes be allowed to use their home language within the
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group, but any feedback should preferably be given in the target language (in
this case, the home language that you are teaching).

Code switching helps to promote a shared understanding of a common South

African culture (Wessels & Van den Berg 1998:7).

Code mixing occurs when someone switches languages repeatedly within one
sentence (Stockwell 2002:10), such as “This hamburger is monate”.

According to Sridhar (1996:59), code mixing is often viewed as a negative

phenomenon by language developers, teachers and speakers. “Code mixing has
been regarded as a sign of laziness or mental sloppiness and inadequate command
of language. It has been claimed to be detrimental to the health of the language.
The traditional pedagogical resistance to code mixing stems from a combination
of puristic attitudes and the use of a monolingual paradigm of language.’’
Sridhar (1996:59) maintains that this type of attitude devalues many aspects of
multilingual behaviour and is unnecessary because recent research has shown
that code mixing is common in multilingual situations and tends to be used by
speakers who have good language skills in all the languages they mix. Code
mixing is, therefore, a multifaceted and appropriate way of speaking within
multilingual communities and is also a form of translanguaging. Garcia (2009)
says the following of code switching and translanguaging:

Linguists often refer to the behavior of bilinguals when they go across these
named language categories as code-switching. It is an external view of
language. But translanguaging takes the internal perspective of speakers
whose own mental grammar has been developed in social interaction
with others. For these bilingual speakers, their language features are
simply their own. Translanguaging is more than going across languages;
it is going beyond named languages and taking the internal view of the
speaker’s language use.

There are two models of translanguaging: one is teacher directed and the other
one is learner directed. With teacher directed translanguaging, teachers decide
on which aspects to introduce using the learners’ dominant language to ensure
that they understand the content. The learner directed one is when learners
themselves decide to write an essay in their first languages for example in order
to avoid copying verbatim from the book and then translate into the medium of
instruction. This not only avoid copying and memorization but ensures deeper
understanding of content.

Allowing learners to speak in their native language from time to time is important.
Under no circumstances may their native languages be prohibited in the
classroom, because this may demotivate learners and they may then become
reluctant to speak. Learners who are allowed to pose questions in a language in
which they are proficient and feel confident will tend to participate more in class.

In the preceding discussion, we have referred to translanguaging. We will now

explain this concept.
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2.5 ‌TRANSLANGUAGING
Over the last decade or so, a new term was coined in the field of bilingualism and,
more specifically, in the area of bilingual education, namely “translanguaging” or
“translingualism”. García (2009) defines “translanguaging” as “the deployment of
a speaker’s full linguistic repertoire without regard for watchful adherence to the
socially and politically defined boundaries of named (and usually national and
state) languages”, while Garcia and LiWei (2014) explains that translanguaging is “an
approach to the use of language, bilingualism and the education of bilinguals that
considers the language practices of bilinguals not as two autonomous language
systems as has traditionally been the case, but as one linguistic repertoire with
features that have been societally constructed as belonging to two separate
lanaguages”. In other words, translanguaging is a process whereby multilingual
speakers use all of their languages to communicate, whether for asking questions,
providing answers, or participating in any other form of communication in the
classroom or elsewhere (Sands 2018). Translanguaging allows learners to use
language practices that they already possess to perfect the home language that
they are learning – even if it is not their first language. The gist of translanguaging
is that bilingual learners (and most of the learners in South Africa are bilingual or
multilingual) should be allowed to use their entire language repertoire through
translanguaging. It is important to understand that a bilingual person is not two
monolinguals in one person; in other words, languages are not separated in
the mind of the bilingual person. The bilingual mind is rather seen as a holistic
system that contains diverse linguistic resources that the person can employ as
and when needed for different communicative purposes. Forbidding bilinguals
to translanguage, or assessing it negatively, produces an inaccurate measure of
their language proficiency. Garcia (2009) explains this as follows:

If we are truly interested in knowing what bilingual students know and

what they can do with language, we must separate their ability to use
certain forms of one language or another from their ability to use language.
For example, in schools, students are asked to find the main idea of a
text, to support an argument with text-based evidence, to infer, to make
a convincing oral presentation, to work out a math problem. Especially
emergent bilingual students may not be able to show that they can do
these things if only allowed to use the language legitimized in school. Only
by drawing from their entire language repertoire will bilingual students
be able to demonstrate what they know, and especially what they can
do with language. Being able to perform with language-specific features
legitimized in schools is not the same as having general language ability
or being knowledgeable of content.

Translanguaging works well in the classroom if the children and teacher share the
same additional languages, but in many classrooms in South Africa, learners come
from many different language backgrounds, which could be problematic.
It is impossible for teachers to know all the languages of their learners, but
according to García (2009), “any teacher, including a monolingual one, can take
up translanguaging to enable their bilingual students to make deeper meaning
and legitimize their home language practices”. Thus, it is important for the teacher
to become a co-learner and to be adaptive and flexible. If you are going to give
translanguaging a try, you will need to create a classroom atmosphere where all
languages are respected and acknowledged, for example by labelling objects in
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 L E AR N I N G U N I T 2: Te a c hi n g a h o m e l a n g u a g e i n a m u l t i c u l t u r a l co nte x t

the classroom such as tables, chairs, walls, books, etc in different languages. This
allows bilingual learners to make connections between their first language and
the language they are learning as a home language. It might also be advisable to
ask first language speakers of the home language you are teaching to pair with
learners who are first or second additional language speakers of the language
when doing certain activities. If all languages are viewed in a positive light,
it will create an encouraging learning environment that nurtures all learners,
regardless of their native language. It might also be a good idea for teachers
to learn important words in the different languages that students bring to the
classroom.

According to Garcia and Li Wei (2014) translanguaging differs from the notion
of code switching in that it refers not simply to a shift or a shuttle between two
languages, but to the speakers’ construction or use of original and complex
interrelated discursive practices that can not be easily assigned to one or another
traditional definition of a language, but that make up the speakers’ complete
language repertoire.

It is important to note that translanguaging does not propose language teaching

situations where learners do not have to use the home language taught to them
at all. They still need to be taught to use the home language correctly; however,
the approach to their repertoire of additional languages should be more flexible.

Ac tivit y 2b
In an effort to promote translanguaging at the University of Cape Town,
students had to write their own language biography essay, either in their
home language or by mixing languages in their essay. One of the students
wrote as follows:
[I am] an almost twenty year old Swazi girl who is infused with so
many lingos, but can only”praat drie tale” [“speak three languages”–
(Afrikaans)]. Both of my names and surname are siSwati, but also, they
are a part of the Nguni Language. This means that I can understand
other Nguni languages and converse with them without great
difficulty. Therefore, people often mistake me for Xhosa, Zulu or
even Tswana. I was born and raised in the Land of emaSwati [ema is
the plural modifier of Swati, so the literal translation is “land of the
Swatis”] by my very two eccentric great grandparents who valued
both culture and education above all things. Manje-ke ngikhule ngidla
tonkhe tinhlobo tetibhidvo, inyama, lipalishi,umbhonyo, ematsanga
naloyongeke uze uwatfole kuletinye tindzawo ngaphandle kwase khaya,
kanye nalokunye kudla lokudliwa ngemaSwati. [“So then, I grew up
eating spinaches, meat, pap, peanuts, pumpkins/ butternuts and
that ngeke. You will not find them anywhere else except home ...
and any other foods that Swatis eat.” (siSwati)] (Hurst & Mona 2017).
1. What does this essay tell you about the language situation in South
Africa?
2. How could the above essay be used in a home language classroom to
teach learners the correct use of the home language?

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Like the siSwati student who wrote the essay, many learners in South Africa are
able – and feel comfortable – to speak more than one or two languages. In a
home language classroom, the teacher could request learners to write a story
in any language they wish, and even to mix languages while writing. They could
then be asked to rewrite correctly, in the home language that they are learning,
all the parts that were written in another language.

Ac tivit y 2c
Listen to your friends and identify when they use translanguaging within
sentences or conversations. Write down snatches of these conversations
and then give at least four reasons why this happens.

Earlier in the learning unit (question 5 of activity 2a), we asked if you sometimes
mix your languages when you speak, or if you consciously change to another
language at times in order to express yourself better. How did you answer
question 5? We are sure that you have realised that most people make use of
translanguaging; therefore, as a teacher, you should not be too hard on learners
who do so.

Remember that changing and mixing codes (translanguaging) is acceptable

in spoken language, but should not be used for formal writing. However, it is
sometimes acceptable for informal writing.

2.6 LANGUAGE TEACHING IN A MULTICULTURAL CONTEXT

The fact that there are cultural differences in South Africa necessitates an education
system that recognises the value of diversity. Multicultural education attempts to
provide for the needs of learners from different cultures and social circumstances.
We are sure you appreciate the need to look critically at all the factors that
should be taken into consideration. In order to bring about meaningful reform
in education, sociocultural factors should definitely be taken into account.
Learners are all unique individuals and cultural beings. Each of them comes from
a particular culture, comes to school with their own convictions, value systems
and experiential world, and these influence their dispositions, perceptions
and behaviour in the classroom. In order to perform their tasks efficiently,
teachers should be informed about their learners’ backgrounds, be aware of
the influence that culture and social circumstances have on instruction and
learning, and be capable of designing learning experiences that allow for learners’
different backgrounds. Furthermore, it is equally important to create a learning
environment that will spur learners on to acquire the necessary skills, knowledge
and attitudes that will make meaningful participation in a multicultural society
possible (Rasool & Curtis 2000:xvii;12). Rasool and Curtis (2000:94) believe that
it is necessary to offer “culturally responsive teaching’’.

As a result of the multicultural and multilingual communities in South Africa, the

learner population in schools is extremely diverse: since 1994, more and more
learners with different home languages and cultural backgrounds have found
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 L E AR N I N G U N I T 2: Te a c hi n g a h o m e l a n g u a g e i n a m u l t i c u l t u r a l co nte x t

themselves sharing the same classroom. Yet this is not peculiar to South Africa
– you will find this phenomenon in many countries in the world.

Consequently, teachers, particularly language teachers all over the world, are
faced with a huge variety of communicative needs in a diverse group of learners
whose language proficiency in the target language is spread across various levels.
The fact that learners come from a multilingual environment has the following
implications for language teaching:

•• Learners’ home language should be thoroughly developed because competence

in the home language forms the foundation for acquiring the additional
language.
•• A learner’s level of competence in an additional language need not necessarily
equal that of the first language.
•• Changing or mixing codes should be viewed in a positive light.
•• There should be a relaxed and tolerant attitude towards variation in language.

Multiculturalism can be an asset in the language classroom. Learners can learn a

lot from each other during group work. It is important to acknowledge a learner’s
home language during any language teaching (even if it is a minority language).

2.7 CULTURE AND LANGUAGE TEACHING

People often say “language is culture and culture is language”. Teachers should
remember that language forms an inseparable part of culture. In a multilingual
classroom, there will be differences in life worlds and philosophies, learning
styles, behaviour, sense of humour and nonverbal communication. To deny or
ignore cultural differences is to negate a child’s experiences and to undermine his
or her self-image. Reciprocal recognition and respect for one another’s cultures
and languages are prerequisites for successful language teaching (Rasool &
Curtis 2000:231– 32) – particularly when there are learners from different cultural
groups in the HL classroom. Children should know who they are and be proud
of themselves; for this reason, teachers should acknowledge what each learner
contributes to the class, affirm it and build on it. Only when a language teacher
acknowledges and appreciates the unique culture and language of each child
in the class will the learners reciprocate by showing their appreciation for the
language that the teacher is teaching.

In a multicultural society, there is usually a very close link between language,

culture and education. Culture is a comprehensive concept, which – according
to Coombs (1985:244) – includes the following:

the society’s system of values, ideology, and social codes of behaviour; its
productive technologies and modes of consumption; its religious dogmas,
myths, and taboos; its social structure, political system, and decision
making processes. A society’s culture is expressed in many forms–in its
literature, art, architecture, dress, food, and modes of entertainment–but
its language and education are central to its identity and survival.
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Language usually carries aspects of the culture of its speakers. There is a widely
held view that, on the one hand, cultural aspects determine the use of language,
and that on the other hand, language creates cultures.

Van der Walt, Kilfoil and Evans (2009) repeatedly emphasise that language cannot
be taught without considering the culture of the speakers of the language.
They go on to explain that when teaching a home language, learners need to
know not only the culture of that language as it is revealed in texts (spoken
and written) created by home language speakers, but also the other cultures in
their communities, as revealed through other speakers of the particular language.
In a country such as South Africa, communicative competence thus entails more
than merely knowing and speaking a language well; the speakers must also have
intercultural competence. “Intercultural competence” refers to the awareness
that members of different cultures have of each other and it very aptly describes
what is necessary in South African classrooms (Van der Walt et al 2009:20).

It often happens, for example, that English and Afrikaans speakers perceive it as
a grammatical error when an African-language speaker uses the pronoun “she’’
to refer to a man: “She walked down the road’’ instead of “he walked down the
road.’’ African languages do not, however, use a pronoun to differentiate between
male and female. In South Sotho, for example, the expression “O tsamaile” (he/
she walked) is used for both males and females. This does not point to any kind
of deficiency in African languages, but simply to the fact that these languages
divide nouns into different classes (like German does). Because “man (monna)”
and “woman (mosadi)” are in the mo- class, the “o’’ is used to link them to the
verb (e.g. “O tsamaile”). Therefore, teachers need to be especially careful not to
make assumptions about learners when they inadvertently use concepts from
their home language in the first or second additional language.

When teaching a home language, it is essential to look critically at the learners in

your class and to determine whether all of them are, in fact, HL speakers of the
language you are teaching. It might be the case that you are teaching English as
a home language, but that a large group of learners in your class speak Afrikaans,
isiZulu, Sepedi or Setswana – or one (or more) of the other African languages – at
home. Ask yourself the following questions: What linguistic phenomena occur in
the different languages that the learners actually speak at home, but that do not
occur in the HL that I am teaching? What influence might this have on the HL that
I am teaching? (Think, for example, of the double negative, which is unique to
Afrikaans, or the absence of the pronoun “he” in some of the African languages.)

Van der Walt et al (2009:25) suggest that a good starting point to deal with
different cultures in the language classroom would be for teachers to ask learners
about festivities unique to their specific cultural group. However, these authors
caution teachers to be careful not to assume identification with a specific cultural
group merely on the basis of a surname or a learner’s accent.

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 L E AR N I N G U N I T 2: Te a c hi n g a h o m e l a n g u a g e i n a m u l t i c u l t u r a l co nte x t

Ac tivit y 2d
Read the following scenario and answer the questions that follow:
Lindiwe is eleven years old and is in a class consisting of learners from
four different ethnic groups. The teacher, Mr Nkumane, is an isiZulu
speaker who teaches isiZulu as a home language in a primary school
in Johannesburg. Lindiwe was previously at a private English-medium
school that encouraged learners to think critically and express their
views. Consequently, she regularly questions what Mr Nkumane
says and frequently argues with him. Mr Nkumane usually gets very
angry with her because he believes that children shouldn’t talk back
to adults. This creates a lot of tension between the two. However,
it is also interesting to note that Mr Nkumane does not get on well
with Ndileka, despite the fact that she is the complete opposite of
Lindiwe. Ndileka is as quiet as a mouse in class and seldom asks
questions. Mr Nkumane gets irritated with her because he knows
that she is from KwaZulu-Natal and therefore thinks that she should
be doing far better in isiZulu. What he doesn’t know – and has never
bothered to find out – is that Ndileka’s mother, a isiXhosa-speaking
woman, was a domestic worker for an Afrikaans-speaking family. So
Ndileka went to the same Afrikaans school as her mother’s employer’s
children until her mother passed away when she was 10 years old.
After that, she was sent away to live with her grandparents. Her
grandfather is isiZulu-speaking, but he is away most of the time. Her
grandmother speaks isiXhosa and Xitsonga and only a little isiZulu.
1. Can you explain Lindiwe’s behaviour?
2. Can you explain Ndileka’s behaviour?
3. ls Mr Nkumane’s anger at Lindiwe justified?
4. ls Mr Nkumane’s irritation with Ndileka’s average performance justified?
5. How should Mr Nkumane act towards Lindiwe and Ndileka?

It is clear that Mr Nkumane lacks knowledge of the different cultural groups and
that he does not understand that different cultures communicate in different
ways (i.e. through symbols, habits, gestures, eye contact and even silence or
nonverbal communication). For example, learners from certain cultural groups
would never criticise a teacher or ask questions or interrupt a teacher when
they don’t understand something. In contrast, in the English private school’s
culture where Lindiwe was previously taught, it is more acceptable to question
teachers’ opinions and to be more critical of them. Mr Nkumane should learn
more about Lindiwe and Ndileka’s background so that he is able to understand
them better. Language teachers also need to realise that some African languages
differ extensively.

Lemmer and Squelch (1993) remind us that for effective communication to occur
in a multicultural classroom, perceptions (and possibly misperceptions) should
be clarified continually. It is not permissible simply to make assumptions. In
addition, the teacher should make sure that a message is understood by all and
that the feedback is clear. In some cultures, for example, it is impolite to answer
“No’’ to a question or request. Therefore, confusion may result if a question/
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request receives a “Yes’’ response, but then the request is not carried out.
Teachers need to be aware of their own communication style and the possible
problems it might cause.

2.8 LANGUAGES WITH HIGH AND LOW STATUS IN SOUTH AFRICA

Although South Africa has a multilingual policy that recognises many official
languages, not all the languages are equal in terms of the status associated with
the language. Some languages are spoken by small minority groups, while others
are spoken by large groups. Some languages are used for public administration,
economic activities and education, while others are used only as home languages.
In a multilingual country, languages are evaluated differently because of their
utility value in various social structures (e.g. legal, educational, economic and
political institutions) and the opportunities offered to those people who can
speak them. The implications of this are that one or more language groups in
a society have more power and status than others, with the result that they are
in a position to enforce the use of their language on other smaller groups. This
state of affairs has often given rise to a distinction between languages with a
higher status (or greater prestige) and those that are oppressed and have less
status. The result of the existence of languages with high or low status has been
the rise of language minority groups in a society. If “minority’’ were defined in
terms of power and not of numbers, all groups whose first language was not an
official language in their country of residence would be linguistic minorities. Such
a linguistic minority would then be forced to become bilingual or multilingual.

If the majority of a population is willing to learn an additional language, the term

used is “additional bilingualism”. So, we see that people are not compelled by
societal circumstances to replace their home language with another. The case of
additional bilingualism gives rise to the fewest problems in learning a language,
possibly because, as a rule, there are no negative feelings towards the additional
language. When, however, people are forced by circumstances to replace their
home language, the term used to describe this phenomenon is “subtractive
bilingualism”, which can give rise to negativity and is frequently accompanied
by a loss of cultural identity.

The high status that English enjoys as an international language and the fact that
it is associated with upward mobility, access to tertiary education and economic
prosperity in the Western world has meant that, in many countries – including
South Africa – English has become the lingua franca, as well as the medium
of education in schools and universities. This high status enjoyed by English has
a negative influence on African languages: “They lose status, identity and role,
in spite of being spoken as first language by numbers of people far in excess of
those who have English as a first language’’ (Sridhar 1996:54). It is this state of
affairs that causes English to be referred to as a “killer language’’.

According to Sridhar (1996:54), there are movements in various countries that are
attempting to gain recognition for and impart status to indigenous languages that
were suppressed or marginalised during colonial and postcolonial periods. This
also happened in South Africa for a period after the new political dispensation
came into operation. Initially the 11 chief languages in the country were given
equal status and there were increasing calls for developing indigenous languages.
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This situation was heartening because, from a linguistic point of view, all languages
have equal status. Unfortunately, the reality is that English has gradually been
given more and more status at the cost of all other indigenous languages. The
dominance of English in the public sector, courts, education, private sector and
media is becoming more pronounced every day. Although this dominant role
of English in education is increasingly under examination owing to the role it
plays in perpetuating disadvantage and its link to colonialism, chances are that
the situation will not change in the near future.

In spite of the dominance of English, you, as a (prospective) teacher, should

firstly understand how important it is for the potential equality of all languages
to be recognised. Secondly, you should realise that stigmatisation of learners’
home languages can be psychologically damaging. Linguistic racism must be
eradicated.

It is important for learners to have a positive perception of their home language,

because when they learn an additional language, they should essentially retain
a high regard for their home language. Moreover, competence in the home
language forms the basis of the acquisition of additional languages.

De Klerk (1995:60) conducted research at various English-medium schools in the

Cape and found that Xhosa learners at those schools where isiXhosa is offered
as an additional language have become far more relaxed and self-assertive, are
keen to participate and have begun to show more self-confidence.

2.9 OVERVIEW OF THE LEARNING UNIT

Page back to the learning objectives that we set at the beginning of this learning
unit and ensure that you have achieved them. If you are able to explain each of
the following concepts, it means that you have achieved these learning objectives.
Use the blank spaces to write your answers.

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1. Multilingualism: .............................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
2. Home language: ...........................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
3. First additional language: ..........................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
4. Second additional language:....................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
5. Code switching:.............................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
6. Mixing codes:..................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
7. Translanguaging:...........................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
8. High- and low-status languages:.............................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
9. The relationship between culture and language:..............................................
....................................................................................................................................................
10. The implications of all of the above for language teaching: .........................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

2.10 CONCLUSION
We have indicated in this learning unit that language teaching in a multicultural
and multilingual country cannot be separated from the learners’ culture and the
culture of the language being taught.

Culture, language and power – and their reciprocal influence – are issues that
need to be addressed in every subject, particularly in the languages classroom.

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3 LEARNING UNIT 3

3 Listening and speaking instruction

To listen well, is as powerful a means of influence as to talk well, and is as

essential to all true conversation.
Chinese Proverb

I know that you believe you understand what you think I said, but I am not
sure you realize that what you heard is not what I meant.
Robert McCloskey

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Once you have worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:

•• explain the content, skills and strategies for listening and speaking in the
Intermediate Phase, as set out in the CAPS
•• apply different methods to develop the learners’ listening and speaking skills
•• purposefully teach learners listening and speaking skills for different purposes,
audiences and situations
•• teach learners how to verbalise their ideas effectively
•• integrate the four main communication skills in a lesson

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this learning unit we turn our attention to listening and speaking instruction.
In the course of this learning unit, we apply a number of different methods to
help you achieve the learning objectives. We also expect you to apply these
methods during your practical teaching.

Ac tivit y 3a
Before we say anything that might influence you, answer the following questions
briefly.

1. When you were learning your home language, in which order did you
learn the four language skills (listening, reading, speaking and writing)?
2. Do you think that some skills are more important than others?
3. Think back to the listening and speaking instruction you received at
school in your home language. Were you ever taught to listen critically,
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analytically and for appreciation, or did the listening instruction simply

involve testing your ability to remember what you heard?
4. Did your teacher merely request you to prepare a speech on a specific
topic or were you gradually prepared to speak about a specific topic?
5. Do you think that the listening and speaking instruction you received
at school equipped you to be a good listener and speaker as an adult?

Developmentally, we learn to listen before we learn to speak, read or write.

The ability to listen is the learning foundation for the development of all the
other language skills (speaking, reading and writing). Brown (1987:5), who
conducted considerable research on listening skills, said that the role of listening
in language acquisition is of foremost importance and that listening is the basis of
all subsequent communication, as it forms the foundation of all lifelong reading,
writing and speaking activities. Of all the basic skills we need to succeed in life,
listening is therefore (in our opinion) one of the most important language skills.
(Perhaps you disagree.)

When we think back to the listening and speaking instruction that we received
at school, we can’t remember ever being actively taught to listen or being tested
on our listening ability. In our day (we are both on the wrong side of 50 years
old), teaching listening was not even part of the home language curriculum. The
realisation that listening should be actively taught only took root in the 1990s.

But now we know that it is important to teach listening and speaking actively.
Teachers cannot just give a listening or speaking assignment and then proceed
with the assessment. There must be instruction, or teaching, before there can
be any assessment. Learners must also know in advance exactly how to listen
and what they should listen for.

In the sections that follow, we will explain how to present listening and speaking
so that the learners have fun and enjoy the lessons and, at the same time,
are prepared for the listening and speaking situations they will encounter in
everyday life.

3.2 ‌WHAT THE CAPS SAYS ABOUT LISTENING AND SPEAKING

The curriculum can be regarded as the “heart” of an education system. In South
Africa, the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) is the national
curriculum and it is your responsibility, as a teacher, to introduce and implement
this curriculum in the classroom. It is therefore important to consult the CAPS
for the home language that you are going to teach to see what it says about
listening and speaking.

Ac tivit y 3b
Read the part on listening and speaking in section 2.1.2 in the CAPS
Home Language (for the language that you are going to teach), as well
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as in section 3.1 as it pertains to listening and speaking. Thereafter, read

section 3.2 on the spread of texts across Grades 4-6.

The first guideline provided by the CAPS document on listening and speaking
skills reminds us that listening and speaking are central to learning in all subjects.
Through effective listening and speaking, learners collect and synthesise
information, construct knowledge, solve problems, and express ideas and
opinions. Critical listening skills enable learners to recognise values and attitudes
embedded in texts and to challenge biased and manipulative language.

The CAPS further makes it clear that learners in the Intermediate Phase (IP) need
to use listening and speaking to interact and negotiate meaning. Although they
will build on skills developed in the Foundation Phase to carry on more sustained
conversations, discussions and short oral presentations, they still need a lot of
support in the form of vocabulary building and sentence frames to strengthen
their spoken language skills. Therefore, many opportunities to speak in their
home language (HL) and gradually produce longer and more complex utterances
should be provided. Listening should be based on both the text types introduced
in the Foundation Phase (stories, personal accounts and instructions) and those
text types prescribed for the IP (folklore, short stories, drama and poetry).

The content that needs to be covered in listening and speaking entails

listening comprehension, different forms of oral communication, prepared
and unprepared speeches, prepared and unprepared reading aloud, asking
and giving directions and instructions, storytelling, a vote of thanks, role-play,
group discussions, debates and interviews. The strategies and subskills related
to speaking and listening involve retelling a story, recalling specific details in
a text, reflecting on values and messages in a text, reflecting on stereotyping
and other biases, discussing character, plot and setting, expressing opinions and
clarifying questions. It also entails the ability to initiate and sustain conversations,
knowing how to take turns in a conversation, defending a position, negotiating,
filling in gaps and encouraging the speaker, and sharing ideas and experiences.
The learners must also be able to do prepared speaking, which implies that they
need to be able to organise material coherently, choose and develop main ideas
and supporting ideas, choose the correct vocabulary, be able to vary their tone,
voice and pace, make eye contact and use gestures, as well as introduce and
conclude a speech effectively. Using appropriate visuals, such as charts, posters
and images, is also a subskill that they need to acquire during the speaking and
listening lessons.

The CAPS further requires that language be taught as an integrated whole:

Language teaching happens in an integrated way, with the teacher

modelling good practice, the learners practising the appropriate skills in
groups before applying these skills on their own. The structure of each
lesson should be one that engages the whole class before practising in
groups and applying the new skill individually (CAPS 2011:13).

This means that while the various parts of the language (listening and speaking,
reading and viewing, writing and presenting and language structures and
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27 TM N3702 /1


conventions) are distinguished in the CAPS for practical purposes, you should
teach them in an integrated manner. Therefore, the teacher’s most important
task is to create opportunities for interaction and language usage. This implies
that the speaking and listening activities that you choose should be based on
the different texts that have been used in the CAPS as a basis for each two-week
teaching cycle. Learners will, for example, listen to a story and then read a story.
After reading the story, reading must be integrated with writing by, for example,
asking them to write a short oral description of a place or person (that appears
in the story); alternatively, they might be asked to write a letter to one of the
characters in the story. Language structures and conventions also need to be
incorporated when teaching listening and speaking. For example, if you wish
to teach the learners how to use verbs, you could read a recipe to the learners
and then ask them to write down all the verbs that they heard being used in
the recipe.

The CAPS promotes the use of themes that learners would find interesting (see
sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.3 in CAPS 2011:34). Working with themes during a two-
week cycle, or for a longer period of time, will enable you to link all the teaching
and learning activities in a logical way and will also ensure that everything you
teach is done within context. If you, for example, choose a theme such as “the
environment”, vocabulary building will involve words related to environmental
matters (e.g. sustainability, genetically modified food, famine and pollution), the
reading text will be on air pollution or deforestation or climate change, and the
listening text will be a weather forecast on the radio or a radio talk on the use
of plastic and its harmful effects on the environment. For speaking, learners
could be asked to debate whether there should be a total ban on all plastic or
whether plastic should merely be recycled; the learners could also be asked to
write a slogan to help keep the environment clean.

Ac tivit y 3c

It is important to be familiar with the content, skills and strategies for

listening and speaking in the CAPS. Summarise the guidelines provided
in the CAPS in 5 points:
1. ........................................................................................................................................

2. ........................................................................................................................................

3. ........................................................................................................................................

4. ........................................................................................................................................

5. ........................................................................................................................................

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 L E AR N I N G U N I T 3: L is te ni n g a n d sp e a k i n g i ns t r u c t i o n

3.3 ‌UNPACKING THE LISTENING SKILL

3.3.1 ‌The listening process as an active process

Listening is different from hearing. For example, you may hear a radio playing
in the background, without listening to the words of the song or to what the
presenter is saying. When you hear, your eardrums are vibrating due to sound
waves. Listening, by contrast, is an active, cognitive process of receiving and
responding to spoken (and sometimes unspoken) messages (Nordquist 2019). The
listening process takes place in six stages: listeners hear, understand, remember,
evaluate, interpret and respond to the speaker.

•• The first step in this process involves hearing, in other words, perceiving the
sound waves while the listener, at the same time, concentrates on attending
to the message. Tyagi (2013:2) notes that you need to hear in order to listen;
however, listening requires a person to pay attention to what was heard.
The brain receives and screens the stimuli and pays attention to only some
selected stimuli.
•• Step two, according to Tyagi (2013:2), requires understanding of the symbols
that a person sees and/or hears from the incoming data. The listener tries
to comprehend the real meaning of the message, that is, he or she must
analyse the meaning of symbolic stimuli that are perceived. At this stage,
effective listening occurs when the learner understands the intended meaning
of the incoming data.
•• Step three involves remembering or recalling the message. At this stage, the
listener’s ability to recall the message is an indication that he or she received
and interpreted the message and that what was heard was added to his or
her memory bank. Tyagi (2013:2) mentions that “what is remembered might
be quite different from what was originally seen or heard”.
•• Step four, which involves evaluation, is more complex, and only active listeners
participate at this stage of the listening process. Tyagi (2013:2) states that “the
active listener weighs evidence, sorts facts from opinion, and determines the
presence or absence of bias or prejudice in a message”.
•• In the fifth step, listeners show some sensitivity to the nonverbal and contextual
aspects of the message and weigh up the value of the message.
•• The final stage or step involves responding or providing feedback to the
sender (Tyagi 2013:1-2). This stage requires a written or spoken (verbal) – or
sometimes even nonverbal feedback – on the part of the receiver to assure
the sender that the message has been received. According to Tyagi, this stage
is the only means by which the degree of success in the communication can
be determined, especially for first additional language learners.

Vandergrift (2013) succinctly explains how complicated listening actually is:

Listening comprehension is anything but a passive activity. It is a complex,

active process in which the listener must discriminate between sounds,
understand vocabulary and structures, interpret stress and intonation,
retain what was gathered in all of the above, and interpret it within the
immediate as well as the larger socio-cultural context of the utterance.
Co-ordinating all this involves a great deal of mental activity on the part
of the listener. Listening is hard work.
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29 TM N3702 /1


Ac tivit y 3d
Listening is an active process. What are the implications of this statement
for teaching listening and speaking in the classroom?

It is important that learners not only interpret the incoming speech correctly,
but also respond appropriately to the speaker or the story/poem/news bulletin/
weather forecast that they hear. This is particularly important in face-to-face
conversations, where learners must orally contribute to the discourse. A listening
activity in the classroom must therefore always be followed by an activity in which
the learners respond by answering the sender of the message, by answering
questions or discussing what they have heard, or by showing – by means of a
written response – that they have grasped the meaning of the message. Listening
instruction can therefore be integrated with the following activities:

•• Listen and follow the instructions.

•• Listen and complete a table.
•• Listen and take notes.
•• Listen and select.
•• Listen and draw.
•• Listen and arrange in the correct order.
•• Listen and summarise (orally or in writing).
•• Listen and debate for or against an issue.
•• Listen and answer or reply.
•• Listen and identify the situation or person.

The above list is not exhaustive. A creative teacher will be able to come up with
many more activities.

3.3.2 Listening with different objectives

All spoken texts – not only on the radio or television, but also at school, in the
world of work and at social occasions – have a particular purpose and take place
within a particular context. As soon as you turn on the radio, you immediately
know whether you are listening to a weather report, the news, an advertisement,
an interview or a talk show. Perhaps you recognise a voice or a signature tune,
and the tone and succession of speakers together form a whole from which
you can conclude what you are listening to. You will then immediately prepare
yourself to listen in a specific way, based on the type of programme. If it is a
news bulletin, you will immediately listen attentively. If it is a talk show, you will
listen critically to ascertain whether you agree or disagree with the speakers. If
it is a music programme, you will sit back and prepare to relax. Similarly, when
learners have to listen at school, the purpose and the background will determine
how they will listen.

Listening strategies vary according to the purpose of the speaker and the listener’s
purpose for listening, which is why exposure to a variety of listening experiences
is essential. Let’s now consider the kinds of listening that may be practised.
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 L E AR N I N G U N I T 3: L is te ni n g a n d sp e a k i n g i ns t r u c t i o n

•• Listening for appreciation

This type of listening takes place when the speaker intends to provide pleasure
or enjoyment. Poetry, stories, folklore (myths or legends), humorous stories or
songs can be used to practise this type of listening skill.

•• Critical, analytical and discriminating listening

This type of listening implies that the learners must listen attentively for specific
information and key ideas and be able to respond in a suitable manner. Learners
must be able to listen critically, analytically and discriminately so that they can, for
example, hear when a speaker wants to persuade or convince the listener about
a specific point of view. They should be able to reflect on opinions and learn to
pose well- thought-out and penetrating questions about what they have heard.
When learners listen for information, they are required to distinguish information
that is important and useful from that which is not. A listener listens critically
and analytically in order to determine the speaker’s intention, to distinguish
between facts and opinions, or to determine prejudice, bias or stereotyping.

•• Listening with empathy

When listening empathetically or with sympathy, the listener attempts to

understand the speaker’s point of view, his or her values, opinions, attitudes,
emotions and feelings.

Ac tivit y 3e
1. Think about those situations in the last week where you had to listen.
Write down all these situations. Now indicate what was expected of
you in each listening situation and the aim with which you listened.
For example:

Listening situation Purpose of listening action

listening to music pleasure
listen to a friend with problems listening to understand

2. Did you listen to all the speakers in exactly the same way?

If you reflect on your listening actions, you will realise that on different occasions
you listen to analyse, to discover, to be critical or to follow instructions. You
sometimes listen with sympathy and show understanding, while at other times
you listen to remember. You must teach all the different types of listening to
your learners because they will encounter them at some time or another.

3.3.3 What “good” listeners do

We are sure that you are aware that there is a close relationship between good
listening skills and the ability to remember. The ability to remember focuses on
the following skills:

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31 TM N3702 /1


•• An intention to remember. This has much to do with how good a listener

you are.
•• Selectivity. A good listener is able to determine which part of the conversation
carries the main content of the message being conveyed.
•• Meaningful organisation. During the listening process, the listener groups
ideas into meaningful categories or groups.
•• Mental visualisation. A good listener makes a mental picture of what a person
is talking about. By teaching children to visualise what they hear, you teach
them to use different parts of their brains simultaneously.

3.4 ‌WHY IS LISTENING INSTRUCTION NECESSARY?

We have already explained that listening is the most important foundation in
the process of learning a language, as it is the first skill that we are exposed to
as babies.

It has been found that the average person is more often a listener than a speaker.
(Most men would, of course, say that this excludes women!) Learners are expected
to listen approximately 60% of the time while in school. However, owing to the
development of multimedia, today’s children (and adults) are more interested in
a visual than an audio culture. Our exposure to the different media means that
we are losing our ability to listen. Although we still hear a lot, our communication
has become more visually oriented. Pictures and action shots in newspapers
and television advertisements say more than even the most ingenious radio
advertisement. In addition, the mass media draws learners into passive listening
experiences where they do not have to become involved or respond. Think
about the music children listen to. Do they listen to the music or are they merely
watching the music videos? Learners thus need to be taught how to listen more
effectively. (Beware of confusing “listening” with “obeying” in this context.)

The average adult spends approximately:

•• 40 to 50% of their communication time on listening

•• 25 to 30% on speaking
•• 11 to 16% on reading
•• only 9% on writing

It is thus clear that listening is the skill that is used the most. But the fact that so
many people spend so much time listening does not mean that they are effective
listeners; rather, it shows that listening skills need to be taught and mastered at
a young age. Winn (1988:144) comments as follows: “Children do not need to
listen more, they need to listen better.” It is you, as the language teacher, who
must ensure that learners learn to listen better.

Most teachers go to a lot of trouble to give remedial assistance to those learners

with reading problems, but shouldn’t these learners also be learning how to use
their listening skills optimally so that they can compensate for their poor reading
skills? Such learners could then – like the blind – depend more on oral texts to
learn the learning content. Indeed, the fact that the blind depend so extensively
on their hearing emphasises the importance of listening skills.
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There is a great temptation to move listening instruction to the back burner, since
the school day is already overfull and teachers have probably never received
listening instruction themselves. In fact, it is likely that many teachers do not
know how to teach listening skills. Teachers often feel that listening skills develop
naturally, so they do not see the need to teach these skills. Nevertheless, listening
skills do not develop naturally and research shows that listening skills can be
improved. It has been determined, for example, that learners who know that
they will be tested at the end of a listening exercise fare better than those who
do not know that they will be tested.

3.5 ‌HOW TO TEACH LISTENING

Listening assignments (whether listening to stories, poems, weather forecasts
or recipes) must be designed according to a play-listen-confirm-react pattern.
In other words, the text is played (or read) while learners listen. After listening, it
must be confirmed that they have understood what they listened to (if necessary,
the text must be read or played again). Then the learners must respond or react
to the passage by performing certain activities, such as retelling the story,
identifying the main message, relating the story to their own lives or discussing
the social, moral and cultural values in the text. Consult the CAPS for the activities
that learners need to perform.

3.5.1 Selecting suitable listening material

As far as listening and speaking are concerned, the CAPS (2011:9) expects “daily
practice of short Listening and Speaking activities as well as longer focused
activities spread out through the week”.

It is not easy to select suitable listening material. You cannot simply read aloud
any passage from a newspaper or magazine. You will often have to write the
text yourself or modify a text to include those elements that carry meaning. It
is also advisable that you record news bulletins, radio talks or weather forecasts
beforehand and then play them in the classroom to make the listening activity
more authentic. Poetry can also be used very effectively to develop the learners’
listening (and speaking) skills; the rhyme and rhythm patterns stimulate the
listening process. As a language teacher, you could easily include listening and
speaking exercises as part of your reading and viewing lesson. If you select a
story for a listening lesson, you must make sure that learners will be interested
in the story and will not find it boring. They can then retell the story during the
speaking lesson.

Recordings play an important role, but the teacher should be aware that a
recorded account is more difficult to listen to, since the learners are required to
listen to a speaker that they cannot see. The learners are also deprived of facial
expressions, gestures and body language, which they would generally use to
interpret a message.

Listening texts should not be too long. The CAPS (2011:32) provides the following
guidelines for the length of listening texts:

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33 TM N3702 /1


Task Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6

Longer 150–200 words/ 200–250 words/ 250–300 words/
listening compre- up to 5 mins up to 5 mins up to 5 mins
hension texts, e.g.
stories, interviews,
plays, news reports
Shorter 60-70 words /1–2 70-80 words /1–2 80-100 words /
listening compre- mins mins 1–2 mins
hension texts, e.g.
announcements,
information texts,
instructions,
directions

Ac tivit y 3f
Choose a theme that would be suitable for Grade 5 learners (e.g. animals,
the environment, travel, sport, food, famous people or hobbies).
Find two suitable texts (e.g. a story, recipe, newspaper or magazine
article, poem, instructions to do something, drama or advertisement)
based on the theme, which can be used for teaching listening in Grade
5. One text must be for longer listening comprehension and must be
approximately 200 words in length. The second text must be for shorter
listening comprehension and must be approximately 70 words in length.
Read each text out loud and record yourself with your cellphone or any
other recording device. Listen to your own recording and decide whether
you read too slowly or too fast. Consult CPAS in this regard for the length
of texts. If you are satisfied with the recording, think of ideas of how to
use the reading passage in the classroom. You will have to ask yourself
the following questions: With what purpose will I expect the learners to
listen (e.g. listen for the main idea, listen for specific information, listen
so that they will be able to retell the story, listen and make notes so that
they can summarise the story, or listen so that they can repeat the steps in
sequence)? How am I going to determine whether the learners understood
what they heard? What follow-up activities am I going to ask them to do?
How am I going to integrate the listening task with speaking and with
reading and writing?

3.5.2 A framework for teaching listening

When planning for listening activities, you need to make provision for pre-
listening, while-listening and post-listening stages.

3.5.2.1 ‌Pre-listening activities

The purpose of pre-listening activities is to prepare learners to listen and to create
a framework for listening so that learners do not start the listening assignment
without any frame of reference. Learners must feel motivated to listen. It is
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 L E AR N I N G U N I T 3: L is te ni n g a n d sp e a k i n g i ns t r u c t i o n

therefore important to select a text that learners will find interesting and that
will arouse their curiosity.

The purpose of pre-listening activities is also to contextualise the listening

activity. Peachey (2011) explains this as follows:

When we listen in our everyday lives we hear language within its natural
environment, and that environment gives us a huge amount of information
about the linguistic content we are likely to hear. Listening to a recording
in a classroom is a very unnatural process. The text has been taken from its
original environment and we need to design tasks that will help students
to contextualise the listening and access their existing knowledge and
expectations to help them understand the text.

You should always make a conscious effort to create the right listening atmosphere
and to prepare learners for active listening during the pre-listening phase. The
learners should know that they are expected to listen and that they will have
to do something with what they have heard at the end of the listening activity.

The following are possible pre-listening activities:

•• The teacher gives learners the title of the listening passage (story, poem,
newspaper article, etc) and asks them to predict the content of the text.
•• Unfamiliar words that learners might encounter in the text are explained.
•• The teacher explains to learners what the purpose of the listening activity is
(e.g. listen to identify the main characters, listen for the main message, listen
to identify rhyme and rhythm, listen carefully because you will have to retell
the story in your own words afterwards, and listen to distinguish facts from
allegations).

Learners must be assisted to listen purposefully. Learners must know what the
listening assignment expects of them. If no purpose is formulated for the listening
task, how would you be able to determine afterwards whether the learners have
learnt what they were supposed to learn?

Apart from listening to stories, poems, folklore and songs, learners must also
listen to dialogues between people, news bulletins or weather forecasts so that
they know what the speaker intends and thus know how to listen.

In order to assist learners with this orientation, you can explain that they should
approach a listening task with the following questions in mind:

•• Why should I listen?

•• What am I listening to?
•• Why is this communication taking place?
•• Why is something being said?
•• What should I be aware of to help me with this listening task?
•• What can I do with the information that I obtain?

Prior knowledge of a speaker and the topic has a great influence on the listener.
In order to let learners grasp this notion, you can discuss this with them and then
let them do the following two consecutive exercises:
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35 TM N3702 /1


(1) a listening exercise where they are told beforehand who the speaker is, what
he/she will be speaking about and what will be expected of them afterwards
(2) a listening exercise similar to the first one, but where they don’t get any
prior support or information

Let the learners answer questions after each listening session. Then they can
discuss the different ways in which they approached the two different listening
tasks.

3.5.2.2 ‌While listening activities

While-listening activities include any task set during the actual listening
activity that requires comprehension of the listening passage. The purpose is
to help learners to focus their attention on the listening text and to guide the
development of their understanding of it. Before reading or playing the listening
text, you can explain to learners that active listening implies that they will have
to ask themselves the following questions while listening:

•• What message is the speaker trying to bring across?

•• How does the story/news bulletin/advertisement relate to my own experience?
•• Has the speaker (in case of listening to a talk show on the radio) based his or
her ideas on fact or opinion? What value should I attach to these ideas? What
is the speaker’s attitude? Is he or she perhaps biased?

There is an endless number of possible activities and the ones that the teacher
decides to use will depend mainly on the competency of the learners in the
home language that is being taught.

Possible while listening activities include:

•• following directions on a map

•• taking notes during the listening task
•• identifying the genre (structure and characteristics) of an oral text, in other
words, whether it is a weather report, joke, recipe, song, directions, debate,
news bulletin, etc and what features characterise it as a weather report, song,
debate, recipe, etc
•• identifying different speakers’ points of view
•• identifying, character, plot and setting
•• identifying words that are emphasised or used in the wrong context
•• distinguishing between facts and allegations in a passage that they have
listened to
•• drawing conclusions about the passage they have listened to
•• recognising the effect of intonation (e.g. emphasising words to indicate anger,
or speaking more softly to create a mood, or how intonation in a sentence
can change the meaning)
•• concluding the story (the teacher reads only the first part of the story and
the learners must predict what is going to happen next)
•• identifying the purpose of the text (e.g. to entertain, inform, amuse or convince)
•• stopping at a certain point and let learners predict what will happen next
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3.5.2.3 ‌Post-listening or follow-up activities

Follow-up activities are a critical part of listening programmes and contribute
considerably to learning. Follow-up activities should be well planned and carried
out directly after the listening activity. Many learners learn more during the follow-
up activities than during the listening itself. The nature of the follow-up activity
is determined by the listening experience or the purpose of the listening activity.
These follow-up activities may take the form of class discussions, questions,
excursions or written assignments. Meaningful follow-up activities give the
learners a reason to listen carefully and – very importantly – to recognise that the
information gained during the listening process is necessary and is useful. This
realisation forms the basis for the development of good lifelong listening skills.

Post-listening activities must have two functions. The first function is to focus
learners’ attention on the content and to guide their reaction to the content.
This implies that you will have to incorporate activities and/or questions to see if
they have listened attentively and to check that they have understood the text.
For example, this could involve checking whether they agree or disagree with
the content. The second function is to focus on form or the linguistic features
(language structure and use) of the text that they have listened to. This provides an
opportunity for integrating language structures and conventions with listening. It
could involve vocabulary building, an analysis of the adjectives from a transcript
of the listening text, collective nouns or punctuation, etc. The type of language
structure to be taught would depend on the particular listening text.

The following are a few possible post-listening activities:

•• Use notes made during the listening exercise to make a summary (integration
with writing).
•• Identifying the main idea of the text they have been listening to
•• Ask learners to retell important parts of the story. (This integrates listening with
speaking and also checks whether they have paid attention while listening.)
•• Ask learners to explain why something happened (or did not happen) in the
story. (This checks their understanding.)
•• Ask learners what emotions they think a specific character in the story might
have felt. (This links the activity to reading, where learners are expected to
know about characterisation.)
•• Ask questions for extension. (These questions are not about the story itself,
but about the things that have links with the learners’ lives. The learners need
to relate what they have heard to their own experiences in life.)
•• Let learners work in pairs and quiz each other on what they can recall
(integration with speaking).
•• Ask learners to each compose three questions based on the listening passage
and let them select a friend to answer the questions (either orally or in writing).
•• Obtain the listening passage in written form and circle all the verbs (integration
with language stuctures and conventions).
•• Learners must summarise what they have heard in three sentences (integration
with writing and viewing).
•• Tell learners that they can ask you any questions about the listening passage
to see if they can ask you a question that you are unable to answer. (You can
make this a fun activity by promising a sweet or chocolate to the one who
can ask a question that you cannot answer.)
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37 TM N3702 /1


When learners have to answer questions based on the listening passage, you
can sometimes give the answers afterwards, but in other cases you can reread
or replay the listening text and let them check and correct their own answers.

Remember that songs can also be used very effectively during listening lessons.

3.6 ‌USING STORIES DURING LISTENING INSTRUCTION

Many of the listening activities mentioned in the CAPS refer to stories (e.g. listens
to a short story; listens to a story such as folklore, a myth or a legend; listens to
and discusses a short story; listens to a poem; listens to an extract from a novel).
You therefore have to plan activities, based on stories and poems, that learners
can do together. These activities should stimulate the learners’ interest, so they
should not be too difficult. Listening to a story, answering questions about the
story and then completing a worksheet can be an exciting activity. You could,
for example, read just part of the story and then let the learners predict how
the story is going to end – this may stimulate the learners’ interest so much that
they want to read the book on their own.

Below is an activity that should help you to think about using stories in listening
instruction.

The first text is an extract from Action! Nancy Drew Girl Detective by Carolyn
Keene. The second text is a folk tale from West Africa, which is available online
at http://www.storyarts.org/library/nutshell/stories/onegoodmeal.html

Read the two texts and then complete the activity.

Text 1

“Nancy Drew leaving waffles on her plate?” Hannah Gruen cried. “I don’t
believe it!”.

I jump, startled. Hannah was leaning over to take away my breakfast plate,
filled with half-eaten waffle and two strips of bacon. I snatched up my
fork to finish eating. “Sorry,“ I mumbled. “I must have been daydreaming.”

Hannah smiled and headed off to the kitchen to get my father his usual
second cup of coffee. I took a bite of the homemade waffles. Hannah is
officially our housekeeper, but she’s also a terrific cook, and one of my
favourite people in the world. But somehow, Hanna’s delicious waffles
weren’t holding my interest this morning. I was worried. More than worried.
I was downright terrified.

Text 2

One Good Meal Deserves Another

A Tale from West Africa

Anansi the Spider hated to share! When Turtle came to his house at
mealtime, he said, “I can’t give you food until you’ve washed your dusty
feet!”

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Turtle licked his lips when he saw the big plate of steaming food, but
politely walked to the stream to wash. When he returned, the plate was
empty. “Good meal,” Anansi said, patting his full stomach.
“One good meal deserves another!” said Turtle. “Come to my house for
dinner tomorrow.” Turtle fixed a fine dinner at the bottom of the river.
“Come on down and eat!” he said.
Anansi filled his jacket pockets with stones so that he would be weighted
down enough to stay at the river’s bottom and eat. “It’s impolite to wear
a jacket to dinner!” Turtle said, “Take it off!”
But when greedy Anansi took off his jacket, he floated back up to the
surface of the water and hungrily watched Turtle eat his fill!

Ac tivit y 3g
Choose one of the texts and plan a lesson based on that text, according
to the listening framework:
•• What pre-listening activities would you let the learners perform? How
would you make sure that they are motivated to listen and look forward
to what they are going to hear?
•• What tasks would you design to help the learners to contextualise the
listening and access their existing knowledge and expectations to help
them understand the text?
•• What would the learners need to do while listening?
•• What post-listening activities would you let the learners do?
•• What language structures and conventions would you teach, based
on the listening passage?
•• How would you integrate this listening lesson with speaking and
writing?

Share your answers with your fellow students in the relevant Discussions
space on the e-tutor site.

3.7 ‌TEACHING INTERACTIVE LISTENING

It is usually satisfying to speak to someone who listens attentively to what you
are saying and who indicates that he or she is listening. Learners must be taught
to listen actively. Active listening is particularly useful when you are not sure that
you understand what the other person means or when you want to confirm
that you have heard correctly. Active listening means that the listener repeats
or confirms what he or she has heard (Peace & Garner 1986:38, 39). Peace and
Garner give the following example of active listening:

Suna: I will never find work again.

Marie: You are really frustrated (active listening).
Suna: Yes. I fill in an application form everywhere I go and everyone
tells me they will contact me. But I never hear anything.
Marie: So you feel that you are being kept dangling (active listening).
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Body language that indicates that you are listening (e.g. nodding, eye contact,
concentration on what the speaker is saying) is an important part of listening
activities. Listeners should be shown how to show interest and to listen attentively.

You can show the above example to learners and then let them role-play their
own example of active listening in pairs. For example, you can give them the
first sentence and then let them continue, or you can let them work out the
entire role-play on their own. Below are two examples of first sentences to get
the learners started:

•• My dog ran away last night.

•• I wish my mother would allow me to put beads in my hair.

3.8 TEACHING LEARNERS TO LISTEN AND CARRY OUT INSTRUCTIONS

By letting learners do activities in which they need to follow instructions, you
can help to develop their listening skills. The following is an exercise that you
can use in this regard:

Tell them to take an A4 piece of paper and then give them instructions, such
as the following:

•• Step 1: Turn your paper horizontally, which means “landscape” or lengthwise.

•• Step 2: Draw a 5 cm six-point star in the left-hand corner. The top and left
points of the star should touch the edges of the paper.
•• Step 3: Now move your pencil to the middle of the paper and draw a 3 cm
square. Shade the square with 10 horizontal lines.
•• Step 4: On the bottom right-hand corner of the paper, draw a 5 cm circle.
Leave about a 3 cm margin at the edge of each side of the paper. Inside the
circle, draw a smiley face.
•• Step 5: For the last object, draw a 5 cm equilateral triangle in the top right-
hand corner of the page.

Let learners swap papers. Also show them what their figures should have looked
like and where they should have been placed on the paper (Hayden s.d.).

Apart from using recipes to teach learners to listen to instructions, you can also
give them a copy of a map of a small rural town, such as the following:

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FIGURE 3.1
Using a map to teach listening skills (adapted from Knoetze et al, Artist: Nadia Nel)

The learners then have to execute all kinds of instructions and indicate where
they are located. A possible command could be: “First establish where the school
is. Then follow the main road that passes in front of the school in the direction
of the station. Turn left at the fourth street and walk straight up to the third
street. Now turn left. What do you see on your right-hand side?” This activity
can be integrated with speaking by letting learners work in pairs. Each learner
must then give the other learner instructions and the other learner must say
where he or she ends up.

3.9 ‌USE LEARNING SUPPORT MATERIALS

By “learning support material”, we mean something that will interest the learners.
It might be a picture, an object, a model, a map or a recording – it may be simple
or complicated. Try using something that is linked to the story, poem, recipe or
whatever listening text learners are listening to; the learning support material
should encourage the learners to take an interest in the text itself.

Ac tivit y 3h
1. Compile a mind map/spider diagram to summarise everything you
have learnt about listening so far. (In section 3.13.4.1 of this learning
unit you will see examples of how spider diagrams/mind maps should
be drawn.)
2. The following video clip on You tube contains interesting information
about the teaching of active listening. It has been watched more than
250 000 times and got 820 likes.

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“Active Listening” by Optimal Lifestyle at https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=z_-rNd7h6z8.

Did you already know some of the techniques shown in the video, or were some
of them new to you? From the video we have noticed that you should teach
learners that active listening involves the following: stay focused and keep eye
contact; don’t think about what you are going to say next, rather concentrate
on what the person is saying; allow for period of silence and wait for the other
person to finish what he is saying before barging in; repeat or paraphrase the
other person’s words from time to time, to show that you are listening and to
check understanding; try to understand the emotions behind the speaker’s words.

3.10 TEACHING ACTIVITIES DESIGNED TO DEVELOP LEARNERS’

LISTENING SKILLS
Below we will discuss a variety of sample teaching activities that you could use
to develop learners’ listening skills. There are many other possibilities. We will
discuss only a few activities here and you will have to decide how you are going
to plan for pre-listening, while-listening and post-listening activities.

•• Let learners listen to a recording of a radio advertisement. While listening, get

them to write down examples of words that indicate the speaker’s feelings
of alarm, happiness, satisfaction, etc. Let them identify the main message of
the advertisement. A telephone number or address are often given during
advertisements. Get the learners to write a letter to the company whose
advertisement they have just listened to in order to enquire about something;
the learners could role-play a telephone conversation between themselves
and somebody from the company. (Can you see how listening is integrated
with writing and speaking?)
•• Use classified advertisements from a newspaper and read them in class or
record an advertisement on the radio. (The level of difficulty should be adapted
according to the grade and the language group.) Then ask questions about
the content. The learners must establish how much they can remember. Here
is an example of an advertisement for a puppy that is for sale.

Puppy for sale

Boston terrier puppy available for adoption. Last one of litter. He is vet-checked
and vaccinated. Very energetic and good with kids. Friendly, playful and house-
trained. Call 083 4567007 between 16:00 and 20:00.

Integrate this activity with listening by letting learners role-play the telephone
call, where one learner is the dog owner and the other one wants to buy the dog.
You can also do vocabulary building (e.g. What does the abbreviation “vet” stand
for? What does “litter” mean? What does “vaccinated” mean? Is it acceptable to
use “kids” instead of “children”?)

You can also read the following “advertisement” to learners and ask them to
indicate what the differences between the two advertisements are:
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Dog for sale

I need to re-home a dog. It’s a small terrier and tends to bark a lot. If you’re
interested, let me know and I’ll jump over my neighbour’s fence and get it for you.

Remember that you can also use these two advertisements for a reading lesson.

•• Help learners to understand that stressing different words in a sentence

gives the sentence different meanings. Do this by using a simple sentence
and showing them how stress can change the meaning. Start, for example,
with the following sentence: “You think I saw the monster.” Ask them what
the sentence means. Then stress one word in the sentence at a time and let
them talk about how the meaning of the sentence changes when a different
word is stressed:

−− You think I saw the monster. (You are the one who thinks it is true.)
−− You think I saw the monster. (This is what you believe, but you do not
have any proof.)
−− You think I saw the monster. (Maybe someone did see the monster, but
it was definitely not me.)
−− You think I saw the monster. (I did something in relation to the monster,
such as drawing it or dreaming about it, but I may not have seen it.)
−− You think I saw the monster. (I saw something, but it may not have been
the monster.)

You can do the same with sentences such as “I said she may consider a new
haircut” or “I don’t think she must be appointed as head girl”.

•• The learners can listen to a short conversation between two people (e.g. a
debate between classmates or on a radio) and then they must distinguish
between facts and opinions. They must also be able to give the main idea
of each speaker’s argument in one sentence. They must also indicate who
they agree with and why.
•• Learners can work in pairs. Each learner gets the opportunity to conduct an
interview with the other learner. The learner conducting the interview should
take notes, which should then be used to write an essay on the learner they
interviewed.
•• Listening can be integrated with the reading of literary texts by, for example,
reading a poem without a title. The learners should then suggest their own
title for the poem.
•• A news article is rearranged so that it has no logical order. Learners get a copy
of theis jumbled article. You could then read this illogical news article and
get the learners to rearrange the paragraphs in a logical order.
•• Wordplay refines learners’ pronunciation, increases their vocabulary and
also helps them to become aware of how words relate to one another and
are combined in sentences. Activities may include asking learners to

−− think of pairs of words that rhyme (e.g. cake and bake, cold and told)
−− identify rhyming word in poems
−− think of substitutions (e.g. Little Bo-Beep lost her sheep versus Little Bo-
Bog lost her dog)
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−− make rhymes by providing them with a sentence and telling them to

supply a word that rhymes with the final word of the previous line. The
learners could take turns to supply a word. For example:

I bake a cake
For a snake
Before he slithered into the lake,
saying: “For goodness’ sake! Give a snake a break!”

3.11 INTEGRATING LISTENING WITH OTHER SKILLS

We have already indicated that the CAPS prescribes that language be presented in
an integrated way. Short listening and speaking activities should be practised daily,
but longer, focused activities spread throughout the week are also important.
It is especially these longer “focused activities” that should be integrated with
the other skills and with language structures and conventions. Remember that
the CAPS prescribes a text-based approach (CAPS 2011:12). The listening text
that you use to teach listening skills will then form the text on which reading,
writing and language teaching is based.

How can you integrate listening with other skills (speaking, reading and writing)?
Here are a few ideas:

•• Integrating listening with reading and viewing

−− Read a section from a set-work, prescribed book or class reader and ask
learners to identify the type of narrator (first person or third person).
−− Get learners to listen to a suitable part of a radio drama and indicate those
factors that create tension.
−− Read a poem to the learners and ask them to indicate the mood of the
poem and to write down what helped to create the mood.
−− Read a poem aloud without giving the name of the poem. Then ask the
learners to provide an appropriate title for the poem.

•• Integrating listening with written work

−− Read a paragraph to the learners and then ask them to write down – in
only one sentence – the main idea of the paragraph.
−− Read two (short) texts to the learners: the texts should deal with the
same subject, but have different styles of writing or be written from two
different perspectives. Learners must then evaluate the texts in terms of
the different points of view, differences in the use of language and style,
how the subject is explained, and so on.
−− Read a text to the learners and then ask them to identify and write down
some of the following aspects: assimilation, assonance, personification,
stereotyping, etc.

•• Integrating listening with speaking

−− In a group discussion, ask the learners to verbalise one another’s points

of view.
−− Read a story and let learners retell it in the correct order
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Ac tivit y 3i
Watch the following video clip and then answer the questions:
“Part 4: Example of a teacher using a radio news broadcast to develop listening
skills” by OER Africa, at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lxMXl_o5HZ0.
In what ways is the listening activity featured in the video effective? Can
you suggest any changes or additions to the activity that would make it
more effective?
If you have internet access and do some searching on www.youtube.com,
you will see that there are many video clips with listening activities for
learners. If you find any good activities, share them with your fellow
students in the relevant Discussions space on the e-tutor site.

3.12 ASSESSING LISTENING

When assessing listening, it is important to remember that listening tests are not
necessarily memory tests. A point that cannot be overemphasised, especially with
regard to home language teaching, is that listening tests should not deteriorate
into memory tests. It is not a good idea to ask too many follow-up questions that
simply test the learners’ ability to remember. Ask one or two memory questions,
but concentrate on insight questions, such as the following: How do you know
that ...? From what could you deduce that ...? What do you understand by ...?
Do you agree with ...? Did anything bother you? Which word indicates that ...?
What shows the person’s ...? Give two examples of ... In what way ...? In your
opinion, what was the reason for ...? What conclusions can you draw from ...?
Many reasons have been cited. Which do you consider the most important? Do
you think that ...?

The most important aspect in a listening text is not what is said, but how it is said.
It is also important to test the listeners’ understanding of the meaning conveyed
by the tone, raising or lowering the voice (speaking louder or softer), speaking
faster or slower, emphasis, sound effects, gestures, attitude and language.
(Language is used differently in formal and informal situations, such as “Howzit!”
when greeting a friend, but “Good morning, Sir” when greeting a teacher.)

Reflecting on the listening task

Learners always need to reflect on their listening activity. It helps to give learners
guidelines for particular listening situations. The following types of questions will
enable a learner to determine if his or her listening experience was productive:

•• Was I able to determine the main idea of the presentation?

•• Did I wait until the entire presentation was finished before I judged it?
•• Did I try to understand how the presentation has been organised?
•• Did I keep in mind what I was listening for?

You can discuss these and other questions with the learners. Include these
questions on a self-assessment sheet that you give to the learners. Each learner
will then be able to assess his or her own listening experience.
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Ac tivit y 3j
Before turning to the section on the teaching of speaking skills, revise what
you have learnt about the teaching of listening by reading the following
scenario and then answering the questions that follow:
The theme that the Grade 5s are working with is pets. Ms Naidu enters
the classroom and announces that today’s lesson is going to be a listening
lesson. She asks the learners to listen attentively while she reads a
newspaper report about a child that was bitten by the neighbour’s dog.
She then asks the following questions, which the learners have to answer
in writing: How old is the injured child? What was the name of the dog
that bit the child? When was the child bitten by the dog? On which part
of her body was the child bitten? To which hospital was the child taken?
What happened to the dog after the incident? She then reads the answers
out aloud and the learners mark their own work.
1. Ms Naidu did not present a very good listening lesson. Why not?
2. What advice would you give Ms Naidu in terms of the following:

2.1 activities that she could do during the pre-listening phase of the
lesson
2.2 activities she could have expected from learners during the
while-listening phase
2.3 how she should have handled the post-listening phase
2.4 how she could improve the assessment of learners
2.5 how she could integrate listening with speaking, reading, writing
and language structures and conventions

Ms Naidu’s lesson was poorly presented, because she did not follow the framework
of doing pre-, while and post-listening activities.

Knowing how to listen is just as important as knowing when and how to speak.
Let’s now see how you can teach speaking skills to learners.

3.13 TEACHING SPEAKING

It usually takes me more than three weeks to prepare a
good impromptu speech.
Mark Twain

There are always three speeches, for every one you actually gave. The one
you practiced, the one you gave and the one you wish you gave.
Dale Carnegie

3.13.1 Introduction
Speaking instruction presupposes a very active learner who is constructively busy
with activities such as word choice, sentence construction, formulation, narration,
description, and the like. The ultimate purpose is effective communication.
Speaking skills must be taught purposefully.
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3.13.2 What the CAPS says about speaking

We have already indicated in section 3.2 what the CAPS says about speaking
and listening. It would be a good idea to page back to this section to refresh
your memory before continuing.

3.13.3 ‌The important role of the teacher

Talking needs to be natural and its purpose must be clear. Learners must feel
free to take risks and be confident that any contribution they make is valued.
The role of the teacher in this activity cannot be underestimated. After all, it is
the teacher who should encourage responses from the learners and then have
enough confidence in their capabilities to keep a low profile throughout much
of the subsequent discussion.

The teacher’s contribution to classroom conversation must be to guide the

conversation and prevent digression from the topic, but he/she should also
have realistic expectations of his/her learners’ abilities by remaining objective.

Meaningful oral exchange depends on the teacher sharing some of the learners’
interests. This might mean that you will have to watch a few children’s programmes
on television, attend a sports event at school or get involved in some other
children’s activities in order to be able to elicit responses from the children. In
this regard, set yourself a goal to

•• watch a children’s programme on television or a family movie on circuit

•• attend a rugby, netball, soccer or other sports event that interests your learners
•• visit a shop to see what toys, games and books children of your learners’ age
are currently playing with

Discuss any of the above with the learners in class to start a purposeful discussion
and to give them time to express their opinions.

3.13.4 ‌Unpacking speaking

During the Intermediate Phase, learners will probably speak more than they
write. Their communication culture would thus be mainly oral in nature. However,
this doesn’t mean that their communication will be satisfactory. Learners of
this age often speak spontaneously about things that happened to them, but
their stories are often unplanned, not well-thought-out and therefore difficult
to follow. You will also find learners who value their own speaking ability so
little that they seldom speak of their own accord or ask questions if they don’t
understand something. These issues – as well as the issue of self-confidence in
speaking – must be dealt with in the classroom. To help learners to improve their
oral skills as they progress through the IP, teachers should focus much attention
on each learner’s production of speech, his/her ability to converse with others
and the ability to communicate successfully in a group situation.

Spoken language enables people to talk about social and emotional issues. For
the developing child at this age, social and emotional issues are most likely to
involve bullying, name-calling, problems with siblings, parents who are divorcing
or ill, etc. As the teacher, you need to acknowledge the emotional element in
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your learners’ conversations and, especially, teach them to deal effectively with
these emotions.

People try out new ideas and opinions by talking about them first. Therefore,
speaking about new ideas is a powerful way to introduce other learners to these
ideas and help them to develop their own opinions. Whether others agree with
them or not, it is still important for children to express their points of view verbally.

Learners’ speech will improve as they practise. Therefore, they should:

•• experiment with language sounds, rhythm, volume, pitch and words

•• describe events or sequences of events
•• ask clear questions and respond to the answers they receive
•• describe what they see on posters or pictures and tell stories about them
•• give messages to other persons
•• participate in conversations (dialogues) with other children and with adults
•• take part in group discussions with other children
•• take part in creative dramatic activities, such as role-play and concerts

3.13.5 Teaching learners how to present a prepared speech

The framework for teaching speaking consists of a pre-speaking, a speaking
and a post-speaking phase.

3.13.5.1 Pre-speaking activities

Apart from having to retell stories (which could be integrated with the teaching
of listening), learners also need to be able to present a prepared speech. As an
adult, have you ever had to deliver a speech in front of an audience? If you have,
you will know that the first step when preparing a speech is to have an idea of
who the target group is. If, for example, you have to deliver a prepared speech
on good health to a group of pre-primary school learners, it will obviously differ
considerably from a speech on good health to a group of doctors or pharmacists.
Likewise, a speech on good health to athletes will differ from a speech on the
same topic to the elderly in an old age home.

When teaching learners to prepare a speech, therefore, you must first get them
to answer the following questions:

•• Who is the target group?

•• What kind of speech do I have to prepare (e.g. formal, informal, a report or
telling a story)?
•• What do I want to achieve with my speech (e.g. inform or entertain)?

Once learners have established who the target group will be, what type of speech
they will have to deliver and what they want to achieve with the speech, you
should do some fun and challenging vocabulary-building exercises with the
learners. Learners need vocabulary related to their topic to be able to prepare
thoroughly for their speech.

You also need to explain to learners that a speech usually has a beginning,
a middle and an end. The best way to explain this to learners is by showing
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them examples of speeches (these can be in written form so that reading and
speaking are integrated) and letting them analyse the beginning, middle and
end. This will familiarise them with what should be included in the beginning,
middle and end of a speech.

It is also a good idea to find examples of good speeches on YouTube and show
them to learners. They can then discuss in groups why a speech is considered
good or bad.

If you feel comfortable doing so, you could let learners read the prize-winning
speech on farts, presented by Sophie Paterson, a sixth grader from New Zealand.
It is available at http://napiermail.realviewdigital.com/?iid=54900&startpage=p
age0000024&xml=Napier_Mail.

Sophie’s brother was standing next to her to hold up diagrams that further
explained the topic. The introduction to her speech was as follows:

Hi. Today I’m going to talk to you about farts.

Some people think farts are rude and some people think farts are funny,
like me.

Farting is a fact of life. Everybody farts. I think farts are hilarious.

The Queen farts, superstars fart and I fart. We will fart until the day we die.
And apparently a person can still fart after death.

Joan Stewart (2012) writes that Sophie’s speech taught her the following about
public speaking:

•• Get outside your comfort zone.

•• Use visuals.
•• Use lists.
•• Use statistics.
•• End with a funny poem. (Sophie ended with the following poem: “A fart can
be useful, It gives the body ease, It warms the bed in winter And suffocates
the fleas.”)

Learners must know that it is important to get listeners’ attention at the beginning
of a speech and, therefore, that an interest-arousing opening is necessary. The
following are possibilities for beginning a speech in an interesting way:

•• Opening with a quote. Finding a quote related to the topic of the speech will
set the tone for the rest of the speech.
•• Painting a “what if?” scenario. This will enable the learner to get the audience’s
attention immediately. If the topic for the speech is on an environmental issue,
the opening line could be: “Have you ever thought what the world would be
like if there were no trees?”
•• Using statistics or numbers. Using statistics or numbers as an opening
immediately alerts the audience to the seriousness of the issue being discussed,
such as the environmental disaster that will occur if we keep on using plastic
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irresponsibly. Consider the following example: “Did you know that scientists
last week found 40 kg of plastic in a whale’s stomach?”

During the planning of a speech, you can make use of brainstorming. The learners
can brainstorm what they think should be included in the beginning, middle and
end of a speech on a specific topic. Remember that the topic must be related
to the theme that you are covering in the two-week cycle.

It might be necessary for learners to do research on their particular topic before

they can prepare a speech. Therefore, you will need to encourage the learners
to read interesting articles (during the reading and viewing lesson) on the topic
before they can prepare the speech.

Learners should be helped with the actual planning of their speech. One way
to do this is to let them draw a mind map or spider diagram. This can be done
as follows:

•• The learners write the topic in the middle of a page and draw a circle around
it. Then they draw lines radiating out from the circle.
•• Next they need to decide on a few main points that they wish to discuss and
write them down next to the lines.
•• Then they draw shorter lines from the main ideas and write down supporting
ideas.
•• Thereafter, they write down the main points in sequence on the page so that
they know what to say.
•• They can then use the “skeleton” to write a full speech.

Learners may write their entire speech on small cards, but should take care not to
read the whole speech, as they will need to make eye contact with the audience.

Learners should be encouraged to prepare well so that they know exactly what
they want to say.

3.13.5.2 The actual speaking activities

Explain to learners that the following seven-point plan for speeches should be
used when they present their speech (Smit 2000:116-117):

(1) Speak enthusiastically, with self-confidence and conviction:

−− with an attitude of “I want to say something and I will say it”

−− be yourself

(2) Speak directly to the audience:

−− make eye contact

−− do not refer to your cards too often (learners should preferably write
key words of their speech on small cards instead of reading it off from
a A4 page)

(3) Give your speech a structure:

−− start with an introduction that will interest the audience

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−− give a short outline of your speech

−− name the main ideas you will discuss
−− expand on the main ideas
−− end with a striking conclusion

(4) Use an appropriate tone of voice:

−− alternate sentences with exclamations, humour or direct quotations

−− emphasise certain words and ideas
−− make use of facial expressions
−− do not use your hands too often

(5) Argue and weigh up matters against each other:

−− do not only mention facts, but expand on them

−− use expressions such as “Let us look at ...., for example”
−− give practical examples so that the audience can follow you
−− give possible solution(s)

(6) Give your own point of view:

−− use expressions such as “My understanding is ... “, “I am convinced that ...”

−− researched facts should only reinforce your opinion–facts based on your
experiences are the most effective

(7) Use the latest information:

−− in the media
−− in newspapers, on the radio, on TV and the Internet

Most people are tense when speaking in front of others. If you teach your learners
at a young age to control their tension, it will help them for the rest of their lives.
Let learners do the following five exercises, recommended by Joseph Guarino
(2017) who is a public speaker by occupation, at the beginning of a prepared
speech:

Diaphragmatic Breathing: Take a couple of slow, deep breaths, breathing in

through the nose (NOT the mouth) and slowly out through the mouth. This
exercise must teach learners to contract and expand the diaphragmatic muscle
(the muscle just below the lungs) known as the diaphragm in order to facilitate
breathing. This helps to control their nervous energy and slows them down
before they start.

Neck and Shoulder Rolls: As stress and anxiety usually affects the upper back
and neck it can cause pain and discomfort in these areas. Neck and shoulder
rolls can help relieve upper body muscle tension and pressure.

Arm stretches: Let them do arm stretches to loosen them up and allow them to
better make use of body language while speaking. By clenching and stretching
their hands and then shaking them out, one can control fidgeting which can
occur when one is nervous.
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Waist twists: Let learners put their hands on their hips and turn from side to
side. This will help them to get rid of stress that may be manifesting in their back.

Forward stretch: This will also help to alleviate pressure.

You can also advise learners to imagine chewing a very large toffee to exercise
facial muscles and reduce any tension in the face.

Bear in mind that the atmosphere in your classroom will determine whether
learners are more or less tense in your presence.

3.13.5.3 Post-speaking activities

Recordings can be used successfully for post-speaking activities. Learners can
analyse their progress by listening to recordings of their own presentations. A
learner’s willingness to take part in self-assessment is mainly determined by his
or her own progress. By using this method, learners can reduce or eliminate their
shortcomings, analyse their progress and plan how to improve.

3.13.6 Speaking skills to be taught

Apart from the retelling of stories and prepared speeches, learners also need to
participate in discussions, use interaction strategies to communicate effectively
in group situations, respond to others’ ideas with empathy and respect, listen to
and give directions, read a poem (select tone and expression appropriate to the
content and style of the poem, use appropriate intonation, facial expression and
body language, adjust tempo, etc), engage in role-plays, discuss social values,
ask relevant questions, present unprepared (impromptu) speeches, act out a
story, etc (CAPS 2011).

As can be seen from the above activities listed in the CAPS, group work is an
important part of the speaking programme. A shy child who finds it difficult
to speak in front of the whole class may find it easier to talk in a small-group
situation, where he/she can talk quietly and where a feeling of security exists.
Such learners should progress from engaging in conversations with a friend
to participating in a small group, to being more responsive in class, to giving a
brief oral report and, eventually, to achieving greater success in public speaking
situations.

•• Speaking activities in groups or pairs

Speaking activities can take place in a group context or during pair work (two
learners working together). In a group context, everyday communication
situations should be created and learners should then be expected to act out
these situations. Examples of activities that can be acted out in these situations
are:

•• shopping
•• complaining about something
•• disagreeing over something
•• preparing an apology for something you failed to do
•• becoming angry about something
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 L E AR N I N G U N I T 3: L is te ni n g a n d sp e a k i n g i ns t r u c t i o n

•• asking for and giving directions

•• refusing to do something
•• asking someone to do something

Learners work in pairs to do the above-mentioned speaking activities. One

learner could be the shop assistant, while the other is the client, for example.

You could also divide learners into groups and let them plan an excursion or
find a solution to a problem within their groups. Let them, for example, read
the letter below that was written by a child to an “agony aunt” in a magazine.
Then ask them, as a group, to suggest solutions to the problem raised by the
child. One of the learners in the group must give feedback to the class on their
advice to the child.

Dear Agony Aunt

I am eleven years old and in Grade 6. I used to do very well in my school work,
but recently lost all interest. The reason for this is my parents. When I get 80%
for a test, they want to know why I didn’t get 85%. I am playing in the school’s
under 11B netball team, but that is not good enough for them; they want me to
play for the A-team.
My brother, who is in Grade 10, was the head boy of the school when he was in
Grade 7 and won many awards for sport and academic work and my parents are
always comparing me with him. It makes me feel as if I am just a disappointment
to them. I feel useless.

A group activity that learners usually enjoy is when the teacher cuts up a comic
strip and asks them to arrange the pictures in the correct order. The first group
to arrange the pictures in the correct order and explain why the pictures must
be in that particular order are the winners.

Learners may be asked to make a collage of themselves. In other words, they

stick on a piece of cardboard photographs of themselves, words that describe
them or magazine pictures that they can identify with (e.g. a soccer player, if
they love soccer, or a musician, if they love singing). They then speak about
themselves with reference to the collage. The other learners (and the teacher)
may also pose questions with reference to everything they see on the collage.

•• Group discussions

The teacher should not feel guilty or concerned that discipline has broken down
if directed, purposeful talk goes on in the classroom. Talking to others stimulates
thinking and can lead to innovative ideas.

Informal, directed discussions may include any of the following:

•• talking about events that occurred during the past 24 hours, such as news
events, sports events, movies or plays watched
•• talking about books the learners have read or are currently reading
•• telling of events that took place at home, such as a visit from grandparents
or a special dinner
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•• discussing an event, such as the Academy Awards, the latest Bafana Bafana
match or International Book Day
You should have no difficulty in adding to this list.
•• Role-play
Use your creativity so that learners can enjoy role-playing. For example, you
could ask the learners to act out a section from their set-work/prescribed book.
•• Story telling
Telling the class about everyday events or retelling stories, fables, films or
television programmes should happen frequently.
•• Riddles and jokes
Children at this age love riddles and jokes. Setting a riddle to be solved or telling
an appropriate joke is an especially inventive way to win over a class at the
beginning of the year; it can even be used successfully to win over learners with
a negative attitude to school. This activity can develop these learners’ interest
and persuade them that school can be fun. Jokes and riddles can also lead to
and encourage reading, as children turn to books to find new jokes and riddles.
For children to remember a joke, it is important that they understand and
remember what is said. Telling jokes also helps children to memorise and
understand a sequence of events. Remembering the punchline of a joke calls
for a good memory and a sense of drama.
•• Complete a story
Start an activity by telling learners a story, but then stop at a given point. In their
groups, learners must then make up an end for the story. The group leader tells
the group’s ending and a class discussion can then follow on differences and
similarities between the different groups’ endings. The story must preferably not
be too long and must not be taken from an existing story. Look, for example, at
the following story from Knoetze, Kellerman and Mouton (1974:19):
One day Sipho had to take a message to Ms Tabane. Upon arrival he
dropped his bicycle next to a tree and knocked on the door. However,
Ms Tabane was not home and he turned around. But then he noticed Ms
Tabane’s dog standing next to his bicycle.
Individual oral activities may also take the form of a demonstration (e.g. how
to operate an appliance, how to prepare a meal or how to repair an appliance).
Before learners can present a demonstration, you should give them guidelines
on how to give presentations. They must know that a demonstration takes place
step by step and that they need to use words such as “before”, “first”, “second”
and “lastly”.
•• Quizzes
Each learner gets an opportunity to describe a place in the school grounds and
the other learners must then identify the place.
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You are probably familiar with the well-known game called “It’s my secret”.
It goes like this: One learner must think of an object or person or event and
the other learners try to discover what it is by asking questions. The learner
being questioned may answer only “yes” or “no”, so the learners must phrase
their questions very carefully, since they get to ask only 20 questions. Suppose
the learner is thinking of a boat. Learners could ask questions such as: “Are
you thinking of something that is alive?” The learner will then answer “no”.
Another question could be “Can it be eaten?”, and so on. This type of activity
can be combined with a language structures and conventions lesson when
questioning is being taught.

•• Giving directions and instructions

Skills in giving directions should be practised and accuracy, sequence and

delivery should be stressed. Learners may give directions for playing games,
performing a science experiment, preparing a certain dish, or the way to a
learner’s home. The language used must be organised and presented in terms
that everybody understands. Conciseness and clarity of the message are essential.
Giving directions or instructions could be done by means of “show and tell”.

•• Debating

Debating is usually considered for the senior grades, but can be successfully
employed in the junior grades as well. Debating calls for the preparation of a solid
argument. Usually two learners present one side of a problem and two others
present another side to the problem. A debate is a good listening experience
for the audience, too, as members of the audience judge for themselves which
argument they agree with and which pair of speakers is most convincing.

•• Prepared and unprepared reading aloud

Prepared and unprepared reading should be done in the classroom. Poetry can
also be incorporated, as it helps to create a positive atmosphere and provide
opportunities for creative involvement. Let learners practise the following when
doing prepared reading:

•• reading with expression, varying their tone and pace and stressing certain
important words
•• projecting their voice
•• making eye contact with the class while reading, without losing their place
in the text
•• interpreting punctuation marks correctly

To assist learners in reading aloud, let them do the following preparatory exercises:

•• Read the same sentence in different ways to portray different emotions (e.g.
livid, disappointed, sad or happy).
•• Read in different tones (e.g. enthusiastic, as if you were a disc jockey, or serious,
as if you were reading a news bulletin).
•• Read at different pitches (e.g. with a high-pitched voice or with a deep, low
voice).
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55 TM N3702 /1


•• Read at different paces (e.g. at a fast pace to show excitement, or slowly to

emphasise something).
•• First read as incomprehensibly as possible and then as comprehensibly as
possible.

3.13.7 Integrating speaking with other skills

Any picture or reading text may be used to initiate speaking. Take, for example,
the following, as proposed by Knoetze et al (1974:49):

Read the following story to the learners:

An old building that is being demolished is an interesting place, not so?

One Saturday afternoon Nkopodi and Bongani decided to investigate a
dilapidated building. When they reached the fifth floor, however, something
unexpected happened. They had just entered a room when a beam and
a mass of concrete broke loose in the passage and crashed against the
door. They were trapped.

Learners are asked to do the following:

•• Tell the story as Bongani would have told it to his parents when he finally
got home.
•• The police eventually rescued them. The constable had to report the incident
to the sergeant. What did he say? Start as follows: “Around four in the afternoon
a young girl dashed through the front entrance of the police station. She had
a note in her hand …”

This activity could be integrated with writing by letting learners write a short
newspaper article on the incident.

Ac tivit y 3k
There are many videos on www.youtube.com, with ideas for speaking
activities for learners. If you find any good activities, share them with
your fellow students in the relevant Discussions space on the e-tutor site.
Also answer the following three questions and share your answers with
your fellow students in the Discussions space on myUnisa:
1. List five possible themes that you can use in the home language class
and indicate what topics you would allow learners to use to prepare
speeches. (The topics must be linked to the themes that you will utilise.)
2. Explain how you would make use of group work when teaching listening
and speaking.
3. Explain how you would go about integrating listening and speaking
with (a) reading and (b) writing by means of pre- and post-activities.

Learners should initially be allowed to talk about their own experiences, their
environment and people they know. The topics can become more abstract as
they progress.
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3.14 OVERVIEW OF THE LEARNING UNIT

We hope that you now have the knowledge you need to apply different methods
to develop learners’ listening and speaking skills. You must be able to purposefully
teach learners listening and speaking skills for different purposes, audiences
and situations. Now page back to the learning objectives that were listed at the
beginning of the unit and see whether you have achieved them. If you discuss
each of the following concepts, without paging back, you have achieved the
outcomes.

1. Guidelines in CAPS for teaching listening and speaking: ...............................

....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
2. The listening process:..................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
3. Objectives for listening: .............................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
4. A framework for teaching listening: ......................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
5. Pre-listening activities: ...............................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
6. While listening activities: ...........................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
7. Assessment of listening:..............................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
8. Preparation for speaking: ..........................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
9. Teaching speaking: ......................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

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10. Assessing speaking:......................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
11. Topics for speaking: .....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

3.15 CONCLUSION
Talking and listening activities do not require expensive resources. The creative
teacher will use resources from the environment or make simple materials.
What is vital, however, is that the classroom atmosphere be sympathetic and
encouraging so that learners will be able to express themselves freely.

Listening and speaking are central to learning and are important to the individual
in all areas of life. Mastering the complex art of effective communication opens
up further opportunities for personal growth.

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4 Learning unit 4

4 Teaching reading and viewing

Books are the quietest and most constant friends; they are the most
accessible and wisest of counselors, and the most patient of teachers.
Charles W Elliot

The more you read, the more things you will know. The more things that
you learn, the more places you’ll go.
Dr Seuss (I can read with my eyes shut)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Once you have worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:

•• define reading and the reading process

•• explain a framework for teaching reading
•• apply the teaching strategies for scanning and skimming in the classroom
•• show an understanding of the different reading activities that can be carried out
in the classroom
•• use reading for understanding in the language classroom
•• explain a number of literary concepts
•• discuss the teaching of visual material
•• discuss the teaching of poetry

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Reading is vital to learners’ language development, their ability to learn across
the curriculum and their ability to function as individuals in society and in the
world of work. Reading extends and enriches a learner’s experience of language
and of people. Teachers are urged to do all they can to encourage their learners
to read regularly and independently at home, thus broadening their knowledge
of literary and non-literary texts in general.

Ac tivit y 4 a
Before you read any further, think back to the reading instruction you
received at school and consider your own reading habits and what texts
you are familiar with that would be suitable for IP learners. Then answer
the following questions in your notebook.

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1. Can you remember some of the stories or books that you read in
primary school? If so, what was your favourite book?
2. Did you enjoy reading when you were at school?
3. Do you read children’s literature in the language that you intend to
teach?
4. Can you name a few books in the language that you intend to teach
that learners in the IP would be interested in?
5. Make a list of the poems in the home language that you are planning
to teach that would be suitable for learners in Grades 4, 5 and 6.
6. Apart from literary texts such as books, poems and drama, what other
types of texts can IP learners be introduced to?

We hope that you indicated that you love reading. Reading makes you smarter, it
introduces you to imaginary friends and it teaches you about human relationships,
moral values and the responsibilities of life. It takes you to places you have never
seen, it soothes you, develops your imagination, improves your analytical thinking
and writing skills and increases your vocabulary and memory.

If you want your learners to become good and avid readers, you have to be an
avid reader yourself. You are less likely to be successful in encouraging your
learners to read if you yourself do not enjoy reading. You need to be up to date
with the latest publications that learners in the IP will enjoy so that you can
recommend those books to them and also discuss those books with them. Can
you name a few books that IP learners would like to read? We certainly hope
so. Have you read a few of these books? Again, we really hope so. Learners in
the IP phase love poetry because poetry is like playing with words and learners
at this age still love to play. Are you familiar with Roald Dahl’s poetry? Find one
of his poems on the internet (https://www.roalddahl.com/blog/2014/october/
world-poetry-day-2015) and you will see what we mean. IP learners can even be
expected to learn short poems by heart and to perform them in class as part of
speaking lessons. Apart from stories, drama and poems, learners should also be
introduced to newspaper and magazine articles, advertisements, maps, graphs
and other visual texts, such as comic strips and cartoons.

Reading instruction should teach learners the purpose of reading. It should also
teach them to enjoy reading and then to think about what they have read. Part
of reading instruction is to expose them to a variety of post-reading activities,
in other words, oral and writing activities that are based on the reading task
they had to do (Honig 1996).

4.2 ‌WHAT THE CAPS SAYS ABOUT READING AND VIEWING

Before we continue, let’s look at what the CAPS says about reading and viewing.

Ac tivit y 4b
Read the part on reading and viewing in section 2.1.2 of the CAPS Home
Language (for the language that you are going to teach), as well as section
3.1 as it pertains to reading and viewing. Thereafter, read section 3.2 on
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the spread of texts across Grades 4-6. (Although these texts refer to text
types that learners should be taught to write in Grades 4-6, you must
remember that learners cannot be expected to write a particular type of
text, such as an official letter, an invitation or an advertisement, if they
haven’t first seen and read such a text.)
Now scan through the reading and viewing columns in section 3.4 of the
CAPS to get an idea of the content and skills that must be covered in the
three different grades in the Intermediate Phase.

The first guideline that the CAPS provides is that learners need to develop
proficiency in reading and viewing a wide range of literary and non-literary texts,
including visual texts. Learners need to understand how genre (i.e. particular
types or categories of text, e.g. short stories, drama, poetry, a business letter)
and register (i.e. different styles, such as formal or informal) reflect the purpose,
audience and context of texts. Guided group reading and pair reading must
gradually enable learners to do more independent reading. Reading always
needs to be reading with comprehension, so you will have to make sure that
learners understand what they are reading.

As with listening and speaking, the reading process consists of pre-reading,

while-reading and post-reading activities and the framework for teaching reading
therefore also consists of specific, planned pre-reading, while-reading and
post-reading activities. Did you notice the type of activities that need to be
performed during each phase, according to the CAPS? We will examine these
in more detail in this unit.

The fact that the CAPS prescribes a text-based approach to the teaching
of the language implies that teaching is based on the continuous use and
production of texts. The purpose of a text-based approach is to enable learners
to become competent, confident and critical readers, viewers, writers and
designers of texts. The point of departure in all language teaching should thus
be a particular text that is read before any other activity is done (e.g. listening
based on the text that is to be read at a later stage, writing an official letter
after learners have read and analysed a few official letters in class, and noting
certain language structures and conventions, based on the text). This implies
an integrated, text-based approach.

The genres that must be covered in the IP include folklore, short stories, drama,
poetry and visual texts, such as advertisements, cartoons, comic strips, diagrams,
graphs, tables and charts. You will also need to introduce learners to text features
such as titles, illustrations, headings, subheadings, headlines, numbering and the
format of different types of texts. The reading and viewing strategies that are
prescribed for this phase include skimming, scanning, inferring of meaning by
using word-attack skills and contextual clues, rereading, note-making, making
summaries, making inferences, explaining the writer’s point of view and drawing
conclusions or forming own opinions. When teaching visual literacy, aspects
such as persuasive techniques and emotive language, as well as the impact of
layout and design features (e.g. font types and sizes, headings and captions
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61 TM N3702 /1


and images), need to be addressed. We will address most of these aspects in

the rest of this unit.

4.3 ‌UNPACKING THE READING AND VIEWING SKILL

Modern life is characterised by phenomenal development and progress. We often
hear talk of an information explosion and, actually, this is a very apt description
if we consider that the entire volume of information in the world doubles
every five years; that, within our lifetime, there has been greater technological
progress than in all the previous centuries together; that more than 90 per cent
of all scientific inventions have been made in the past two decades; and that
approximately a thousand books are published every day – not to mention the
mass of reading material in the form of newspapers, magazines, brochures, and
online publications produced every day.

To have a meaningful life, to keep abreast of the latest information, to be well

informed, to be flexible and self-controlled (to be able to survive), people today
need to read proficiently and quickly. Ordinary people do relatively little writing
in their lives and are unlikely to appreciate literature, but reading and listening
skills (the receptive skills) are indispensable to them if they want to live meaningful
and responsible lives.

4.3.1 ‌Defining “reading”

Maley and Prowse (2013:165) explain how complicated reading actually is:

Reading involves the most incredibly complex, interrelated set of brain

processes humans ever have to engage in. When we read a text we
are decoding visual squiggles on paper, making connections between
these and sounds, understanding the literal meanings of the words, then
interpreting the writer’s intentions, situating the text in a linguistic and
social context, relating what we read to what we have read earlier in the
text, and to our previous world knowledge, visualizing and engaging in
inner dialogue with ourselves, asking questions – and all more or less
simultaneously.

Reading without comprehension is a meaningless activity. When reading, the

reader must look for meaning behind the written words. It is for this reason
that Dillner and Olson (1982:17) focus on comprehension (understanding) and
study-reading in their definition of “reading”. For them, reading is a complex
process that comprises different facets. They believe that reading is taught most
effectively when it is divided into three integrated skills: vocabulary skills, which
allow the reader to pronounce words and to give them meaning; comprehension
skills, which enable the reader to understand and apply the written material; and
study skills, which help the reader to use their vocabulary and comprehension
skills effectively. The meaning (background knowledge) that the reader brings
to the text and the meaning that the reader derives from the text are important
aspects of meaningful reading. Reading is thus an interactive, affective and
cognitive process between the reader and the text. It differs from individual to
individual, from level of development to level of development and from reading
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task to reading task (reading for comprehension, speed reading, reading for
relaxation, etc.) (Alexander & Heathington 1988:16).

4.3.2 ‌Reading as an active process

Reading is not a passive activity. You become involved in the text as you read,
you make predictions, you identify main ideas, you deduce certain information,
you agree or disagree with ideas, you construct meaning and form opinions. “You
bring to the act of reading your general as well as subject-specific knowledge;
your reading, educational and life experiences; your cultural background, beliefs
and values; your interests and your feelings. All of these things help you to
construct meaning of what you read’’ (McDonough & Shaw 2003:92).

Ac tivit y 4 c
Read the following paragraph and then state briefly what you think it is
about.
It is important, when playing, to hold your arms and hands correctly,
so that you can control your movements. Then, you need to practise
every day if you wish to achieve excellence. Warm up with simple
exercises to begin with, progressing to more demanding tasks.
Strings can snap unexpectedly and you will have to learn not to
become upset if this happens. A calm temperament is a very great
asset.
I think this paragraph is about ...................................................................................

What did you fill in? The first couple of sentences sound as if they refer to some
kind of sport, so you may have predicted the following: “This is going to be
about golf.’’ Then, when you read the sentence about strings snapping, you
might have thought: “Aha! Now I know; it’s about tennis!”

If you were to show this paragraph to a group of music students, however, they
might interpret it quite differently. The word “playing’’ would not make them
think of sport, but rather of a musical instrument. Such a reader might predict:
“This is going to be about playing the piano.’’ Then, after reading the sentence
about strings snapping, the music students might think: “Aha! It’s about learning
to play the guitar!’’

Well, which is it? You cannot know for certain unless you have more information.
A heading would help: If it were “Learn to play tennis’’ or “Learn to play the
violin’’, you would have known immediately. Or, if you knew the source where
the text was taken from, you could identify the topic. Was it from a book entitled
Becoming a good sportsman or A basic book for beginner musicians? If you had
known the title of the source that it was taken from, there would have been no
doubt about what the paragraph is all about.

What have you learnt about reading from the above exercise?
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This exercise demonstrates how reading can involve making predictions, drawing
conclusions and identifying the need to find more information. It also brings an
important aspect of reading to the fore: all readers (learners) bring particular
background knowledge with them to the reading process and that background
knowledge will, to a great extent, determine whether they will understand the
text and how they will interpret it.

4.3.3 ‌Bottom-up and top-down reading

What we have explained in the preceding section should always be kept in
mind when teaching reading because there are certain reading techniques and
strategies that learners can learn to ensure that they cultivate good reading
habits. We will pause for a moment to consider the top-down, bottom-up and
integrated reading processes because these processes have specific implications
for the teaching of reading as well.

A text may be approached in three ways:

(1) From the bottom up (actually, from the inside out) – this is called bottom-
up processing

Bottom-up models typically consist of lower-level reading processes. Students

start with the basics of letter and sound recognition, which, in turn, allows
for morpheme recognition, followed by word recognition, building up to the
identification of grammatical structures, sentences and longer texts. Letters,
letter clusters, words, phrases, sentences, longer text and, finally, meaning is
the sequence followed to achieve comprehension,

The phonic approach to teaching reading supports a bottom-up model. This

implies that readers have to break down a word into its smallest parts – the
individual sounds. When a reader comes to an unknown word, he/she is then
expected to sound out the word, based on his/her knowledge of the individual
units that make up the word. The blending together of the different sounds
then assists the learner in gaining comprehension. Criticism of this model is that
readers can become “word callers”, who can read the individual words on the
page, but do not understand what they have read.

(2) From the top down (actually, from the outside in) – this is called top-down
processing

Top-down models, on the other hand, begin with the idea that comprehension
resides in the reader. The reader uses background knowledge, makes predictions
and then searches the text to confirm or reject the predictions that are made.
A passage can thus be understood even if all the individual words are not
understood. Within a top-down approach to reading, the teacher should focus
on meaning-generating activities, rather than on mastery of word recognition
(Anderson 2003:71). The reader plays an active role and supplies more information
regarding meaning than the printed page does.

This implies that a text is best understood and analysed if we start with the title
and use that as the basis for anticipating what the text will be about. The format
in which the text appears is also taken into account in advance, and a number
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of predictions are made about the text before it is read. This is followed by a
detailed perusal of the text. The process entails understanding and interpretation.
Understanding depends on the pre-knowledge (existing knowledge) that the
learners bring to the text and their ability to relate the information in the text to
their existing knowledge. Thus, reading is a continuous interaction between their
pre-knowledge and the text. Then, depending on their existing knowledge or
pre-knowledge, readers will interpret the text in a particular way. This will often
differ from what the author intended and from the way others interpret the text,
because much of the meaning lies in the reader’s thoughts and is determined
by the knowledge of the world that the reader already has.

(3) Combining the bottom-up and top-down models – this is called interactive
processing

The model that is accepted as the most comprehensive description of the reading
process is the interactive model. Here, the reader combines bottom-up and
top-down approaches to reach comprehension.

McDonough and Shaw (2003:97) explain the connection between the two
reading models as follows:

In many cases an efficient reader appears to use what are called “top-
down” and bottom-up” strategies. This means that the reader will not just
try to decipher meaning of individual lexical items but will also have clear
ideas about the overall rhetorical organization of the text. The essential
features of the bottom-up approach are that the reader tries to decode each
individual letter encountered by matching it to minimal units of meaning
in the sound system (the phoneme) to arrive at a meaning of the text,
whereas with the top-down approach, the interaction process between
the reader and the text involves the reader in activating knowledge of the
world, plus past experiences, expectations and intuitions, to arrive at the
meaning of the text. In other words, the top-down process interacts with
the bottom-up process in order to aid comprehension.

It is thus clear that reading is an interactive process, based on the learner’s own
background knowledge and knowledge of the subject, topic of the reading text,
the reader’s culture (and the culture of the text) and interest, as well as their
knowledge of the discourse structure of the text (essay, letter, poem, lecture,
political argument). Raudenbach (s.d.) explains as follows:

For a transaction to take place in reading comprehension, readers must

provide something for the process. The writer provides words, but readers
bring their own experiences, which they use to interpret the text. For
example, many readers have their own concepts of how a hotel lobby
looks, what it feels like to take off in an airplane, and any number of scenes
or places that a writer may depict. Sometimes, the reader’s mental image
can take precedence over the writer’s own descriptions in the passage.
Before students read a passage, teachers can help students access their
prior knowledge by discussing elements in the story, including the problem
and setting, so the students can use that information to make sense of
the text.
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An important aspect of reading is thus to make sure that learners have the
necessary background knowledge and vocabulary before they start reading a
particular text.

Ac tivit y 4 d
Imagine that you are planning to read (1) a short, rhyming poem with your
class and (2) a magazine advertisement with photographs. What are some
of the top-down strategies that the learners will likely use to understand
both of these texts?

4.3.4 ‌What good readers do

What is a competent (good) reader? Devers (s.d.) lists the following 10 things
that good readers ALWAYS do:

(1) They reread when they don’t understand what they read.
(2) They make predictions before, during and after reading.
(3) They make connections to themselves, the world and other texts.
(4) They make pictures in their head while reading.
(5) They evaluate (judge) what they read and ask questions.
(6) They read accurately, quickly and expressively.
(7) They wonder and think about the text.
(8) They think about the events, characters or information.
(9) They figure out unknown words, using context clues.
(10) They read for pleasure and enjoyment.

Good readers do understand what they read, but often not initially; some effort
may be required to achieve understanding. If you feel that you have not grasped
the meaning of something, you first need to acknowledge the problem: “I don’t
understand what this means.’’ Then you need to find a way to “fix’’ your lack of
understanding. This is an important ability, which good readers usually develop.
(Perhaps I need to look up some terms in a dictionary; perhaps I should try to
restate what I have read in my own words; perhaps I need more information; or
perhaps I should look back to check something, such as a definition.)

The last possibility (i.e. referring back to material previously read) indicates two
things: not only do good readers not necessarily understand everything they
read the first time, but looking back purposefully to check something may
promote understanding.

It is your task as the home language teacher to make sure that all your learners
do what good readers do at the end of the IP.

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4.4 ‌WHY IS READING AND VIEWING INSTRUCTION IMPORTANT?

Recently, there was a poster on a lamp post advertising a newspaper with the
following headline: South Africa has a reading crisis!

This is so true. The reading crisis in South Africa is evident from the results of the
latest Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2016. Peter Rule
(2017) explains that the purpose of the PIRLS is to assess reading comprehension
and to monitor trends in literacy at five-year intervals. Countries participate
voluntarily. Learners write the test in the language of learning and teaching
used in Grades 1 to 3 in their school.

The tests revealed that 78% of Grade 4 pupils in South Africa fell below the
lowest level on the PIRLS scale, meaning, in effect, that they cannot understand
what they are reading. There was some improvement among learners writing
in Sesotho, isiNdebele, Xitsonga, Tshivenda and Sepedi, from a very low base in
2011, but no overall improvement in South Africa’s performance.

South Africa was last out of 50 countries surveyed. It came in just behind Egypt
and Morocco. The Russian Federation came first, followed by Singapore, Hong
Kong and Ireland.

South Africa also performs poorly in the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium
for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ) surveys. These show that in reading
and numeracy, South Africa is lagging behind much poorer African countries
such as Tanzania and Zimbabwe. In 2007, only 26% of learners acquired higher-
order reading skills by the time they were in Grade 6.

If learners cannot read with comprehension, they will not be able to perform
academically. Everything we need to learn is mostly done through hearing or
reading things. Reading is the vehicle used for learning all subjects. We learn
to read in order to learn through reading. It is thus clear that a lack of good
reading skills can have a detrimental effect on learning, as good reading skills
are important for learning all other subjects at school.

We hope you understand what an enormous responsibility you have in this

regard and that you will, therefore, pay close attention to the rest of this unit.

4.5 HOW TO TEACH READING

The ultimate aim of reading instruction is to teach the learners techniques
that will develop their general reading skills to the extent that they are able
to read for enjoyment and appreciation and/or with a view to gaining insight,
understanding and precise judgement.

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Ac tivit y 4f
Read the following scenarios and then answer the questions:
Scenario 1
Mr Mnguni, a newly qualified teacher, enters the Grade 4 classroom, greets
the learners, tells them to sit down and asks them to take out their readers.
There are 45 nine- and ten-year-old learners crammed together at desks,
huddled over books. Some are sitting on the floor. Not all of them have
books, so Mr Mnguni asks them to share.
“Now, class, read from the top of the page,” Mr Mnguni says. The
children comply in a slow sing-song drawl. Not all of them read out loud.
“Stop,” says Mr Mnguni. “It is not ‘Wed-nes-day’, you say it ‘Wensday”. It
is what?
“Wensday,” the class responds in a choir.
“Again.”
“Wensday.”
The reading resumes. Mr Mnguni frequently stops them to correct the
learners’ pronunciation.
Later, Mr Mnguni stops the reading and divides the learners into groups.
They then read aloud in their groups. Every now and then, Mr Mnguni stops
the group reading and calls a child to come to the front and read aloud.
(Adapted from Rule 2017)
Answer the following questions:
(1) Read the section 4.3.4 (What good readers do) again. Do you think Mr
Mnguni’s learners will become good readers? Why not?
(2) Did Mr Mnguni apply a bottom-up, top-down or integrated model
to teaching reading? Why do you say so?
(3) What advice would you give Mr Mnguni?

Scenario 1 that we described above is a real-life situation and, according to

Peter Rule (2017), is typical of how reading is taught in most South African
primary schools. Reading is largely understood as an oral performance, with
very little emphasis on reading comprehension and actually making sense
of the written word. Rule (2017) states: “If you were to stop the children to
ask them what the story is about, many would look at you blankly.”
So, how does Mr Mnguni actually need to proceed when teaching reading?
Read the following scenario to see.
Scenario 2
Ms Kubekha waits for the Grade 4 class at the door of her classroom. She
greets them while they enter her classroom and makes jokes with one or
two of the learners. When learners enter the classroom, they note that
she has written the following in large letters on the writing board: Good
readers identify a character’s traits using details from the text so they
can fully understand the character. Below that she has written: Sit in your
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groups. (Ms Kubekha divided the class into groups at the beginning of the
term, so they know which group they belong to.)
Ms Kubekha enters the class and tell learners that the title of the story that
they are going to read today is Pippy versus Big Betty Barry. She writes the title
on the board and ask them what the word “versus” means; when nobody
can answer her, she asks them to look the word up in their dictionaries. One
learner reads the definition in the dictionary out loud. Then Ms Kubekha
explains the meaning of the word in her own words and ask a few learners
to use the word in a sentence to show that they understand the meaning.
Thereafter, they talk a bit about what the “Big” in “Big Betty Barry” might
suggest. Some think that she might be older than Pippy, others that she
might be overweight, while one or two think that she might be a bully.
When Ms Kubekha asks them what they expect the story to be about, they
all agree that it would be about something that two girls did or something
that happened to them. Ms Kubekha then explains the meaning of two
unfamiliar words that they are going to come across in the story.
Before they start to read the story in their groups, she tells them that they
will meet two characters in the story. Their names are Pippy and Betty.
The two characters have distinct personalities and character traits. She
asks them to list character traits that people can have and write their
suggestions on the board. The class come up with the following words:
loyal, rude, loving, sincere, sly, nosy, friendly, mean. They decide which
ones are positive character traits and which ones are negative. Ms Kubekha
then says: “As you read, I want you to look for details from the story that
can help you identify Pippy and Betty’s traits.” She explains that you can
identify a character trait from what the character does, what he/she says
and what other characters say about him/her. She instructs the learners to
take turns to read out loud in their groups and then discuss the different
character traits of the two girls that they can identify in the story.
The learners read the short story out loud in their groups. Each learner gets
a chance to read and the others follow in their readers. Some learners have
to share readers, but because there are only five learners per group, they
can easily follow. Ms Kubekha goes from group to group, asks questions
and directs their attention to certain things in the story.
When the groups have finished reading, one learner from each group must
explain to the other groups what character traits they identified and how
they identified them. Ms Kubekha also asks the learners whether the story
is what they had expected. She then asks them whether they liked the
story or not and to give reasons for their answer. The story is about Big
Betty Barry, who bullied Pippy, so Ms Kubekha asks them whether they
have ever been bullied or whether they know someone who was bullied.

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Finally, she hands them the following worksheet to complete as homework

for the next day:

Book report fun!

Title: Author:
Plot: What was the story about? Problem/Conflict: Did the main
characters run into any problems?
......................................................................
Explain.
...................................................................... ...................................................................
...................................................................... ...................................................................
...................................................................... ...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Characters: Who were the main Your personal experience: What
characters? was your favourite part of the story?
...................................................................... ...................................................................
...................................................................... ...................................................................
Who was your favourite character? ...................................................................
Why?
...................................................................
......................................................................
....................................................................
...................................................................... Did you like the story? Why/Why
not?
......................................................................
...................................................................
What was her best character trait?
Why do you say so? ...................................................................
...................................................................... ...................................................................
...................................................................... ...................................................................
...................................................................... ....................................................................
What lesson have you learnt from
......................................................................
the story?
Have you ever done or felt some of
the things that Pippy and Betty did? ...................................................................
Explain.
...................................................................
......................................................................
...................................................................
......................................................................
...................................................................
......................................................................
....................................................................
......................................................................

PS. You can read the short story Pippy versus Big Betty Barry online at
the following website: http://www.short-story-time.com/stories-of-
bullying-pippy-versus-big-betty-barry.html
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Now answer the following questions:

4. What activities did the learners do before they read the story?
5. How would these activities have helped them to understand the story
better?
6. Did the learners read with a purpose? If so, what was it?
7. Why do you think Ms Kubekha asked the learners to say what they
thought a story with the title Pippy versus Big Betty Barry would be about?
8. Why did Ms Kubekha clarify unfamiliar words before learners started
to read? What other method could she have used to help the learners
grasp the meaning of unfamiliar words in the text?
9. What post-reading activities did Ms Kubekha expect from learners?
10. What are the advantages of letting learners read in groups?
11. The CAPS stipulates the following: “Gives and explains own feelings
and opinions about the text”. How did Ms Kubekha adhere to this
direction? (Mention two ways.)
12. How did Ms Kubekha succeed in integrating reading with speaking
and listening and writing?
13. Which scenario do you prefer – the first or the second?

When teaching reading, you need to follow the same framework that we
suggested for teaching speaking and listening, namely a pre-activity (or activities),
the activity itself and a post-activity (or activities).

It is clear that Ms Kubekha followed this approach. For pre-reading activities,

she did vocabulary clarification, as well as letting learners predict what they
thought the story was about. This motivated them to read the story to see if it
confirmed or disproved their expectations. By letting them think about character
traits of people that they know, she activated the learners’ pre-knowledge
(existing knowledge) about characters. As a post-activity, learners had to link
the story to their own personal lives (Were they perhaps bullied or did they
know someone who was bullied? How did Pippy handle bullying in the story?
Could they perhaps follow Pippy’s example next time they were bullied?) and
also say whether their expectations had been met in the story. The worksheet
was another post-reading activity in which reading was nicely integrated with
writing. The worksheet also succeeded in getting learners to really think about
the story and what they had learnt. The short discussion Ms Kubekha had with
learners on bullying integrated the reading lesson with speaking. By letting
the learners read in groups, she made sure that every learner in the class got
a chance to read out loud. (She had divided the learners into groups in such a
way that there were strong readers and struggling readers in the same group.
She thus made sure that the strong readers could assist the weaker readers with
their reading. If the learners had each had to read aloud individually, very few
would have had a chance to read in one period.)

4.5.1 ‌Selecting suitable reading material

When selecting reading material, you could rely on the learners’ textbooks
and set-works. However, it is an unfortunate fact that textbooks are not always
delivered to schools in time and that there are often not enough books for all
the learners. Additional reading material for extensive reading is also often not
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readily available. Have you noticed in the CAPS that it often refers to “Text from
the textbook or TRF” when indicating what texts need to be used. TRF stands
for “teacher resource file”. Being a language teacher, you should always be on
the lookout for authentic texts that could be used to teach language. Therefore,
buy a file and start building your own resource file now. Collect different types
of texts, such as those with visuals, newspaper and magazine articles that IP
learners would be interested in, posters, notices, advertisements, comic strips,
cartoons, diagrams, maps and weather reports; anything that you can use in
your teaching.

•• Take learners’ interests into account

When selecting texts, keep in mind the age group of IP learners. Learners in this
phase will typically be between 10 and 12 years of age. They face a number of
challenges during these years, such as puberty, bullying and dating. They struggle
with peer pressure because they want to fit in and they fear social rejection.
During this stage of their lives, they also start developing their own interests,
so you, as a teacher of this group of learners, should make a point of knowing
what these interests are. The best way to find out is to ask them, because you
will need to incorporate these topics in your teaching. Also be aware of national
trends involving children, such as the craze of fidget spinners or the rubric block.
Your learners might be interested in reading an article about the origin of those
spinners or the rubric.

It is a good idea, at the beginning of the year, to let the learners compile a list
of topics in which they are interested.

Here are a few questions that you could ask the learners to answer:

•• What or who would you like to know more about (e.g. a popular band,
breakdancing. etc)?
•• What are the things in the world that you are worried about (e.g. your younger
siblings, pollution, war, etc)?
•• What are the typical problems confronting your age group (e.g. gossip, gangs,
bullying, etc)?

You can then find texts that deal with these issues.

You should also let the learners choose interesting texts of their own. Discuss
the source of the text, the author’s intentions, its importance to the reader and
general characteristics of the specific genre (e.g. advertisement, magazine,
brochure). Talk to the learners about the things they find easy, difficult, simple
or boring to read.

•• The text should form a meaningful whole

Teachers are advised to use an entire text, rather than a section of a text. This
is essential because the context contributes to understanding the text, and an
excerpt does not always depict the context adequately.
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•• The text should be suitable for following a text-based approach

The CAPS clearly prescribes a text-based approach, which involves listening to,
reading, viewing and analysing texts to understand how they are produced and
what their effects are. The text-based approach also involves producing different
kinds of texts for particular purposes and audiences. The texts that you select
(especially the non-literary texts, such as advertisements and posters) must also
be used when teaching writing. We explained previously that you cannot expect
learners to write a letter to the press if they haven’t already read and analysed
a number of letters to the press.

Ac tivit y 4 g
Apart from the three aspects mentioned above, what other factors do
you think need to be taken into consideration when selecting texts for
IP learners?
List five poems in the home language that you are planning to teach that
you think IP learners will find interesting.
Share your answers with your fellow students in the relevant Discussions
space on the e-tutor site.

4.5.2 ‌A framework for teaching reading

When teaching reading, you need to make provision for pre-reading, while-
reading and post-reading activities.

(1) “Before reading” (pre-reading) activities stimulate learners’ interest and

curiosity, help them to anticipate the text and encourage them to put into
words their own experiences, views and feelings about the theme of the
reading passage. These activities may be viewed as an orientation to the text.
(2) “During reading” activities guide and check understanding and are based on
a series of suitable comprehension strategies. In other words, the content
of the text is thoroughly explored.
(3) “After reading” activities allow learners to respond to the text, to evaluate
the content and to relate these to their own experiences. At this stage,
learners are reflecting on the text.

Since these activities form the crux of the reading process, we will discuss each
of them in detail.

4.5.2.1 ‌Pre-reading activities

First of all, readers should orientate themselves to the text. This involves

•• activating prior (background) knowledge

•• looking at the source, author and publication date
•• looking at the book cover and the type of book it might be
•• reading the first and last paragraphs of a section
•• making connections to what they already know
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•• making predictions: What will the story be about? Are there clues that help
me to predict what is going to happen? What will I learn from this story/
reading passage?

Good readers do not start out by reading word for word; they first use a number of
orientation strategies, activating their prior knowledge to help them understand
the text. Because set readings (texts) at school are often presented in isolation
from their source (we tend to use a newspaper report, not the entire newspaper,
when we wish to discuss newspaper reports), extra attention should be given
to orientating learners to the text. This includes the following:

•• Closely examine the title, author, year of publication, source and arrangement
of content and do a quick scan of certain sections (scanning is discussed later
in this learning unit).
•• Examine the type of paper used and the number and nature of illustrations
(photographs, sketches), the layout, headings and subheadings. (These
immediately supply a good deal of information, indicate how the text should
be read and create considerable expectations about the text.)

In every case, the learners should be guided to ask themselves some prior
questions:

•• What type of text is it (letter, newspaper report, advertisement)?

•• Where are such texts usually found?
•• What is the purpose of this type of text? Where does this one come from?
•• Why do people read such a text (relaxation, study)?

To teach learners to orientate themselves to a text, you need to plan a broad

orientation with regard to the various types of texts available. Let learners find
their own examples of texts, such as a recipe book, magazine, poster, television
timetable, children’s book, the Bible, a dictionary, a school textbook for one of
their learning areas or a non-fiction book, such as a biography or autobiography.

The texts are then assessed in terms of outward appearance (learners describe
what they see), reader’s purpose (why do we read texts like this?), origin (where
does the text come from?) and the writer’s purpose (who wrote this text and why
did he or she write it?). If you can, show the class a French dictionary or a German
children’s storybook and let the learners discuss what kind of information each
book’s appearance gives about the type of book that it is – even though they
don’t understand French or German. Learners can also be asked to categorise
various kinds of texts (e.g. recipes, reports or instruction manuals).

Learners should realise that different types of texts could deal with the same
topic (e.g. a radio advertisement for a social event, an advertisement on television
for the same event, or a brochure or poster for the event).

Another way learners can be helped to orientate themselves to the text is to set
them a series of questions (e.g. What type of weather can we expect tomorrow?
When does the first bus leave for Skukuza? What does a computer with a built-in
modem cost?) and to give them different types of texts (e.g. a weather report,
bus timetable, advertisement). Then their task is to determine which texts to
use with which questions.
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Besides exploring the context of the text, experienced and good readers orientate
themselves to the content of the specific text. For instance, they would start
by glancing at and skimming chapter titles, subheadings, tables of content or
illustrations. This would help them to recall specific prior knowledge relating to
the text. Consequently, they would already have certain expectations regarding
the text. This is crucial to the understanding of a text. After all, we gain insight
when we relate new information to existing knowledge and judge it accordingly.
Learners should, therefore, read headings and subheadings and look carefully at
illustrations and captions; for longer texts, they should skim the table of contents.

Take any text and then ask yourself the following questions to orientate yourself
to the context and content:

(1) What is this text about?

(2) What do I already know about the subject?
(3) What would I like to know more about?
(4) What do I expect from the text?

Because you now have an overall impression of the content of the text, you can
set about reading it more purposefully, with specific questions in mind and with
extra attention. And just as you oriented yourself to the text in the preceding
exercise, so your learners need to learn how to do this.

Learners will initially need assistance with this step. You should go through the
questions with them and make them answer them aloud, or even get them to
write their answers down. The learners could also work in pairs and question
each other about the text, using the following questions:

•• What do you already know about the text?

•• What more would you like to know?

Let each of the learners write down a question that he or she thinks the text
would answer. Once they have read the text, they should say whether the text
actually met their expectations (as Ms Kubekha did). Skimming and scanning
exercises could also be integrated to facilitate the exploration of the content.
(Skimming and scanning are discussed later in this learning unit.)

To remind learners that it is always necessary to orientate themselves to a text,

the orientation questions could be posted up in a specific place in the classroom.

4.5.2.2 While-reading activities

Reading with comprehension is very important and, during the while-reading
phase, it is your task to make sure that all learners understand what they are
reading. They will need help with this. In the subsequent sections, we will discuss
eleven skills that learners need to be taught to use during the while-reading phase
to assist them to read with comprehension. These are as follows: (1) continuously
checking for understanding; (2) using contextual clues to find meaning versus
using a dictionary to find the meaning of a word; (3) using phonics or word-attack
skills to find the meaning of a word; (4) identifying how the text is structured/
organised; (5) considering persuasive and emotive language; (6) distinguishing
between facts and opinions; (7) making inferences; (8) identifying and evaluating
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the register of a text; (9) understanding denotation and connotation; (10)

identifying graphical techniques, such as colour, design, lettering, choice of
images and layout; and (11) using metacognition for improved comprehension.

(1) Continuously checking for understanding

While reading, learners need to check continuously whether they understand

everything. For example: “I didn’t understand that word, sentence, paragraph,
chapter, so I need to read it again or look up a word in the dictionary or try to
deduce the meaning from the context.”

(2) Using contextual clues to find meaning versus using a dictionary to find
the meaning of a word

Comprehension often goes hand in hand with vocabulary and it is therefore

important to do vocabulary building during reading class.

A good reader always tries to deduce the meaning of an unfamiliar word from
the context of the text or sentence in which the word appears. Learners should,
therefore, be given opportunities to practise this technique. A useful technique
is the cloze technique. This entails the deliberate omission of certain words or
phrases from a reading passage. The learners have the task of trying to deduce
from the context of the reading which words ought to be placed in the gaps. This
“guessing process’’ is actually one of the key techniques of a good reader. Good
readers are prepared to use the clues and cues in the meaning and context of the
text they have read to guess the meaning of several words and parts of words.
Because good readers do not need to “see’’ everything in order to understand
the text as a whole, they focus more fleetingly on words, thus improving not
only their reading rate, but also their comprehension.

Good readers may be given a more difficult cloze technique than weaker
readers. For example, every sixth word might be omitted, whereas in the case
of less proficient readers, only every ninth word would be omitted. (Remember
that a mark of 40% or less for a cloze exercise indicates that the text was too
difficult for the group or individual learner.) The cloze technique may also
be integrated with teaching of language structures and conventions by, for
example, leaving out all pronouns or verbs. The cloze technique promotes active
production of vocabulary, not just recognition. This technique can be used to
bolster vocabulary usage and free recall, reinforce grammatical knowledge and
structural recognition, and strengthen overall comprehension. Studies have
shown that young learners benefit far more from interactive activities, such
as a cloze exercise, when reading, than when they merely read a passage in a
course book (Ross 2017).

Note that teachers should not mark a word incorrect simply because the learner
has not given the identical word found in the original text. If the word makes
sense in the context, it should be viewed as correct.

Dictionaries can also be used to find the meaning of unfamiliar words. If you read
the CAPS, you will note that learners must be taught to use a dictionary as part
of teaching the reading skill. However, teach your learners that they should not
automatically look up every word that is unfamiliar to them, but should rather
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read further, since the meaning of a word often becomes clear as they proceed.
The precise meaning might also be unnecessary for an understanding of the
text. However, when a word occurs frequently and its meaning appears essential
in order to understand the main thrust of the text, or if the text suggests two
meanings for the word and the reader is not sure which is correct, a dictionary
may be used.

Learners will not know automatically how to use a dictionary. They need to be
taught that each page of the dictionary contains guide words, which show which
entries are covered on each page (e.g. “beggar” and “bellows” will appear on the
top of the page to show that all words between “beggars” and “bellows” appear
on that page). Teach them that the part of speech plays an important role in
determining meaning and that they should determine the part of speech of a
word before looking it up in the dictionary. The best is to let learners familiarise
themselves with the specific dictionary they are using, before expecting them
to use it.

You may be wondering what textual clues can help with meaning-making?
Nöthling (1988:6) recommends teaching learners, while they are reading, to be
on the lookout for textual cues such as the following:

•• a formal definition
•• explanations in brackets or in parenthesis (between dashes or commas)
•• elucidation by way of an example, description or comparison
•• an explanation later in the paragraph
•• a synonym or antonym
•• a contrasting description
•• the tone, mood or way of composing a sentence or paragraph

(3) Using phonics or word-attack skills to determine the meaning of a word

Phonics, or word attack skills, are important during any reading programme,
especially for young learners. Word-attack strategies help learners to decode,
pronounce and understand unfamiliar words. Learners learn to “attack” a word,
piece by piece, or from a different angle, If learners struggle with a word, you
can teach them to look for clues from pictures (e.g. are there people, actions or
objects in the picture that give them a clue to making sense of the word?) or
sound out the word, starting with the first letter and saying each letter sound
out loud, before saying the whole word. They may also look for familiar chunks
of words. They can, for example, analyse the word “personality” by breaking it
down first into “personal” and then “person”. Words can also be broken up into
parts by letting learners use affixes or syllables to guide them. For example, they
can use their knowledge of the prefix “dis” to figure out what “discharge” means.
Teach learners to reread a sentence if they do not understand it after the first
reading. You can also explain to them that if they do not understand a word,
they can keep on reading to see if the word is perhaps repeated later on in the
text. They can then compare the second sentence in which the word is used with
the first and ask themselves what word might make sense in both sentences.
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(4) Identifying the way the text is structured/organised

Learners should learn to recognise the characteristics of the specific type of text
(e.g. instructions, newspaper article, advertisement). After this, they should learn
to recognise the introduction, body and conclusion, plus the functions of each of
these parts of the text. They should know how to determine the central theme or
the main topic of a particular text. Next, they need to know and explore several
paragraphs. They should realise that each of the paragraphs has its own chief
topic or main idea, which forms part of the main idea of the text as a whole.
They should be able to see the relationships between the paragraphs. Last of all,
they should be able to indicate the relationships within and between sentences.

Reading with real comprehension thus requires an understanding of the

organisation of the text. While reading, readers should, as it were, be able to
form a mental scheme of what they are reading. They should form a pattern
that shows the relationships between main and supporting notions. Nöthling
(1988:8) explains that “structure’’ encompasses the following:

•• Each paragraph represents a new idea.

•• Paragraphs form units of meaning – they consist of a series of sentences
conveying one idea – hence the fact that each paragraph has one main idea
that is either directly stated or implied.
•• Sentences form part of a larger whole – the paragraph. And, depending
on its position in the paragraph, every sentence has its own characteristics.
Sentences might be introductory, summative or simply transitional. Some
sentences contain main ideas, while others contain supplementary details.
•• In addition, structural patterns of paragraphs are different. For instance, the
information in a paragraph could be presented chronologically, or points
could be compared or contrasted with similar points. In an argumentative
paragraph, there could be an initial statement, followed by an argument to
substantiate it. In paragraphs, information may be arranged from the general
to the particular or from the particular to the general.

To familiarise learners with structure, the variety of paragraphs and the role
played by these within the overall text, you should give them regular practice
in analysing paragraphs. Do structural exercises by letting learners:

•• Identify the theme of a sentence.

•• Identify the theme of a paragraph.
•• Identify the theme sentence in a paragraph.
•• Identify the main idea of a paragraph.
•• Indicate the connection between the main idea and the related paragraphs.
•• Formulate the main idea if it is only implied and not stated directly.
•• Rewrite the main idea in your own words.
•• Establish how the author arranged the paragraph.
•• Give the paragraph a suitable title.

For this purpose, the role of examples cannot be overestimated. Teachers should
have examples of every possible type of paragraph structuring in their classrooms.
Structure can be understood only if it is explained with the aid of good examples.
It would be a good idea for you to start by purchasing a file in which to collect
examples. Good, usable examples are, however, very scarce. Therefore, teachers
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often find it necessary to write their own good examples or to adapt an existing
paragraph or piece of reading text to illustrate certain examples.

When dealing with each type of text, you should draw the learners’ attention to
the structure of the text. You can let them do the following exercises to teach
them this:

•• Get the learners to indicate the introduction, body and conclusion of a text.
Then distribute texts that have been cut up into chunks and get them to
classify these into an introduction-body-conclusion sequence.
•• Give learners a piece of text from which the introduction or conclusion has
been omitted and ask them to write their own introduction or conclusion.
•• Have the learners describe in their own words the relationships between
paragraphs.
•• Let learners underline sentences or paragraphs that they do not understand,
despite the fact that they understand all the words in them. Discuss this
problem.

(5) Considering persuasive and emotive language

Different words can be used to evoke different reactions, and learners should
be made aware of these. Emotive language refers to words that are used to
evoke a specific emotion. It is often used to persuade or convince people to do
something or to convince them of something.

Adjectives can be used to create emotions, as can be seen in the following

example:

The defenseless victim was brutally attacked under the cover of night.

The phrases “defenseless victim” and “brutally attacked” are examples of emotive
language. They stir up a feeling of anger towards the perpetrator. Emotions can
be positive or negative, depending on the word choice. Think, for example, about
the difference between using a word such as “mad” as opposed to “mentally
disturbed”.

Exaggeration is another way in which emotions are stirred. Look, for example,
at the following examples:

Politicians will give you a million reasons why you need to vote for them, but
you should not believe even one of them.

Repetition is also a good way of stirring emotions:

Not one, not even a single one, could answer the question.

Ac tivit y 4i
What emotions did you feel when reading the last two sentences? Now read
the following abstract from a speech made by Dr Martin Luther King and
see if you can see how he uses emotive language to stir up his audience.
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“One hundred years later the life of the Negro is still badly crippled by the
manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred
years later the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a
vast ocean of material prosperity.”
What emotions do you think he wanted his audience to feel? Guilt?
Uneasiness? Agitation? Probably all of these.

(6) Distinguishing between facts and opinions

Learners should be able to distinguish between facts and opinions. Writers (of,
say, advertisements) often present opinions as if they were facts, thereby giving
a false impression that the writer is neutral and objective about the topic.

A fact is a statement or piece of information that is true and that may be proved
to be true. It is a statement such as the following:

Mr Buthelezi drives a BMW.

The truth of this statement can be ascertained and proved. An opinion, on

the other hand, simply expresses a feeling about a certain matter; it is not
necessarily true. Compare the previous statement with the following one:

A BMW is the best car in the whole world.

You have to point out the differences between facts and opinions while
learners are reading, as well as expecting them to identify opinions by
themselves while reading.

Learners need to be able to relate the difference between facts and

opinions – and the difference between objective and subjective language
usage – to the intention of the writer of the text. If the writer’s aim is simply
to furnish information, he or she should use objective, factual language.
If, however, the author’s intention is to exhort or persuade, then he or she
will resort to opinion and subjective language use.

(7) Making inferences

Inferencing is an important reading strategy that learners must learn. Tell them
that inferencing is like making an educated guess, in other words, a guess based
on observations and a logical conclusion about what is happening in the text
they are reading. It is almost like “reading between the lines”. When making
inferences, you are not stating the obvious; you are actually going beyond the
obvious. If you come to school wearing a Mamelodi Sundowns T-shirt, the obvious
statement would be that you are wearing a Mamelodi Sundowns T-shirt. But
learners will probably also guess, or infer, that you are a Mamelodi Sundowns
supporter. Or if a friend comes to school on crutches, you would infer that she/
he was injured in some kind of accident. Of course, our inferences could be
wrong. The fact that you were wearing a Mamelodi Sundowns T-shirt might
be because it was a gift from your brother and it was the only clean shirt you
had in your cupboard. Or the friend on clutches might have had an operation.
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Apart from letting learners make inferences from written texts, they must also be
able to do so from visual texts. You could begin by showing them a photograph
and then asking leading questions.

Source: Rapport, 7 April 2019, p 11.

For example, questions that could be asked about the above photograph are
as follows: Can bullets really come out of someone’s mouth? Why do you think
the bullets are coming out of the person’s mouth? What is symbolised by the
bullets? How do you know that the bullets are moving? Why are some of the
bullets bigger than others? What does this picture remind you of? Give a heading
for the picture.

What other questions can you think of to ask?

Once learners understand how to make inferences, you can let them use a picture
or photograph and ask them to make as many inferences as possible, based on
the picture/photograph.

You can also use a comic strip or cartoon and delete the dialogue. Learners can
then be requested to indicate their own dialogue in the speech bubbles to infer
what a character might be thinking.

(8) Identifying and evaluating the register of a text

The CAPS (2011:110) defines “register” as “the use of different words, style, grammar,
pitch and tone for different contexts or situations (e.g. official documents are
written in a formal register and friendly letters are usually written in an informal
register)”. You can thus deduce that register refers to the level of formality with

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which you speak. Different situations and people call for different registers.
The formal register is impersonal and often follows a prescriptive format. The
speaker uses complete sentences, avoids slang and may use technical or academic
vocabulary. An example of formal language is “I regret to inform you…”

The informal register is casual and conversational in tone. It is the language used
between friends. In such cases, the words are general, rather than technical,
and slang may be included. Examples of informal register are “Check this out!”,
“Howzit my bra!” or “In your dreams, pal!”

Remember that learners will be required to use both a formal and informal
register when writing. You therefore need to expose them to these types of
text during the reading lesson so that they will know what it entails when they
need to write.

Ac tivit y 4j
Consider the following sentences and indicate whether they are written
in a formal or informal register:
1. Could you tell me how to get to the nearest post office, please?
2. You can’t be serious!
3. Would you be interested in taking part in a competition?
4. It has been a pleasure to meet you.
5. Can I borrow a few bucks from you for smokes?
How would you use an exercise such as this one to teach in your class?

(9) Understanding denotation and connotation

Readers should be alerted to denotation (i.e. the meaning of a word as it occurs

in a dictionary) and connotations (i.e. the associations attached to a word). Both
the denotation and connotation of words depend on the context in which the
words are used. Words could have positive or negative connotations. The word
“aroma’’ could, for example, have a positive connotation, while “smell’’ is neutral
and “stink’’ has negative connotations. Different cultures might also attach
different connotations to words. For example, in some cultures, “being fat’’ is
considered a compliment because it implies that the person is healthy; in other
cultures, however, people feel insulted if they are described as “fat’’ (Goedhals,
Levey & Van Zyl 1990:200).

(10) Identifying graphical techniques, such as colour, design, lettering, choice

of images and layout

Visual literacy is all about the interpretation of visual images. The basic elements
of visual literacy include the following (Gosher 2000:106-111):

•• Composition. This refers to the clever placement of figures or objects inside

a frame.
•• The use of colour. Colour can be divided into two groups, namely warm and
cold. Red, orange and yellow are warm colours, while blue radiates coldness.
Moods, emotions and feelings can also be depicted by means of colours:
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red, for example, can signify danger or anger, while yellow suggests joy and
warmth.
•• Lines. Lines can suggest movement. Horizontal lines usually demonstrate
peace, balance and stability. Vertical lines indicate strength or spirituality,
while diagonal lines look dynamic and give a feeling of energy.
•• Texture. This refers to what an object feels like. A visual representation can
easily represent a particular texture – such as the soft skin of a baby’s face or
the wrinkled face of an old person.
•• Type of shot. In a film or a television programme, a wide shot will provide an
overhead view and sketch the scene, while a close-up will aim to highlight
something, accentuate the dramatic impact of something or indicate the
importance of something.
•• Focus. Focus can be soft (hazy) in order to create a romantic atmosphere or
to create a mysterious, dream-like effect. Sharp focus, on the other hand,
portrays reality and creates a feeling of honesty, clarity, openness and truth.
Sometimes part of a picture or photograph is in sharp focus and the rest is hazy.
This is normally done to emphasise one part of the picture or photograph.

Incorporate pictures, photographs and other visual material in class frequently

and analyse them with reference to the above-mentioned elements. Whenever
you use a photograph or picture, ask questions such as the following:

•• What did your eyes focus on first of all?

•• What did you focus on next?
•• Which part of the photograph/picture is in sharp focus and which parts are
fainter? What atmosphere does this create?
•• What do you learn from the body language of the people in the picture?
•• How are lines and texture used in this picture/photograph to create
atmosphere/help to convey the message?
•• What is the message conveyed by the photograph?

When comic strips or cartoons are discussed, it is important to be on the lookout

for stereotyping, caricatures and body language.

A comic strip is a series of drawings or a single drawing that normally tells a story
or comments on everyday social events. According to Gosher (2000:111), comic
strips or cartoons have the following characteristics:

•• They are used for satirical purposes.

•• The movements and postures of the figures in the comic strip normally
also communicate meaning that is not expressed in words – this is called
body language.
•• The topic is often human peculiarities and behaviour, public figures, politics,
fashion, sports, etc. They are usually humorous.
•• Some cartoons get their point across in the drawing alone, while others have
captions or use dialogue in speech bubbles.
•• Punctuation is used in clever, creative ways.
•• Movement is often depicted by means of vertical, bent or diagonal lines.
Quick actions are portrayed through broken lines, or by letting someone
escape the frame of the strip.
•• Cartoons and comic strips make ample use of caricatures and stereotyping.
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A caricature is a drawing in which a person or action is represented in an

exaggerated way.

Stereotyping is usually based on prejudice and many people fall into the trap
of stereotyping. Pronouncements that lump everyone together in one group
and generalise about them may be described as stereotyping.

Ac tivit y 4k
Find a few examples of cartoons and comic strips that you could use in
your class. They must be suitable for learners in Grades 4-6. The cartoons
or comic strips must display the following:
•• a caricature
•• commentary on a social event (that IP learners would be aware of)
•• stereotyping
•• clever use of punctuation
•• depiction of movement

Explain how you would use these cartoons or comic strips in your classroom.

Learners should be given the opportunity to interpret visual matter, such as

graphs, signs, icons, diagrams and nonverbal language. If your learners have
cellphones, you could ask them to choose a few emojis or memes on their phones
and discuss in groups what the different emojis or memes depict. Look at the
following two examples of emojis, which can be discussed in class:

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You could also use your word processing program (e.g. Microsoft Word) to
create images that could be discussed in the classroom. We used the computer
to generate the bar graph/chart below. Before asking learners to interpret a bar
graph, you may want to teach them the meaning of “vertical” and “horizontal”.

You can use a bar graph such as this to ask the following questions:

•• How many children took part in the survey? How do you know that? (60 +
60 = 120)
•• What food do boys and girls like equally?
•• Who like pizza more – boys or girls?
•• What is girls’ least favourite food?
•• What conclusions can you make about boys and girls’ food preferences?

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What other questions could be asked, based on the graph?

Note: You could also depict the information in the form of a pie chart, rather
than a bar chart, to show learners that information can be displayed in different
visual formats.

(11) Using metacognition to understand when reading

The word “cognition’’ is used to indicate thought processes and the content
of these thoughts. The prefix “meta’’ denotes a higher-order processing of
the concept it is linked to. Metacognition implies a higher order of cognitive
awareness, that is, of thought-content and thinking processes.

Metacognition refers to the cognitive activities you use when you think about and
regulate your own thinking. The difference between cognition and metacognition
is the degree of self-awareness and control evident in metacognition, which is
lacking in cognition. Cognitive processes are automatic and unconscious, while
metacognitive processes, in contrast, require conscious monitoring and control.
The term “metacognition’’ thus refers to a learner’s (reader’s) ability to think about
and be aware of his or her own learning and reading activities.

Learners must learn to use metacognitive strategies when reading. These

strategies include making summaries, constructing mental imagery of what is
being read, constructing questions, answering questions, reviewing and using
prior knowledge to understand. Having metacognitive skills means that you
can ask questions, summarise, emphasise meaning, make predictions, integrate
new learning with prior learning, explain concepts to others and write about
the new knowledge (Honig 1996).

Recent research shows that metacognition during the reading process consists
of the following group of skills: planning, monitoring (regulating), evaluating,
summarising, questioning, explaining and predicting. Although these skills have
long been known as reading skills, they are only now being consciously used
by learners to exercise control over their understanding – or lack thereof – of
a reading text. Thus, when these skills are taught, they need to be taught as
metacognitive skills.

If questioning, for example, is being learnt as a metacognitive skill, there are a

great number of strategies that can be taught. Anticipation is a useful strategy
because it allows the reader of a passage to predict what questions might
be asked. When learners read a passage with the knowledge that they will
have to answer an unknown question afterwards, they do well to formulate
possible questions, that is, to anticipate questions while they are reading. In
this way, they will ensure that they understand what they are reading, they
will be able to evaluate the sections that they have read and they will be able
to consider the various potential questions. Another strategy is for learners to
formulate their own questions while they are reading. This takes them to a deeper
level of understanding than they would have achieved had they only read the
passage once. Learners must, however, be shown how to generate questions.
The teacher is in a perfect position to generate questions. He or she could, for
example, suggest possible questions and give reasons why some questions
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are accepted and others are rejected. Alternatively, the teacher could give the
learners corrective feedback on their questions.

4.5.2.3 ‌Post-reading activities

During post-reading activities, learners need to reflect on the text they have
read and do certain activities. During this phase, reading can be integrated with
writing and speaking.

After reading, you should let learners pause for a moment and ask themselves
the following questions:

•• What is the text about? What is the main topic and the central idea?
•• Have the questions I had beforehand been answered by the text? What do I
know now that I didn’t know before?
•• Do I have any other questions about the text? Are there things that I still
don’t understand?
•• Do I agree with the author’s view or do I have a different opinion? Do I still
have the same view as I had before I read the text?
•• Do I understand the purpose of this particular type of text?
•• Do I understand the author’s intention?
•• Is the author reliable (i.e. an expert) and serious about the subject?

The CAPS prescribes “Understanding – confirm your understanding of the text”

as one of the post-reading activities. One way in which understanding can be
confirmed is to let learners retell or summarise the story they read. Retelling a
story in their own words clears up language issues and challenges learners to
aim for complete retention when reading. Summarisation, in turn, allows learners
to distinguish between main ideas and minor details. If you require learners to
make a summary, you need to tell them beforehand to note the main ideas or
events. They could even put a small piece of paper in the book to bookmark
a main idea. When retelling the story, the learners should focus only on the
important points and support them with relevant details.

An important part of post-reading activities is to let learners connect the text to

real-life experiences, other texts or prior knowledge. Connecting the text to their
own experiences and knowledge helps them to personalise the information. It
also helps learners to remember information better when they link it to their
lives. You can let them answer the following questions as part of post-reading
activities:

•• Is the subject familiar? Do the characters resemble familiar people? Have I

learnt about the concept addressed in the text from school, home or other
experiences?
•• Is the style or genre familiar? Does it resemble other texts, such as television
shows, movies and games?
•• What are some similarities between the current text and my own experiences,
existing knowledge or other texts that I have read previously?

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Ac tivit y 4l
What other post-reading activities can learners be expected to do?

4.5.3 ‌Teaching reading and viewing strategies

You also need to teach learners to apply a number of reading strategies:

4.5.3.1 ‌Skimming for main ideas

You are able to read faster when you skim-read than when you speed-read
because you deliberately leave out sections (Du Toit et al 1995).

One of the demands that our rushed, modern life makes on readers is that they
should be able to extract the essence (i.e. what is most important) from a text. For
instance, a director, journalist, doctor, member of parliament, consultant, teacher,
minister of religion, scientist or engineer – to mention just a few examples –
needs to grasp the gist (essence) of a report, memorandum, article or newspaper
report quickly and within a limited time frame (which is usually far too short).
Thus, lack of time forces people to skim-read.

Skimming is a highly specialised reading skill that entails far more than merely
rapid reading. Skimming is not a lazy reader’s technique. On the contrary, it is the
pre-eminent characteristic of a good reader. It is a technique during which we
do not read every word, but our eyes glide fleetingly across the text, stopping
only to read certain indicators, such as headings, subheadings, introductory
and summarising paragraphs and key concepts. We skim far better if we have
formulated certain questions for ourselves in advance. Skimming is usually done
with the aim of gaining a preview or an overview, or of revising.

Skimming exercises (also appropriate for additional language teaching) may be

done as follows:

•• Distribute copies of a text to the class. The text should be both long enough
and suited to the specific purpose (e.g. a preview, an overview or revision)
and should be at the comprehension level of the class.
•• Explain what skimming is and when we need to skim (e.g. the table of contents
of a book to ascertain whether the book contains the information we are
seeking).
•• Give appropriate hints, such as the following:

−− When skimming to gain a preview, first read the title and the subheadings,
explore the first and last paragraphs, focus on the introductory sentences
of paragraphs, and so on.
−− When skimming to gain an overview, skim the table of contents, foreword
or introduction and read the first sentences of paragraphs – or the first
and last paragraphs of chapters. Read the headings and subheadings, read
across examples and illustrations and pay attention to everything that
stands out – such as a sentence written in upper case, italics or in bold font.
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−− When skimming to revise, take note of the headings, subheadings,

definitions and things that stand out by virtue of being underlined, printed
in bold or italics, or indented.

•• Give the learners clear instructions, such as that they must begin when you
give a signal, that the time will be recorded (tell them how much time will be
allowed – this is determined by the class’s developmental level and skimming
proficiency) and that, afterwards, they will have to write down what they have
skimmed or answer questions on the text.
•• If, after the skimming exercise, the learners have to make a summary, you
should provide them with a memorandum so that they can evaluate their
skimming.
•• Remember that you may use the study material from the learners’ other
learning areas during reading lessons, including (and especially) for skimming
exercises.

4.5.3.2 ‌Scanning for supporting details

“This is the fastest kind of reading you can do. When you scan, you pay no
attention to anything other than a particular item you are looking for. You run
your eyes quickly over the text, only stopping when you find what you want.
You then pay careful attention to that item’’ (Du Toit et al 1995:12).

Skimming entails rapidly ascertaining the main ideas in a set reading, whereas
scanning is the technique used to find specific facts and details related to the
preconceived aim. Individual readers usually know precisely what they are
searching for and let their eyes pass swiftly over all the other items, without
really looking at them, until they find what they are looking for. People use
this technique when, for example, they are looking for a telephone number in
the telephone directory or items in classified advertisements. When we wish
to find something particular in a bulky report (e.g. when a reader of an article
about the presidents of the USA is interested only in the dates during which
each president was in office), we would also make use of scanning to obtain
the necessary information.

Scanning exercises may be tackled as follows:

•• From a particular reading exercise, you could choose certain information for
the learners to look for, such as names of particular people, dates mentioned,
figures given or a specific statement made.
•• Explain to the learners that when scanning, they must constantly keep in
mind the shape of what they are looking for. For example, is it a figure, one
word, a price, a word beginning with a capital letter, a date, an unfamiliar
word, a long word or a sentence?
•• Scanning exercises may be practised regularly in class by, for example, using
classified advertisements and letting the learners look for the prices of goods
or telephone numbers. Dictionaries could be used regularly for this purpose.

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Ac tivit y 4l
1. Evaluate your own skill to skim and scan. If you are struggling with these
skills, how can you improve them and help your learners do so as well?
2. View the following online video clip:
“Skimming and scanning” by Colleen Dafoe at https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=F1wPYHa5nUg.

Evaluate the presenter’s “lesson” on skimming and scanning. To what

extent could you adapt this presentation for your own learners?

4.5.3.3 ‌Notes, summaries and mind maps

According to Nöthling (1988:10–11), notes and summaries are two consecutive
phases of the same cognitive process. Since the making of notes is a central –
rather than a coincidental part – of study activities, it should be given plenty of
attention when teaching a language. While reading a text, learners can make
notes by

•• underlining the main ideas (learners usually tend to underline too much –
they must be given exercises on a regular basis where they are expected to
underline only the most important points)
•• drawing lines in the margin next to the main ideas
•• making asterisks in the margin to indicate central points
•• numbering the main ideas and details
•• circling keywords, phases or clauses
•• writing notes (keywords) in the margin
•• tabulating information
•• highlighting information

Be sure to make copies, so that learners do not damage their text books.

To make a summary, learners should start by doing an exploratory reading of

the reading passage in order to form a general impression, followed by a careful
reading combined with making notes (as indicated above). The notes that are
made may then be arranged and processed into a summary.

Mind mapping helps readers to gain a better understanding of what they are
reading or have read, to remember the content better and to revise the content
more effectively – if the need arises to study the material at a later stage for a test
or examination. A mind map should be done on a blank sheet of paper. The key
idea of the text is placed in the middle of the page and encircled. Related matters
are then dotted around the page, also encircled and linked with one another.

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Look, for example, at the following mind map of a unit on language teaching:

FIGURE 4.1
A mind map of language teaching

4.5.4 ‌Reading aloud

When teaching learners to read aloud, teachers should remember that there
is a wide variety of types of texts, languages and styles that readers need to
interpret and adjust to in various ways. For instance, readers should be helped
to understand that a highly logical text should not be read in the same way as
an emotionally loaded text or story.

It is necessary to remember that a high degree of comprehension is vital when

reading aloud. Reading aloud is not just about reading a text “beautifully’’; the
readers’ understanding of what they are reading is important. The main questions
involving reading aloud are as follows: Is the reader communicating successfully
with his or her audience? Is he or she able to impart information while reading?
Are the listeners engrossed and persuaded to cooperate? In other words, can
individual readers communicate information while, at the same time, captivating
their listeners? Are they able to communicate a written message in such a way
that the listeners understand it and the readers themselves grasp it? Are these
individual readers capable of communicating the written message and the
style and vein of the material – with all its nuances of emotion, meaning and
atmosphere – as they read and portray it to their listeners?

The reader’s understanding of what he or she is reading aloud is important,

otherwise it could easily degenerate into a mechanical exercise. To offset this
possibility, both the reader and listeners should be questioned once the reading
has been concluded.

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In order to read a text aloud communicatively so that the message is conveyed

effectively, individual readers should remember and apply the following aspects
of communication in their reading:

•• eye contact and facial expressions

•• phrasing
•• effective pausing
•• pitch
•• clarity and pace variation
•• audibility
•• emphasis
•• natural speech
•• tone of voice
•• due regard for punctuation
•• voice modulation
•• intonation
•• attitude
•• correct articulation and pronunciation
•• interpretation

All these devices help to portray emotions, create atmosphere, achieve a dramatic
effect and, in various ways, convey, support and manipulate the message of the
text (South Africa 1993:6-7). Good examples of dramatised readings are essential.
From time to time, teachers could record the reading of books broadcast on
the radio to play back to the learners. Such readings could then be discussed in
order to decide how the reader succeeded in creating atmosphere or tension.

There is not always enough time in the classroom to give every learner an
opportunity to read aloud. This makes group work extremely important. Learners
may be divided into groups of between five and seven, and each group member
could then be given the opportunity to read aloud to the rest of the group. You
could also let each of the learners record their reading aloud of a text on their
cellphones – or their parent’s phone – and then listen to it. This is a very good
exercise because it gives learners an opportunity to listen to themselves reading.
It also gives them a good deal of practice in reading aloud because they usually
read the piece over and over again until they are satisfied with their own reading.

When assessing reading aloud, teachers should be attuned to the basic reading
mistakes most readers tend to make, such as the following: hesitation; insertion
or omission of words or phrases; poor pausing (or none at all); replacement of
sounds or words (with others); switching of words within a sentence; repetition
of sounds or words; an unduly slow tempo; guessing words; and word-for-word
reading.

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The following scheme may be used when assessing reading aloud:

TABLE 4.1
Rubric for assessing reading aloud
Scheme for assessing reading aloud Possible marks
Reads aloud with clear punctuation, phrasing and tempo, ____/3
changing speed as appropriate.
Pronounces the words correctly. _____/3
Reads fluently. _____/4
Reads with expression that shows understanding of what is _____/3
being read.
Makes eye contact and captures audience’s attention. _____/2
TOTAL _____/15

Ac tivit y 4m
1. Listen to the first three minutes of the following audiobook for
children and then assess the reader’s performance against the
criteria above: The Lion King–Audio Read Aloud Bedtime Storybooks
for Kids by Mama & Dada Kids TV at https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=lwLXAmmYyRE&t=205s (If this clip is not available, you may
do the same exercise with any other audiobook.)
2. To what extent do your own skills at reading aloud meet these criteria?
Reflect on whether you need to improve these skills to read aloud
effectively to your learners in class.

4.5.5 ‌Teaching short stories, poems, folklore, drama and novels

The preceding discussion mostly relates to the teaching of “non-literary” texts.
We are now going to focus on the teaching of short stories, poems, folklore,
drama and novels.

Teaching of short stories, poems, folklore, drama and novels in the past mostly
consisted of answering questions on a book or a poem. However, it is only
at school that a learner is expected to read a story or a poem with a view to
answering questions. This type of approach to literature does not cultivate a love
of literary works. Therefore, you will have to be creative when teaching literature.

4.5.5.1 ‌Guidelines to keep in mind when teaching the reading of literary works
•• Create a love of reading in your learners

Through the teaching of short stories, poetry, folklore, drama and novels, you
should aim to develop a love of reading in your learners. Individual learners

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must be actively involved in their own reading experiences – they must have
the opportunity to gain first-hand experience of the literary text and to express
their responses to it and feelings about it. Experiencing the text should precede
studying the text. Simply answering questions on a literary text and studying
literary concepts does not cultivate a love of reading in learners.

•• Keep a balance between a text-centred and a reader-directed approach

Studying literature expands learners’ knowledge of people; they learn to

appreciate and understand the views and behaviour of others and to evaluate
their own behaviour in relation to that of the characters in the book. The
prerequisite for this is that learners should become involved in the literary
work. In other words, it is necessary to find a balance between a text-centred
approach (where the text is studied for its own sake) and a reader-directed
approach (where the reader’s experience and what the text means to him or
her personally is taken into account). Thus the reader’s experience of the text
becomes the main component. The emphasis is on the interaction between an
author and a specific reader. Interpretation might differ from reader to reader,
because readers bring all sorts of things from their personal knowledge and
experience to bear on the text. The primary reason for studying stories, novels
and drama should be to provide the opportunity for dialogue between the
literary work and the learner, between the learner and the teacher, and between
different learners. This means that group work is indispensable.

Learners ought to be able to respond with experience and empathy to all forms of
literature so that they can develop their own opinions and taste. Their emotional
development should also be considered. Learners’ affective (i.e. emotional
life) development is enhanced by the fact that they imagine themselves being
transported into the situations and experiencing the feelings, thoughts or actions
of the characters in the text. As readers, the learners’ feelings are important –
they are free to like or dislike a text and to attach their own interpretation to
it, as long as they can justify their opinions. It is necessary to expand learners’
experiential world. They should be guided to notice relationships between the
text and their life world, or between the text and other books to which they have
recently been introduced. They should eventually be able to read independently
and to absorb, process and evaluate information from any text on their own.

They should, however, also acquire knowledge of the basic structure of literary
forms (such as plot, setting, characterisation, similes, metaphors, rhyme, rhythm
and theme).

•• Involve the learners actively in reading

The learners should feel involved in what they are reading. This involvement is
possible only if individual learners experience the reading activity as something
personal and if they have an opportunity to express what they feel about what
they are reading. The fact that learners must become actively involved in what
they are reading, while also gaining insight into literary works, has important
implications for the teaching of literary works, namely that learners’ experience
of the text should precede the study of the text.
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•• Expose learners to a variety of texts

Teachers could discuss various works in class. One option is to allow learners to
work in groups and to get each group to read a different novel or short story
(this may take a lot of planning and organisation on your part). Then give them
a set of general questions to be answered in the group (or by each individual
group member). The questions should be of a general nature, such as identifying
the main character in the story and explaining why this is the main character,
giving the reasons for and the consequences of the conflict that has occurred,
and explaining which type of narrator narrates the story and giving reasons for
their opinion.

One of the types of stories that learners need to be exposed to is the fable.
You can explain to learners that a fable is intended to provide a moral story.
Fables often use animals as the main characters and these animals have human
characteristics, such as the ability to speak. Animals are thus personified. These
animals are usually placed in a problematic situation caused by a character trait
of weakness (e.g. jealousy, vanity). The solving of the problem always serves to
teach the reader a moral lesson. Once you have explained these characteristics
of a fable to learners, you can ask them to find their own fables or to refer to
fables that their parents or grandparents have told them. They can then read a
fable in class and explain why this text could be classified as a fable.

This can be done with different types of texts, such as posters, reports and
advertisements.

•• Use open questions

It is preferable to use open questions about literary works. An open question

is one requiring an opinion and to which there is no single correct answer.
Nonetheless, the answer should be substantiated with meticulous reference
to the text.

•• Encourage learners to read independently

The crucial question is how present-day learners can be taught to love reading
(despite competition from the fascinating and exciting world of television, videos,
films and other entertainment at their disposal)?

Write down a few ideas on how to develop your class’s interest in and love of
reading. Reflect on your own experience. How did you become an avid reader?

Here are a few of our own ideas. (You probably included these and many others
in the list you just made.)

•• Set aside time regularly to read aloud to the class in an interpretive or dramatic
way. Be sure to choose a book that falls within their field of interest.
•• You could sometimes read an interesting section from a book or volume of
short stories and stop at a point where the tension is running high so that
learners cannot wait to take out the book from the library or get hold of the
book by buying it and finding out what happened.
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•• Display attractive dust covers of good books for young people for your
learners to look at.
•• Make a point of regularly reading book reviews to the learners.
•• Use book catalogues to introduce or recommend interesting books to learners.
•• Let the learners read through such catalogues and then say which books
they would like you to discuss in class (giving their reasons) and which books
they would like to own.
•• Make sure that the school library contains books that interest and attract
the learners.
•• If your school does not have a library, go onto the internet and find short
stories that you can download and print for free (there are many). You can
print and laminate the stories and keep them in a folder in your class. Learners
may read them when they are done with their work; alternatively, you can set
aside an hour per two-week cycle when learners may read from the reading
cupboard in the classroom.
•• Contact publishers to enquire about new books that have been published.
•• Ask for donations of books and magazines from learners, parents and
the community and form a class library.
•• Compile a list of books that you know the learners will enjoy and make
it compulsory for each of them to read at least four books on the list.

Think for a moment about the following questions: What literature have you
read recently? Did you read it with the aim of evaluating its literary value or
simply for pleasure?

4.5.5.2 ‌Key features of a text

The CAPS prescribes that literary concepts such as plot, character, characterisation,
themes and messages, background and setting need to be taught as key features
of stories and dramas, while literal meaning, figurative meaning, theme and
message, imagery (such as simile and personification), word choice, tone,
emotional responses and sound devices (alliteration, onomatopoeia, etc) need
to be taught during poetry lessons.

•• Plot

The logical question that is usually asked in relation to a story is, “What
happens in the story?’’ After all, that is what fiction (i.e. a representation of
something imaginary that has happened, as in narratives and stories) is about,
namely recounting imaginary events. However, it is not so easy to answer this
question because authors do not always relate a story from beginning to end
in chronological order (i.e. as it takes place in time sequence).

The important thing here is how the cohesion of events influences the characters
in the story. For instance, the events can usually be ascribed to a specific cause,
which could lead to a certain consequence, such as conflict.

The plot may be determined by letting the learners set up a timeline, such as
the following:

Beginning .......................Middle..................................... End

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The plot of a story tells us why certain events occur, what has caused the event
and how these events, in turn, give rise to other events. A table depicting the
events, causes and results could be drawn up to help the learners to understand
the plot. Example:

Event Cause Result

Another way in which you could teach the plot is to read the story up to a point
and then ask the learners to predict how the story will continue.

•• Characters and characterisation

Stories are about people: how they behave under different conditions, how
they interact with other people and what types of personalities they have. This
means that we need to get to know the characters in a story well. Most people
are interested in what other people do, how they behave and why they act the
way they do. Therefore, we are usually also interested in the way the characters
in a story behave and in the motives for their behaviour.

We generally get to know the individual characters in a book in the following

ways:

•• what the narrator says about them (e.g. intelligent, attractive appearance)
•• what other characters say and think of them
•• what the characters themselves say, how they treat others, how other people
behave towards them, and how they cope with conflict situations
•• the characters’ external appearance, the way they dress, their educational
background, their position in society, and so on

One way of dealing with characterisation in a class would be to use mind maps.
A mind map begins with a circle in the centre of the page, in which the name
of the main character is written. Then the names of the other characters are
written (in circles) all around that of the main character, and lines are drawn to
link them. The type of relationship (e.g. mother, girlfriend, colleague) between
the characters is indicated (in writing) on the straight lines.

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Another way is to make use of a table such as the following, to let learners compile
a description of a character:

How do we get to know Quotation and page What do we deduce

the character? reference from this (what
characteristics does he
or she have)?
What the narrator says
about him or her
What he/she says about
himself/herself

What he or she does (acts)

What others say about
him or her
Behaviour towards and
conflict with others
Etc

Learners could be asked to draw a character or to cut a picture of someone who

makes them think of a specific character out of a magazine. It is important for
learners to form a “picture’’ of a specific character.

When the learners have a good grasp of the character traits of a character,
the teacher could let them hold a class discussion to determine how a certain
character might act in different circumstances.

•• Background and setting

“Setting’’ refers to the place where the story takes place. The setting is often an
important factor in the story (think of a story in which drought influences the
characters’ lives). The setting creates atmosphere in the story.

•• Theme and messages

Life serves as a theme for the literary narrative – life in all its variety and with its
problems, ideas and events. Life’s events and all that accompany them often make
a deep impression on us. Examples of such events/issues are the fragmentation
of families, marital problems or striving to conserve nature. Artists (including
authors/poets/playwrights) often feel these things more intensely, which compels
them to express their feelings in their art. This is how a work of art gets a theme.

Viljoen (1996:24) explains a theme by using the example of a patchwork quilt:

the quilt is often made by repeating variations of a small pattern to make a
larger pattern.

Theme, then, is a repeated pattern within a work made up of parts, such as

a piece of music or a patchwork quilt. In fiction “theme’’ refers to an idea or
pattern of ideas that is repeated throughout the story. An idea cannot be
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seen or touched; it is not a person, an event or an object. Rather, theme is

usually expressed by means of an abstract noun (the name of something
that cannot be perceived with the senses).

Examples of such abstract nouns are love, failure, guilt, patience, perseverance
and nonacceptance or denial of something.

As an example, consider some folk tales or fairy tales that you may be familiar
with. Some recurring themes in these probably include the following:

Coming of age. A young boy or girl suffers hardships and becomes more mature
and wiser as a result, or becomes a hero or prince or princess.

Cleverness. This is often a tool for those with less power to outwit those with
more power. For example, a cunning jackal outwits a lion, or the tortoise outwits
the hare to win the race.

Transformation. A beast or a frog is actually a prince who has been transformed

and is finally restored to his original form; a beggar at the gate is actually a king
in disguise; a sheep is revealed as a wolf in sheep’s clothing. The lesson here is
not to take anything at face value.

When searching for the theme of a work, it is advisable to start by looking for
an abstract noun that could describe the story and then using one or more of
the following ways of and then ascertain whether it is appropriate:

When discussing the theme with the learners, you should remember the following:

•• A story sometimes has more than one theme.

•• There is no “right’’ or “wrong’’ answer to the question of what the theme of
the story is. Learners may differ in their views of what the theme is, provided
they are able to substantiate their viewpoint.
•• The theme of the story is not necessarily a miniature lesson that the writer
wishes to teach the learner about how to live. Viljoen (1996:121) explains this
point:

Although theme is an aspect of fiction that is universal (i.e. that applies

to everyone), that is not the same as saying that fiction teaches us how to
live. The novel does not contain lessons for the reader to learn from. By
reading fiction we can increase our understanding of life, but only because
we have been stimulated to think more about certain themes and topics,
not because the novel or short story makes moral points or instructs us.

•• A theme does not announce itself – we have to discover the theme of a story
for ourselves.

We have now given you a brief overview of a few important literary concepts.
The next important question is how to tackle a literary work in the classroom.

4.5.5.3 ‌A framework for teaching stories and drama

In the case of the reading of any text, it is essential that learners first orientate
themselves to the text before starting to read. They will conclude their reading
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activity by reflecting on what they have read and what they have learnt from the
book/text. They thus have to do pre-reading, while-reading and post-reading
activities.

STAGE 1: THE PRE-READING PHASE (PREPARING TO READ A TEXT)

At this stage, the learners have not yet seen the text.

This phase is the affective (i.e. emotional) phase, which entails an attempt to
prepare learners to become emotionally involved in the text. During this phase,
unfamiliar vocabulary is explained, if necessary, and there is an attempt to find
a point of contact with the learners’ prior knowledge.

Activities that the teacher engages in during this phase are the following:

•• Prediction. Research has shown that if learners are encouraged to predict what
will happen in the story, it raises their interest in the story. For instance, you
should write the title of a poem, play or short story on the chalkboard and let
groups of learners predict what might happen in a story with a title like that.
One of the group members could recount the group’s ideas to the rest of the
class and then the groups could compare their expectations. If the book has
a striking cover, you could show it to the learners and ask them to predict the
story that the cover conjures up in their minds. Learners could also read the
first page of the story and then speculate on the possible course of the story.
•• Making up their own story. Divide the class into groups. Provide them with
basic information about the story and then ask each group to make up their
own story around this information, for example:

−− The characters include a homeless child, a young boy and the boy’s father.
−− The setting is a wood/forest.
−− The time is late at night.
−− The plot involves the boy and his father, who are out hunting and the
homeless child.

After reading the story, the learners could compare it with their own stories.

•• Collecting background information necessary to understand the story. If a story is

enacted in an unfamiliar place, you will have to start by explaining something
about it to the learners. You could make a collage (i.e. a large picture composed
of a number of different pictures that combine to depict a story) that will help
you to illustrate the background information.

STAGE 2: WHILE-READING PHASE

•• Reading in class

This is a very important phase because it is the reader’s first introduction to the
text. It may be structured in various ways. For instance, it could be an exercise
in reading aloud or silent reading. However, it is not a good idea to say, “Go and
read it at home.’’ This sounds too much like an order. Besides, there can never
be too much reading aloud in class – it kindles the learners’ interest. But try to
vary it by getting different readers to read aloud. Also note that letting learners
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read one after another in sequence is not a good idea because it becomes very
boring. Rather assign the roles of specific characters and let each character
read his or her own “dialogue’’. An additional learner could read the part of the
narrator. When you are using silent reading, you should remember that some
readers read more quickly than others, so be prepared with a task for those
learners who complete the reading ahead of the rest.

For about ten minutes, you could read aloud while the learners close their
books and simply concentrate on listening. Before starting, you could give them
tasks, such as the following: “See whether you notice when the main character
(mention his or her name) changes his or her views’’ or “Listen carefully while
I am reading and then give me an outline of where the story is set’’ or “Listen
while I am reading and see whether you can outline a few of the main character’s
character traits’’. Alternatively, you could describe a certain character and ask the
learners to identify which character you have described as you read.

If you are dealing with a long narrative in class, you could pause five minutes
before the end of the lesson and ask the learners to predict what will happen
next or to give you their impressions of the story thus far. For instance: “Are you
looking forward to the rest of the story?”, “How do you think the story is going
to develop?” or “Does the story meet your expectations?’’

If it is a long novel that has to be read, you could read sections during class
sessions and let the learners read sections of it at home as well. But it often pays
to devote two or three lessons to the reading of the most important parts because
(generally speaking) learners do not read at home. If you know in advance that
the learners are not going to read at home, you should do ample reading in class.

If you have a large number of learners in your class, you would do well to divide
the learners into groups and let everyone in the group get an opportunity to
read part of the text. In this way, different readers read simultaneously and
everyone gets a chance to read.

•• Getting learners’ opinion

When the reading of the text has been completed, the learners must discuss
whether they like the story or not and give reasons for their opinions. They
must also tell you what they did not understand in the story. It is important that
learners notice during this phase that their opinions of the story may differ. Some
learners may like the story, while others don’t. During this phase, you could ask
learners to depict a specific situation in the story that they liked by “posing” for
a photograph.

•• Unpacking the story

During this phase, the text is discussed in more detail. This would include
identification of main and supporting characters, characterisation, the narrator’s
point of view and any conflict. Group work is of the utmost importance in this
phase. Don’t overanalyse a story. Pulling a story to pieces in order to discuss
every possible aspect is unacceptable. Take a look at some activities that you
could consider:
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Activities relating to characters and characterisation

•• The learners compile questions that they would like to put to the characters.
•• Each of the learners is assigned a role to portray. Some of the other learners
play the parts of reporters who are required to conduct interviews with the
characters.
•• The learners write diary entries that the characters would have made.
•• The learners write letters to the characters, questioning their motives and
behaviour.
•• The learners represent the characters in conflict situations.
•• The learners speculate on reasons for some of the characters’ behaviour.
•• One or more of the learners play(s) the part of one or two characters.
The learners conduct a phone-in programme in which the characters are
questioned. A variation on this activity is for you to play the caller, who asks
questions to the different characters.
•• The teacher compiles a questionnaire for the learners to answer from the
point of view of a specific character.

Activities relating to plot

•• The teacher mentions incidents and asks questions stemming from these.
•• Learners give headings for chapters.
•• Learners compile event-cause-result tables to determine the plot of the
narrative.
•• Learners are required to indicate how internal action gives rise to external
action, or how external action gives rise to internal action.
•• In their groups, learners are required to try and find reasons (motives) for
characters’ behaviour.
•• In column A, the teacher writes a list of all conflict events. Then, in column B,
learners are required to discuss the consequences of the conflict.

Activities relating to background and setting

•• Learners are asked to draw the scene where the story is enacted.
•• Learners are asked to compile a table in which they show the similarities and
differences between the physical space in which they live and that which is
depicted in the narrative.
•• Ask the learners to extract everything in the story that is typical of a particular
space, such as Africa, Western society, South African people, townships or
military life.

Activities relating to a theme and messages

•• Brainstorm with a view to determining the theme of a story. Brainstorming

entails giving the learners a certain period of time – not too long – to identify
all possible themes. Everything is written down, whether or not it is realistic.
Then the themes are discussed, confirmation is sought in the story and
decisions are taken (accompanied by reasons) as to which themes were
applicable and which were not.
•• When teaching folk tales, it is important to let the learners brainstorm the
message that the story is trying to convey.
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Activities relating to the language usage in the story

Assist learners to do the following:

•• Compare the dialogue of different characters.

•• Distinguish between literal and figurative language.
•• Identify the functions of various kinds of repetition.
•• Recognise language usage indicating different moods.
•• Identify tension-building techniques.

STAGE 3: POST-READING ACTIVITIES

Everything that was taken apart during the previous phase (i.e. phase 4) must
now be reassembled. Possible activities during this phase include the following:

•• Learners work together in pairs. One learner plays the role of the librarian,
whose task is to persuade the other learner to borrow the book or read the
story.
•• Learners design a cover for the book.
•• Learners write a review of the book.
•• Suppose the book is listed in Exclusive Books’s catalogue. Let the learners
write the section to appear in the catalogue. (Remember first to show them
examples of a book catalogue.)
•• Let the learners consider how the book could be filmed: its visual possibilities,
dialogue possibilities, who will portray the parts, and so on.
•• Let the learners recount the story from the point of view of one of the
characters.
•• The teacher plays the role of the author and the learners put questions to
him or her.
•• Ask learners if they liked the story or not. They must always justify their opinion.
•• Learners answer questions about the story.

Ac tivit y 4n
Turn back to learning unit 3 and read the folk tale in section 3.6.
Explain how you would apply the model discussed above in your classroom
to teach this folk tale.

4.5.5.4 ‌Teaching poetry

In writing poetry, a poet can play with words and mental images, and this
often determines the structure of the poem. Structural elements can, in fact,
be compared with play: metre and rhyme have a close relationship with dance,
and a metaphor can be seen as role-play. Onomatopoeia also has to do with
imitation. The fact that poetry can be compared to play means that learners
should enjoy poetry; but, obviously, the degree to which they enjoy it depends
on how the teacher presents it.

A poem should always be read out loud so that the word play becomes clear.
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Ac tivit y 4p
Read the following two scenarios and then answer the questions.
Scenario 1
Ms Maseko enters the Grade 4 classroom, greets the learners and then
hands out copies of the poem Fear. She reads the poem and explains
alliteration and rhyme in the poem. She then gives the learners 10 set
questions to answer. Ms Maseko collects the worksheets at the end of
the lesson and marks them; she returns the worksheets to the learners
during the next lesson.
Scenario 2
Ms Mashile waits for learners outside her classroom and greets them as
they enter. She makes small talk with one or two learners. She starts the
lesson by telling them that everybody has things that they are afraid of
and that she is afraid of spiders. She asks learners to tell her what they
are afraid of. Learners mention the dark, lions, snakes, heights, lightning
and thunderstorms. She explains the word “phobia” to them and also
that there is a difference between having a phobia and just being afraid
of something. She gives different examples of types of phobia. She then
asks them if they can describe a situation in which they overcame their
fear. She explains that it might perhaps be something that they were afraid
of when they were little and have subsequently overcome. They discuss
this for 5 minutes. She then writes “Fear” on the board and asks learners
what they expect to hear in a poem with this title. She then reads the
poem with the necessary intonation.
FEAR (by Amy Ludwig VanDerwater)
I said
all snakes are slimy.
all snakes are slither-mean.
Until
I held that little one -
thin, quick, tickly-green.
It seemed
as terrified of me.
as I was scared of snakes.
I traced
the scales from head to tail
Sometimes I make mistakes.
Source: http://www.poemfarm.amylv.com/2012/02/fear-and-poems-about-
changing-your-mind.html.
The learners discuss in their groups whether they like the poem or not and
why. Ms Mashile then gives each group a copy of the poem and asks them
to let each learner in the group read a different stanza out loud. Then she
asks them what sound snakes make and the learners respond by making
loud “SSSSSS” sounds. They all have a good laugh. Ms Mashile then asks
them how the sounds in the poem are used to depict the sound that a
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snake makes. She uses al the ‘s’ sounds and the ‘l’ sounds in the poem to
explain alliteration. She also helps the learners to understand how sounds
can help us form pictures in our minds (e.g. the use of a lot of ‘l’ letters
represents the shape of the snake). They discuss the poem in more detail
and Ms Mashile points out rhyming words. They also talk about how we
are sometimes unnecessarily afraid of things. For homework, the learners
are asked to write a poem about something that they are afraid of.
1. Which scenario would you follow if you had to present a poetry lesson?
2. What do you think should be the main purpose of teaching poetry in
the IP?
3. Give a few creative ideas that you could use during poetry lessons.
4. The framework for teaching stories could easily be adapted to teach
poetry. (5) Select a poem that you will teach to Grade 5 learners and
explain how you would use pre-reading, while reading and post-reading
activities to teach the poem.

Poetry is written to be enjoyed, so allow the learners’ enjoyment of the poem to

be your primary goal. Learners should be able to see the beauty in the poem and
they should also be able to understand and enjoy the nature of poetry. Poetry
heightens the learners’ awareness of the beauty of the language, develops their
imagination and enriches them intellectually and spiritually. It may also help
them to begin cultivating a taste for literature.

Poetry is not just about content; an important characteristic of poetry is the

relationship between form (structure) and content. This means that the structure
of the poem (words, sounds, metre, images) often reflects the content of the
poem.

The relationship between content and structure has implications for teaching
poetry and for setting questions on a poem. Structure cannot – and may not – be
taught as a separate entity; it must be taught only with reference to the meaning
of the poem. The focus must be on the functional use of the structural elements.
You should thus not ask the learners to identify alliteration or assonance without
also asking them to find a link between the structural elements and the content of
the poem. Compare, for example the way in which Ms Maseko taught alliteration,
as opposed to the way in which Ms Mashile taught it. The structure of a poem
should not be overemphasised. When presenting a poem, your main purpose
should be to get the learners to a point where they understand the content of
the poem, but also realise that the content and the structure complement each
other.

You can use the following activities when teaching poetry:

•• Read the poem to the learners before they see the text. Remember, poetry
is a performance of sounds. Rhyme, alliteration and assonance can take their
rightful place only when the poem is heard. You might even need to reread
the poem to the learners. Alternatively, you may wish to divide the learners
into pairs so that each learner gets the opportunity to read the poem aloud
to his or her partner.
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•• Guard against always using the question-answer method – learners will

eventually start to think that poetry appreciation merely involves someone
asking them questions, to which they are expected to respond. These learners
will soon develop an aversion to reading poetry.
•• Cut up the poem and then get the learners to arrange the stanzas in the
correct order.
•• Replace some of the words in the poem with “incorrect words’’. The learners
must then identify these words and give suitable alternatives.
•• Delete some words from the poem and then get the learners to guess what
words are missing.
•• Get the learners to make a collage of the poem.
•• Delete the title of the poem and get the learners to provide a title.
•• Allow the learners to write their own poetry.
•• Get the learners to portray the poem visually (i.e. by drawing a picture).
•• Get the learners to compile a list of poems that they would take with them
to a deserted island. Ask them to give reasons for their choices.
•• Try to find original ways to present your lessons – each poem should be
presented differently and the activities should interest the learners. For
example, if they are required to create a collage for one poem, you might
want them to answer questions for a second poem or design a PowerPoint
presentation for a third poem.
•• After a poem has been discussed, it should always be read a second time.

4.6 ADDITIONAL LEARNING EXPERIENCES

You may find it useful to read the following online articles. (Note that this is
NOT compulsory, but these websites all contain interesting information on
teaching that is relevant to this learning unit.)

•• Classroom Management: Setting a Purpose for Reading by TeachHUB at www.

teachhub.com/classroom-management-setting-purpose-reading
•• What is the Reader’s Purpose? by Writing@CSU at https://writing.colostate.edu/
guides/page.cfm?pageid=15&guideid=3
•• Teaching Students How to Set a Purpose for Reading by MiddleWeb at https://
www.middleweb.com/34655/teaching-students-to-set-a-purpose-for-reading/
•• Setting a Purpose for Motivated Reading by ThoughtCo at https://www.
thoughtco.com/reading-strategies-4132503 (click on each article to open it)

4.7 OVERVIEW OF THE LEARNING UNIT

Reading should always be done with a particular aim in mind. This aim includes
acquiring insight into and developing a love of reading. Individual learners must
be actively involved in their own reading experiences – they must have the
opportunity to gain first-hand experience of the literary work and to express
their responses to it and feelings about it. In other words, experiencing a text
should precede studying the text. Simply answering questions on a literary work
and studying literary concepts do not cultivate a love of reading.

Light reading material (e.g. magazine stories) can be used just as easily to teach
reading, to encourage the learners to experience the world of the story and to
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foster a love of reading. Teach your learners that it is fun to read and you will
help them to become lifelong learners.

Answer the following questions to make sure you have reached the outcomes
listed at the beginning of the learning unit:

1. Explain the reading process under the following subheadings:

i. Pre-reading activities
ii. While reading activities
iii. Post-reading activities
2. What should you keep in mind when teaching reading?
3. How would you go about instilling a love for reading in learners?
4. How would you ensure that learners read with understanding?
5. How would you integrate the teaching of reading with the teaching of
the other skills (writing, speaking and listening?)
6. How would you integrate the teaching of reading with language structures
and conventions
7. How would you teach the plot of a story to IP learners?
8. How would you teach the theme of a story to IP learners?
9. How would you teach learners to understand characterisation in a story?
10. How would you teach poetry?

4.8 CONCLUSION
The comprehensive aim of reading instruction is to develop independent, lifelong
readers by teaching the learners techniques and strategies that will develop their
general reading skills to the extent that they are able to read for enjoyment and
appreciation and/or with a view to gaining insight, understanding and precise
judgement.

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5 LEARNING UNIT 5

5 Writing instruction

When asked about rewriting, Ernest Hemingway said that he rewrote the
ending to A Farewell to Arms thirty-nine times before he was satisfied.

I have rewritten– often several times– every word I have ever published.
My pencils outlast their erasers.
Vladimir Nabokov

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Once you have worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:

•• explain the process approach to writing instruction

•• discuss different types of texts and their purpose, structure and language features
that learners should be taught to write in Grades 4-6
•• explain and practically apply a wide variety of activities that can be used during
writing instruction
•• assess learners’ written work

In the course of this unit, we will introduce you to different methods so that you are
able to achieve these learning objectives. You have a responsibility to be creative
when you teach this very important skill.

Ac tivit y 5a
Before we discuss our ideas for how to teach learners to write effectively,
we would like you to make short notes in your notebook in answering
the following questions. (Note: You don’t need to answer each question
separately – a short paragraph about your experiences of writing instruction
will suffice.)
Think back to the writing instruction you received at school in your home
language.
1. Did you enjoy writing paragraphs, essays, letters and other writing
tasks? Give a reason for your answer.
2. Who read what you wrote?
3. Did your teachers ever teach writing skills or did they merely write a
few topics on the board and then instruct you to write an essay/letter/
review/report?
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4. Did your teachers give you sufficient examples of good (and poor)
writing so that you were able to ascertain what a good piece of writing
looked like?
5. Was writing taught as a separate subject or was it integrated with other
skills, such as reading or listening?
6. How was your writing assessed?
7. Did the writing activities you did in class prepare you adequately for the
writing activities you have had to do in your adult and professional life?

It is very likely that your answers indicate the following: writing was a difficult
activity; your essays, letters and other writing tasks were read primarily by the
teacher; and you received a topic and had to start writing immediately, without
really being taught how to write. When we were at school, teachers seldom gave
learners good examples of writing; writing was dealt with as a separate activity
or skill. We are sure that very few of you were required, for example, to read a
letter in a newspaper or magazine, to discuss it and then to respond by writing
a letter to the relevant newspaper or magazine.

Did your writing tasks look a bit like a ‘bloodbath’ (i.e. full of red ink) when you
got them back? Teachers often seem to think that they have to correct every
error with a red pen to prevent learners from making the same mistakes again.

If you indicated that your schooling prepared you sufficiently for all the writing
tasks you have had to complete in your adult life (e.g. memorandums, minutes,
reports, business letters), you are one of a small but privileged group. In the
past, writing instruction usually consisted of writing narrative, descriptive or
argumentative essays and one or two official letters – all of which only marginally
prepared learners for writing tasks in real life.

For a certainty, the writing instruction we described above was unstimulating

and boring and we are sure you would not want to subject your learners to the
same process. Therefore, in the section that follows, we will explain how to teach
writing so that it is interesting for you and your learners and so that it prepares
the learners for those writing activities that they will have to carry out one day
in their adult lives.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
To achieve the learning outcomes set at the beginning of this learning unit, you
will need a thorough knowledge of the structure of different types of texts; the
purpose, text structure, language features, target group and context of written
texts; and the assessment of written texts. For this reason, we have chosen to
devote considerable time to this topic. We hope that as you work through this
learning unit, you will realise that a teacher needs to show patience, empathy and
understanding for learners’ writing problems and writing anxiety if they want
to succeed in making writing instruction a successful and enjoyable experience.

Of all the language skills (listening, reading, speaking, writing and thinking),
writing is probably the most difficult. Most learners struggle to write and some
have even developed an aversion to it. By speaking to the learners about their
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experiences of texts and about the relationship between the writer and reader,
you will be able to show them why writing is such an important component of
language instruction. Remember that writing strengthens the learners’ existing
knowledge of grammatical structures, spelling, expressions and vocabulary, as
well as giving them the opportunity to apply their knowledge.

The most important thing that learners need to learn is that writing means
rewriting repeatedly. Very few people can write and get it right the first time.
Even Ernest Hemmingway said that the first draft of anything is rubbish (although
he used another, less polite, word for “rubbish”!).

5.2 ‌WHAT THE CAPS SAYS ABOUT WRITING AND PRESENTING

You need to familiarise yourself with the guidelines provided in the CAPS for
how writing should be taught, how much time needs to be spent on writing
instruction, what kinds of texts learners should be taught, as well as what the
purpose, text structure and language features of each text are.

Ac tivit y 5b
In section 2.1.2 of the CAPS, read what it says about writing and presenting.
Also see section 3.1 for an explanation of the content, strategies and
subskills of writing and section 3.2.2 for a summary of text types across
the phase. Lastly, read section 3.2.3 for clarification on the length of texts
to be produced by home language learners.

The CAPS points out that writing is a powerful instrument of communication

that also forces learners to think about grammar and spelling. Learners need
to write frequently – initially with the support of writing frames and then
gradually learning to write independently. A process approach to writing should
be followed, consisting of pre-writing (planning), drafting, revision, editing
(proofreading) and publishing (presenting). Four hours per two-week teaching
cycle should be spent on writing and presenting. Apart from being able to write
words (e.g. lists), sentences and paragraphs, learners should also be exposed to
creative writing (descriptive, narrative, imaginative, dialogues and short plays
based on stories) and transactional writing, such as notes, messages, letters,
greeting cards and invitations, posters, notices, brochures, advertisements,
short written speeches, procedural texts and recounts, factual recounts (e.g.
news reports) and graphic texts.

Did you note the length of texts for each of the different grades in the IP?

The summary of text types, their purpose, text structure and language features
must always be consulted when teaching any of the text types. For example, if
you want to teach learners how to write an invitation, it is important for you to
know that an invitation must include the nature of the event, where it will take
place, the date and time, dress code, name of invitee and RSVP; it may also have
a visual design element and the response may be in the form of a note or letter.
You also need to know that the type of language used may be formal or informal,
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that the invitation is generally concise, brief and to the point, that conventional
phrases such as “I would like to invite you …” are used and that the response is
usually polite (e.g. “Thank you so much for inviting me, but I will unfortunately
not be able to attend as I already have another commitment at that time.”) You
need to consult the CAPS to familiarise yourself with the requirements for all
the different text types to be taught.

We have previously alerted you to the importance of integrating reading and

writing. For instance, you cannot expect learners to write an advertisement if
they haven’t previously read and analysed a few advertisements to understand
what their main features/characteristics are.

5.3 KEY ASPECTS OF WRITING INSTRUCTION

There are certain key aspects or guidelines that you need to keep in mind when
teaching writing.

Ac tivit y 5c
Read the two scenarios below and then answer the questions that follow
in your notebook.
Scenario 1
Mr Smith enters the classroom. He greets the learners and instructs them
to sit down and take out their books. He tells them that he is going to
teach them to write a newspaper article. He explains that a newspaper
article is a factual account of something and writes on the board “Factual
account”. He further explains that the purpose of a newspaper article
is to inform, educate, enlighten and entertain the public. He says that a
newspaper article states facts briefly but accurately (he writes this point on
the board). He also explains that newspaper articles strive to communicate
the essence, without losing the reader; he writes this on the board too.
Every time he explains something, he writes the point on the board. He
tells the learners that newspaper articles gives a succinct title and add a
clear subtitle. The article starts with the most important facts: who, what,
how, when, where, why and to what degree? For homework, the learners
are instructed to write a newspaper article on a topic of their choice and
Mr Smith marks their newspaper articles the following day. He indicates
all the errors in red and awards a mark out of 20.
Scenario 2
Before the learners enter the classroom, Ms Mojela has rearranged the
tables and chairs so that the learners can work in groups of four. She has
placed a newspaper on each group’s desk. After she greets the learners,
she asks them whether they can tell her about anything that has happened
in the world over the past few days. She asks them where they have learnt
about these events. Then she asks them who reads newspapers, what the
purpose of newspapers are and where else we can find out about what
happens in the world and the country. The learners suggest social media,
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such as Twitter or Facebook, and television. They talk a bit about how
trustworthy these sources are and briefly refer to fake news.
Then Ms Mojela asks them to page through the newspapers and find an
article that the group is interested in. Each group has to read the article.
Then she asks one or two of the groups to tell the rest of the class what
their newspaper article is about. She then asks them to underline the
following in the article: when did it happen? (underline in blue); what
happened? (underline in black); who was involved? (underline in red); where
did it happen? (underline in pencil); and why did it happen? (underline in
any other colour they have at their disposal). Then she asks the learners
to come to a conclusion, based on the things they have underlined in
the article. The learners agree that a newspaper article tells the readers
about what happened, where, when, how, to whom, etc. She asks each
group why they chose to read the particular article in the newspaper and
they all agree that it was because the heading of the article drew their
attention. They discuss the importance of headings (and subheadings) and
the learners decide in their groups whether the heading of their article
depicts accurately what the article is about.
The learners are required to come up with a suitable subheading if the
newspaper article that they selected does not have a subheading.
Ms Mojela tells learners that for homework, they need to write a draft
of their own newspaper article of approximately 80-100 words for the
school’s newspaper. The article must report on their school’s public
speaking competition or the school netball/soccer matches against the
neighbouring school that took place the previous week. They have to
answer the following questions before they may start writing:
•• What was the event?
•• Who were involved?
•• When did it take place?
•• Where did it take place?
•• Why did it take place?
•• What happened/what was the outcome of the event?

They brainstormed aspects that should be included in the article in their

groups.
The learners work in their groups again the following day. The group
members read one another’s articles and ask one another questions to
clarify aspects in the article that they don’t understand. They comment on
the title and subtitle of the articles. Thereafter, the articles are rewritten
neatly and any necessary changes are made. Ms Mojela indicates only
punctuation errors when she assesses the articles. She photocopies a few
of the best ones and pins them up on the notice board in her classroom.
During the next week, Ms Mojela uses the following letter that Daisy a
young school daughter from East London has written to Mr Ramaphosa
because she wanted to teach letter writing to learners.

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Daisy’s letter to President Cyril Ramaphosa Picture: Supplied/facebook

https://city-press.news24.com/News/daisy-from-east-london-asks-
ramaphosa-her-questions-in-person-20190308.
They debate whether Daisy’s letter is an example of a formal or informal
letter and discuss the difference between the two types of letters. She
lets learners brainstorm ideas on what they would like to ask different
politicians in the country (e.g. the Minister of Basic Education, the Minister
of Environmental Affairs or the Minister of Finance.). Learners then have to
identify one politician and write a letter to him/her. After writing the letters,
learners get a chance to read one another’s letters and to suggest ways
of improving the letters. Learners are given a chance to make corrections,
before writing their letters neatly in their books. Ms Mojela then selects
the best letters and mails copies of them to the relevant politicians.
Draw two columns in your notebook and complete the following table by
marking the appropriate column. You do not need to rewrite the entire
left-hand column in your notebook – write only the number.
Smith Mojela
1. This lesson is based
on communicative principles.
2. The teacher uses real-life
situations.
3. The teacher does most of the
speaking – the learners only
answer questions.

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Smith Mojela
4. The learners help one another
to learn new language
structures.
5. The learners know exactly what
they are expected to do because
they are given good examples.
6. The learners are given the
chance to speak to their
classmates about their writing
tasks.
7. List all the language skills the learners developed in the second
scenario.
8. Classify Ms Mojela’s lesson under the following headings: pre-
writing activities, writing activities and after-writing activities.
9. What important writing instruction principles can you deduce
from Ms Mojela’s lesson?

Learners need to be actively taught how to write – as Ms Mojela did.

The communicative approach to language teaching has had an enormous
influence on how writing skills are taught. Next, using Bosman (1994:31-
55) and Mr Smith and Ms Mojela’s lessons as a guide, we will discuss a
few important guidelines for writing instruction. You will see that this
discussion is closely linked with the language teaching principles we
discussed in learning unit 3.

5.3.1 Integrating listening, speaking and reading with writing

Writing instruction cannot be taught as an isolated component (as Mr Smith
did). It must be integrated with other skills (speaking, reading and listening), as
Ms Mojela did: She first gave the learners a newspaper and some newspaper
articles that they had to read. The learners then discussed (speaking) the articles
(and, as a result, also listened to one another) before they wrote (writing) their
own articles. Remember that these activities need not be done in one lesson.
Pre-writing can be done in one lesson, while the actual writing can be done in
the next lesson and the post-writing activities, in a subsequent lesson.

It is a good idea to use brainstorming (or a class discussion) before starting with
a writing task so that all the learners can give ideas about how a specific topic
could be dealt with. It is essential to give the learners the necessary ‘’tools’’ (e.g.
vocabulary, expressions and sentence structures) so that they are able to meet
their objective, namely the writing task. Ms Mojela gave learners the structure by
letting them answer questions about when, where, what, etc, before they started
to write their own article. Language structures must, therefore, be developed
before they can be applied in writing. Ms Mojela also let learners brainstorm
ideas before they were expected to write to a politician.

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5.3.2 The communicative function of writing

Mr Smith’s learners did not have any purpose for writing their articles. They also
did not understand for whom they were writing the article. They were actually
just writing for Mr Smith so that he could read their articles and – even worse –
indicate their mistakes. Consequently, they did not experience the communication
function of writing. Writing instruction is basically about developing writing skills
and is thus, by nature, directed at developing communication skills. Writing is
not just about the writing action; it is about communicating with other people.
Whether you are writing a report, letter or article, you write so that someone
else will read what you have written. To write without a target group in mind is a
bit like ‘’talking’’ to someone over the telephone without first dialling a number.
Similarly, writing only so that the teacher can read your text and indicate your
errors is demoralising and intimidating.

By showing her learners Daisy’s letter to Mr Ramaphosa, Ms Mojela helped her

learners to appreciate the communicative function of writing: Daisy wrote to
Mr Ramaphosa and he wrote back to her.

Learners should be taught, right from the beginning, that writing always has a
purpose (to give information, to describe something, to request information, to
write something down so that you do not forget it), an audience (who is going
to read it?) and a structure (a list, notes, a story). Ms Mojela realised this, which
is why she first discussed the purpose of newspapers and other places where
news can be found (e.g. social media – including a discussion of whether news
on social media is always trustworthy – or the internet or television) and then
asked the learners to write a newspaper article about a specific event that took
place, telling them that it would be for the school’s newspaper. Depending on
the type of communication, the language and style may be informal, emotional,
grim or sober. Ms Mojela also brought this to the learners’ attention.

By getting the learners to fill in forms, make birthday cards for their friends
(after they had studied a couple of examples), compile lists of things that they
must remember (shopping lists, to-do lists) or write messages for an answering
machine, you can teach the learners that the purpose of writing is to communicate.

5.3.3 The influence of assessment on the writing task

Traditionally, the teacher read what the learners wrote – or, rather, just
‘’marked’’ it. Teachers generally indicate mistakes, rewrite sentences or make
meaningless comments, such as ‘’Good work’’, ‘’Can do better’’ or ‘’Is this your
best?’’ As a result, the learners often think that what they say is less important
than spelling correctly and applying the correct language rules; they fail to see
the writing process as part of the communication process. Instead, learners should
read one another’s work on a regular basis (e.g. when Ms Mojela requested them
to read one another’s letters to a politician) and comment on one another’s
work. Also, by concentrating on a certain type of mistake (e.g. punctuation or
sentence structure), the teacher is able to make assessment more meaningful.

It is not necessary to correct all errors in a learner’s work. If your purpose is to foster
independent writers, you can provide summary comments that instruct learners
to look for problems and correct them themselves. For instance, instead of adding
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an -s to the end of every first-person present-tense verb, you could comment at

the end: “There are several verbs following singular nouns that are missing an -s
at the end. Try to locate and correct these verbs in the next version of this paper.”
Remember that positive criticism is essential, even if a text is full of errors. Try to
find at least one good idea of the learner and make an encouraging comment
on it.

Be cautious about the tone of your comments. The margins of a paper are
small and, therefore, we often tend to leave out words that could soften the
message. So, instead of writing “I am not sure that I understand your point
here,” the limited space may cause you simply to write “Confusing”. Learners
will experience comments such as this as unkind and unhelpful, causing them
to feel demotivated about their future writing attempts.

5.3.4 Writing in the classroom

It is important when teaching writing skills that you focus on the direct use of
the language in the classroom. This means that the learner must immediately
write down his or her feelings, opinions, views or ideas. It is not acceptable for
a teacher to spend an entire lesson speaking and then to expect the learner to
write an essay, letter or advertisement for homework.

A great deal of the planning in Ms Mojela’s class was done during the lesson.
Please note that we are not saying that learners should not do any writing at
home, but, rather, that learners should be given the opportunity to write in the
classroom.

It is essential that the learners start to formulate their main message in the class,
realising that a successful piece of writing has a dominant idea that is built upon.

5.3.5 Using examples

We cannot overemphasise the use of good examples. If, for example, you want
the learners to write a newspaper article, you should give them good examples
of articles to read beforehand – as Ms Mojela did.

Many learners – particularly those in rural areas – have very little access to written
language. For many of these learners, their school textbooks are the only source
of written material that they ever see. These learners (and there are many of
them) have no examples of texts or written resources in their homes and thus do
not know what a review, advertisement, report, comic strip, newspaper article
or dialogue is. They must, therefore, be given the opportunity in the classroom
to study these types of texts before they are expected to write similar texts
themselves.

Ac tivit y 5d
Collect at least two examples of advertisements, book reviews and
newspaper articles that you could use for a writing lesson. File them in
your Teacher Resource File.

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5.3.6 Writing anxiety

While there are some learners with a natural ability to write, there are others
who suffer enormously from writing anxiety. They are afraid to write, worried
about making mistakes and concerned that they will not know what to write
about. (For many, writing anxiety stems from having bad handwriting, causing
them to be reprimanded time and time again for their illegible handwriting.)
These learners need concrete guidelines and the teachers need considerable
patience and empathy if they are to help the learners to overcome their anxiety.
A systematic approach to writing may help in this regard. It is essential that
learners also get the opportunity to use typewriters or computers so that they
can see that, with the help of the right resources, they are able to produce a
legible product.

5.3.7 Process versus product

Mr Smith approached writing as a product. Very little teaching took place – the
learners had to write the article and submit it for marking. The focus was on
the end product, the completed news paper article. Ms Mojela, in contrast,
approached writing as a process. The learners were given the opportunity to
first think and speak about the writing task, to write a draft copy, to discuss it
again and to revise it before writing the end product. In addition, Ms Mojela was
involved in each step of the process.

5.4 WRITING AS A PROCESS

At the beginning of this learning unit, we referred to the problems that some
learners experience when they write; we also mentioned that some learners
find it very difficult to write. Let’s now do a practical exercise to see how we can
structure the writing process for learners.

Ac tivit y 5e
The head of the Languages Department at the local high school has asked
you to deliver a speech to Grade 12 learners about some ways to overcome
the problem of poverty in your area. She would like a written copy of your
speech so that she can refer to it at a later stage. Now write a speech of
between 400 and 500 words.
Write your essay by hand on a loose piece of paper – don’t use a computer.
Use a pen and scratch out what you wish to leave out, rather than using an
eraser; in this way, you will still be able to see all the changes you made.
You may start on a new piece of paper as often as you like. Be aware of
your thought processes and what you do – write this down while you are
working or as soon as you have finished.
If you are working in a group, compare your notes with those of the other
students. What are the similarities and differences? If you are working alone,
reflect on the writing process. Use the following questions to guide you:

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Preparation:
Did you plan your writing? If so, did you write down a few keywords,
develop a broad outline/schema, discuss it with others or brainstorm,
or did you start writing after just a few minutes’ thought? Did you
first do a bit of research or reading? Did you take the target group
(the Grade 12 learners) into consideration right from the beginning?
The writing process:
How far did you get before you had to scratch out, add or change
something? How many times did you rewrite the text or start over?
Did you finalise one section before starting another, or did you write
an entire draft before going back to finalise individual sections?
Did you change the order of the paragraphs? Did you add new
paragraphs between existing paragraphs? Did you ever need help
(from an experienced writer or teacher)? If so, when and why? Did
you first write a draft copy and then finalise the end product?
The end product:
If you made notes before you started, to what extent do the end
product and the notes concur? Are you satisfied with the end
product? Would you like someone to read it and to give you some
advice? Would you like to see what some of the other students have
written about the same topic?
By doing this exercise, we are sure that you have realised that each individual
follows a different writing process and that different writers have different
ways of getting to the end product. Although the end product of a writing
exercise is linear, it does not mean that it has been written in the same
way. Writers tend to move backwards and forwards when they write and
you should teach the learners that this is an acceptable way of writing.
You have probably also realised that writing can be a messy affair – most
people write a number of muddled or jumbled concepts before arriving
at the end product. Learners must thus be taught that they will have to
review their work and not see the first draft as the end product. People
generally like others to read their work and offer suggestions – and they
also like to read others’ work on the same topic.
What can we learn from this exercise about writing instruction?
We believe that many people find it difficult to write. (It certainly doesn’t
get easier as you get older and most people tend to seek any guidance
they can get). It is clear that you cannot accept your first draft as the end
product (remember this when you answer your assignments, too). The
writing process often requires you to write, rewrite and then rewrite again.
Although writing can be done in different ways, it is wise to teach learners
to tackle their writing tasks systematically. A more structured approach
will be particularly beneficial for those learners who require a little more
guidance when writing.

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5.5 HOW TO GUIDE LEARNERS THROUGH THE WRITING PROCESS

5.5.1 Pre-writing/planning (This can also be called orientation to the writing

task)
We are sure you will agree that the first step in the writing process is to orientate
the learners. Remember, the purpose of writing is to achieve a result. People
would definitely not put pen to paper unless the purpose of the writing process
was to achieve a result. We write invitations, for example, because we want people
to share a special event with us; we write letters to the municipality because we
want them to repair the lights in our street; and we write examinations because
we want to pass our subjects.

Your most important task, therefore, is to convince the learners that the purpose
of writing is not to finish the task as quickly as possible, but to achieve a specific
result. They must also understand that writing is communication and they are
writing for someone to read what they have written.

Some of the results we might strive for during writing include:

•• describing something
•• telling someone about a personal experience
•• influencing or convincing people
•• complaining about something
•• giving instructions
•• providing information
•• maintaining a relationship

During the pre-writing process, the learner must thus – first and foremost – form
a picture of:

•• the target group for which he or she is writing

•• the goal (purpose or result) that he or she wants to achieve

The target group and the goal will determine whether the writing task is formal or
informal, as well as the conditions with which the language usage must comply.

Learners must understand that not all written texts have the same target group.
For example, a text about insects for preschool children will be totally different
from a text about insects that has been written for adults or entomologists. The
target group and the goal of a writing task thus, determine the style, language
usage and content. You must draw this to the learners’ attention and give them
exercises to practise this.

You could make the learners sensitive to the target group for whom they are
writing by, for example, displaying a variety of library book titles and asking
them to speculate about the target audiences the authors had in mind when
they were writing their books. The learners must discuss the different target
groups with regard to possible age, interests, careers and levels of education.

You also need to expose learners to examples during the pre-writing phase. You
cannot expect the learners to write an advertisement or an invitation without
first having seen those types of texts. If the learners need to comply with certain
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structural requirements (e.g. the format of a friendly or formal letter or an official

letter), these need to be brought to their attention by means of examples during
this orientation phase. You also need to consult the CAPS to make sure that you
teach learners the text structure and language features of each type of text.
By asking themselves the following questions, the learners can orient themselves
to the writing task:
•• What type of text do I have to write?
•• What does such a text look like? What must I take particular note of?
•• Who is going to read the text, that is, who is the target group for whom I
am writing?
•• What do I want to achieve with the text?
Asking and answering questions must become a habit. Learners could, for
example, first answer the above-mentioned questions in small groups, brainstorm
or each try to answer the questions themselves before they are discussed in class.
Reread Ms Mojela’s lesson and establish what pre-writing activities she did.
Once the learners have formed an idea for themselves of the type of text that
they have to write, what the characteristics of such a text are, who the target
group is and what the purpose of the text is, they can begin planning the text.
Teachers cannot just tell learners that they have to plan; they must actively help
them to do so. Let’s discuss a few ways in which learners can be assisted to plan
their writing activity.
The learners should first be helped to analyse the topic and ask themselves what
they could do with the topic. As a start, you should help the learners to ‘’loosen
up’’ their thoughts, using the following techniques.
(a) Brainstorming
There are various brainstorming techniques:
•• Get the learners to think about all the words related to the topic.
•• These words are then written up on the board (they must be recorded/noted,
even if the words are not really related to the topic).
•• When the ideas have dried up, the words are sifted. Words that are unsuitable
are crossed out/erased.
•• The remaining words are arranged in related categories and the learners can
use these words when they tackle the writing task.
•• Learners can also form “abc” associations with the topic: each letter of the
alphabet is used as the first letter of a word that is related to the topic.
•• Who, what and where questions can also be answered in a brainstorming
session.
(b) Word chains
Another useful planning technique is to make a word chain or mind map for
the topic.
•• The theme about which the learners have to write is written in the middle
of the chalkboard.
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•• Then words that are related to the theme and that justify a paragraph are
written down.
•• Each word is expanded on, as in the example below.

FIGURE 5.1
Example of a word chain

(c) Brace maps

Brace maps are another way of helping learners to plan (see figure 5.2 for an
example). Brace maps help learners understand the relationship between a whole
object or concept and its parts. Each of the sub-sub-sections on the brace map
can be broken down further.

FIGURE 5.2
Example of a brace map (Artist: Nadia Nel)

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(d) Interviews

Interviews in a group context are very useful. They work as follows: Karen says
the following to the members of her group: ‘’I have to write a descriptive essay
about pollution in my environment. Please ask me some questions that will help
me to develop some ideas for my essay.’’

5.5.2 Writing a draft copy

Learners must always first write a draft copy. It is sometimes even necessary to
rework a text two or three times before submitting the end product. Learners
must realise that it is essential to write an initial text, perhaps revise it, then
discuss it and amend it after discussions with the teacher and other learners, in
order to create a well-rounded and effective piece of communicative writing.
You must plan your teaching so that the learners have the opportunity to work
through this rewriting process. A very effective way of helping learners with the
rewriting process is to get them to read one another’s work and give advice or
indicate errors.

5.5.3 Revising and improving the draft copy

It is important that you motivate the learners to read and improve a text before it
goes to the reader. The goal of revising a text is to make it as fluent and readable
as possible.

This step is not just a case of ‘’proofreading’’ the initial text; rather, it is a case of
reconsidering and re-evaluating what has been written. It is sometimes necessary
to put a text aside for a day or two before it is revised. Classmates can also be
asked to revise one another’s work. In such a case, a short checklist such as the
following might be useful:

•• Do I understand everything that has been written?

•• Is the message that has been conveyed clear?

The learners can revise and improve their work based on the comments and
answers to the above questions. Although you can let learners read one another’s
work, learners in the IP should rather not be asked to “assess” one another’s
written work, as they often tend to mark things that are correct as incorrect
because of their limited language knowledge. They should merely tell their
classmates whether they understood what was written and whether the message
was clear.

Be warned: learners, especially young learners, are often unwilling to revise

and rewrite their work. According to Soven (1999:44-45), there are a number of
reasons for this:

•• Writing is hard work and it is painful to rewrite sentences that were written
with so much effort.
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•• Beginner writers (inexperienced writers) seldom want to read through their

own work. They usually say that because their work is so poor, they hate
having to read it themselves, or that their first attempt was their best attempt.
•• Beginner writers seldom know what to look for when they reread their work.
•• Beginner writers are hesitant to ask friends to help them with their revision.

Soven’s last point is very valid. You could therefore structure the activities
by asking learners to complete revision forms, such as the following, on one
another’s work:

Reader–writer response
I think the best part of your essay is ............................................................................................
I think you could change the following: ...............................................................................
I think you should add the following: ....................................................................................
I do not understand the following: ........................................................................................
You are good at: ..........................................................................................................................
Your ..............................................................................................................was very effective.

Ac tivit y 5f
1. What does the revision of written work entail?
2. Do you think it is necessary to revise written work?
3. How willing are you to revise your own written work and to make the
necessary changes?
4. What will you do to ensure that all your learners revise their essays?

Soven (1999:47) recommends the following strategies to encourage learners to

revise their work:

•• Share your own revision attempts with the learners. Explain to them that
revision is a natural part of writing.
•• It is essential that you comment positively about even the smallest revision.
•• Try to isolate just a few aspects that must be taken into consideration during
revision, rather than asking the learners to revise their entire essay. Focus, for
example, on revising the introduction and conclusion.
•• Allow learners to help one another when they revise their work.

5.5.4 ‌Editing/proofreading
Editing and proofreading are two different steps of the writing process. Both
demand close and careful reading. It is advisable to let the learners put some
distance between the writing process and the editing and proofreading processes.
It is difficult to edit a text that you have just finished writing, so we suggest that
learners wait a day or two so that they can take a fresh look at what they have
written. If learners have access to computers, you could ask them to convert
their handwritten text to typed format before they start doing the editing, since
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they often get a different perspective on their work when the font and style of
the text are changed.

Editing needs to start once the learners have completed their first draft and it
requires them to consider the following:

Content. Have I done everything the writing task requires? Are my descriptions/
arguments/points of view clear?

Overall structure. Does my text have an appropriate introduction and conclusion?

Are all the paragraphs related to the topic?

Structure within paragraphs. Does each paragraph have a clear topic sentence?

Style. Have I used an appropriate style – formal, informal, persuasive, etc? Have I
varied the length of my sentences? Are there any unnecessary words or phrases
in my text?

Proofreading is the final step of the editing process. When proofreading, the
learners must focus on the way the paper looks. Is the layout correct and is the
text broken up into paragraphs?

They also need to proofread for glaring errors and spelling mistakes, so it is best
for them to read slowly and read every word; they could even read the text out
loud. Punctuation marks need to be checked during proofreading and learners
could be asked to underline each punctuation mark with a pencil. This will help
them to be aware of the punctuation marks and to make sure that they have
been used correctly.

5.5.5 ‌Publishing/presenting written work

A lot of thought goes into written work and many learners like to have their work
displayed. Written work can be shared in a number of ways:

•• Read the work to learners in other classes or pin it up on a notice board.

•• Arrange a display of learners’ work.
•• Hold a ‘’Young Authors’ Day’’ for the whole school, where learners can display
their work or read it aloud.
•• Encourage learners to submit work to the school magazine.
•• Let the learners actually post their letters to their grandparents, the newspaper
or a friend (Petty, Petty & Salzer 1994:256).

Where learners have online access, encourage them to write an online blog
(e.g. on Facebook) and to give their friends access to their blog. They can also
be asked to write comments for an online discussion forum or social media,
such as Facebook.

Watch the following video clip, which gives another overview of the writing
process:

“How to teach writing: The writing process” by Write On! With Jamie at https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=JPUh9mfSqWU.
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How does the process described in the video clip compare with the one we
described above?

5.5.6 Reflection
After completing their writing, learners should reflect on the writing process.
Learners should ask themselves how they approached the writing task and
whether it was a good method. If the end product of the writing process was
unsuccessful, or if the writing process was more difficult than necessary. The
value of such reflection is obvious. But even if the end product was successful,
learners should still reflect on what contributed to the success of the end product.
In this regard, you could let learners answer the following questions to reflect
on their writing:

•• How did I prepare myself for the writing task?

•• Did I explore a number of ideas before starting to write?
•• During the writing process, did I bear in mind my purpose and the target
group or person for whom I was writing?
•• During the writing process, did I have problems with word choice, spelling,
sentence construction or developing the text? How did I deal with these
problems?
•• Did I read through my work and make corrections after finishing my writing
task?
•• Did I take my classmates’ and teacher’s comments into consideration?

It is a good idea to force learners to write down their reflections initially. You
could, for example, encourage them to ask themselves the following Stop! Stay!
Start! questions:

Stop: What did I do wrong and what must I stop doing?

Stay: What did I do right and what must I keep on doing?
Start: What did I not do and what must I start doing next time I write?

Ac tivit y 5g
Watch the following short video clip:
“A smart move: Reflecting on your writing” by Mrs Boswell at https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=RXqbaPx9HeE.
Imagine that you are making this video clip for your own learners. Which
main points would you add?

It is a good idea to keep the following two points in mind during writing
instruction:

(1) Writing is a process that is not necessarily linear. The pre-writing activities,
writing the draft, and revising and rewriting often overlap. We often revise
and rewrite a paragraph, for example, long before we have completed the
writing task. Do you do that as well?
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(2) Some learners need more time than others to plan and write a text. There
are many learners who find it extremely difficult just to start writing. Keep
these learners in mind when you set due dates for creative writing or when
they need to complete writing tasks in the class.

5.6 TEACHING DIFFERENT TYPES OF WRITING EXERCISES

It is impossible to discuss every type of writing here, so we have chosen to
discuss just a few. If, however, you keep everything in mind that we have already
discussed, you should be able to teach any kind of writing.

5.6.1 Writing sentences and paragraphs

Learners start by writing sentences and paragraphs before they can write longer
texts.

Let learners start with a simple sentence that contains a subject–verb combination.
They need to know that the subject describes who or what the sentence is about
and the verb describes the action. Once you have identified a simple sentence,
for example “The boy ran”, you must help learners to understand that we can
add details by answering the following questions:

•• Where?
•• When?
•• How?
•• Why?

From the example sentence above, we know the subject is “the boy” and the
verb is “ran”, but we are missing details that can provide a better understanding
of the boy for our readers. Where was the boy? When and how did he run? Why
was he running? Where is the boy running to? What does he look like? These
are questions you can ask learners to elicit ideas and phrases that could be
incorporated into your simple sentence, thus expanding it into a more complex
and detailed one.

Let learners practise writing simple sentences and then expanding them into
more comprehensive sentences.

Once they know how to formulate sentences, they need to understand that
sentences can be added or existing sentences can be combined to form a
paragraph, which should have one main idea or topic.

Learners can be taught to write a paragraph by using a journey (or a hamburger)

as a metaphor:

Discuss the three main components of a paragraph (or story), namely:

(a) the introduction (beginning of the journey, or the bottom bun of the
hamburger)
(b) the internal or supporting information (the stops along the way or the fill-
ing of the hamburger)
(c) the conclusion (the destination or the top bun of the hamburger)
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Then ask learners to write a topic sentence that clearly indicates what the whole
paragraph is going to be about. Get the learners to compose several supporting
sentences that give more information about the topic. Lastly, help learners to
write a concluding sentence that restates the topic sentence.

FIGURE 5.3
The road to a story (Artist: Nadia Nel)

You can also use the four-square writing technique. The advantages of using
this technique are that it makes learners’ writing more focused, it helps them to
organise ideas and to elaborate on them by adding details, as well as emphasising
transitions and scaffolding the writing process. This technique can be used for
writing paragraphs, but can be adapted and used when teaching learners to write
longer texts as well. The technique works as follows (you need to demonstrate
writing your own paragraph as you go along) (English Department Curriculum
Standards Office, http://www.edu.gov.qa/Ar/SECInstitutes/EducationInstitute/
CS/English/Coordinators%20Meetings/13.pdf):

(1) Take an A4 piece of paper and fold it into four.

(2) Draw a square in the middle and tell learners that you are going to teach
them to write a paragraph about South Africa. Write a topic sentence in the
square, for example “South Africa is a beautiful country” Explain to learners
that this sentence must prepare the reader for what the paragraph is going
to be about. It must tie all four squares together.

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(3) Add three supporting sentences about South Africa, one in each square.
The sentence in the first square must be an opening supportive sentence
and the sentence in the last square must be a summary sentence, which
must preferably be about feelings or emotions. Learners must fill in their
squares about a part of South Africa they want to mention.

FIGURE 5.4
Planning to write a paragraph

(4) Next add detail to the sentences in the four squares. Show learners how
you do it for your own paragraph on South Africa, but they must do it on
their A4 papers for the topic they have chosen.

FIGURE 5.5
Planning to write a paragraph – extending ideas

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(5) Finally, transfer the paragraph to lined paper.

Once the learners have elaborated on their sentences in the four squares, they
can provide a heading for the paragraph and transfer it from their A4 paper to
their exercise books. (If they wish, they could substitute pronouns for nouns,
replace certain vocabulary with other terms and add transition words before
transferring their paragraphs from their squares to their books. Therefore, it is a
good idea to teach them some of the following transition words: and, in addition
to, furthermore, moreover, besides, then, too, also, both…and, another, equally
important, first, second, again, further, last, finally, not only,…but also, as well as,
in the second place, next, likewise, similarly, in fact, as a result, consequently, in the
same way, for example, for instance.)

South Africa is a beautiful country. It is rich in fauna and flora and is in particular
known for the Kruger National Park and the Big Five. South Africa is often called
the “rainbow Nation, because there are people from many different cultures
living in South Africa. This is evident from the many different languages spoken
by the people of the country. There are nine provinces in South Africa. Each
province has something different to offer and that is why millions of tourists
visit our country every year. I like South Africa very much.

This is a very mechanical way of teaching learners to write, but it is a good way
of teaching them that each paragraph, whether on its own or as part of a longer
piece of writing, must have one central idea or topic.

When learners understand that a paragraph must have just one topic sentence
and that all the sentences in the paragraph must relate to the topic, you can
give them a few examples of good paragraphs and ask them to identify the
topic sentence and the supporting sentences in the paragraph. They can also
be asked to formulate a possible heading for the paragraph.

5.6.2 Creative writing

Home language learners are expected to produce the following types of creative
writing:

•• descriptive (e.g. descriptions of people, places, animals, plants, objects)

•• narrative (e.g. stories, personal recounts)
•• imaginative (e.g. short poems)
•• dialogues and short play scripts based on stories

Creative writing is the collective name for all writing in which subjective
experiences, fantasy and originality are central. The learner writes primarily for
himself or herself and for his or her own pleasure – this type of creative writing
thus differs from a transactional type of writing (letters, greeting cards, posters,
etc), which we have already discussed, because the communication function,
the purpose, target group and structure of the creative writing are not always
so prominent. Learners write freely, they play with the language and discover
the language’s possibilities. All that is expected of the learners at this stage is
that they develop their own abilities and talents in the field of writing.
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The learners must be encouraged to write freely, that is, putting their ideas on
paper without fearing that the teacher will use a red pen liberally to spoil their
fantasies and dreams. Hence, the teacher’s red pen must be used with discretion
during creative writing because it can so easily ruin the pleasure and enjoyment
associated with creative writing.

5.6.2.1 Descriptive writing

First of all, you have to make sure that your learners understand what is meant
by descriptive writing. Giving them examples to read as part of a reading lesson
will help with this. Let them first write descriptive sentences before letting them
write longer pieces.

When teaching descriptive writing, you need to explain that they can use all their
senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, feeling and tasting) to describe something. For
example, they can be asked to select anything they see (e.g. their shoes, their
backpack, their desks) and describe it in five sentences, but they need to use a
different sense in each sentence.

Marypat (2017) suggests the following fun activity to teach descriptive writing:

Take me there – descriptions I can see!

A fun descriptive writing activity is to ask students to bring in a picture (or provide
them) of a vacation spot.
Day 1: Have students write a descriptive paragraph for their pictures. Encourage
them to make them so descriptive that readers will be able to see the picture in
their mind.
Collect the writing and pictures.
Day 2: Hang the pictures up around the room. Have students work with a partner.
Provide each pair with two descriptive paragraphs that were written the previous
day. Have students read, discuss, and match the description with what they believe
is the correct picture. Allow students to tape descriptions below the pictures. If
there is more than one paragraph that students think belongs with the picture,
allow it to be taped below the picture.
Analyze: Which pictures and descriptions were correctly matched up? Why? How
did the writer(s) paint the picture in the reader’s mind?
Hints about this assignment:
•• This works well if you teach two sections of the same class. You can swop the
pictures so learners are reading and analyzing pictures and writing from the
other class.
•• Focus on the writing that is effective. No negative responses allowed.
•• Use numbers or letters rather than student names to match the photo and
writing.

5.6.2.2 Writing narratives (stories)

Everyone likes to tell stories and listen to stories, but writing stories is not so easy.
Your first step when teaching learners to write a narrative is to explain to them
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that the purpose of a narrative is to tell a story that will inform or entertain the
reader; it can be fact or fiction.

The pre-writing or preparation phase is extremely important when teaching

learners to write a narrative. You can start by explaining the story flower to them:

FIGURE 5.6
The story flower (Artist: Nadia Nel)

•• Planning

Help learners to plan their stories by letting them discuss how they will approach
each of the following steps:

(1) Setting the scene. Let them decide where and when the story happened.
The setting of the story must be such that the reader will immediately know
what type of story they are reading. For example, a horror story will often
begin with a description of a deserted house on a hill or in the middle of
the woods after dark.
(2) Deciding who the characters in the story will be, how old they are, what
they look like, their gender, etc.
(3) Identifying the problem. The learners must understand that without a
problem, there would be no story. A good way of teaching them this is to
analyse well-known stories, such as the Three Little Pigs or Little Red Riding
Hood. Help learners to decide what the problem will be in the story that
they want to tell.
(4) Climax. This involves how things are resolved or come to an end. The climax
of the story is the dramatic high point of the story. It is where the problem
is resolved (or not resolved). The climax will determine whether there is
going to be a happy or a sad ending to the story.

You can provide the necessary scaffolding to learners by letting them complete
the following worksheet before they write their story:

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Title of the story:

Type of story:
Introduction (Set the scene or mood
for your story. Describe the when and
where of your story; who are the main
characters going to be?)
Middle (Describe the dilemma or
problem that is going to disrupt the
characters’ lives and set off a sequence
of events in your story, e.g. you – or one
of your characters – missed the bus or
got lost in the woods .)
Middle continued (Describe the
sequence of events as they will happen
and how they will affect the character(s)
in your story. You can use words such
as “while”, “meanwhile”, “as”, “when”,
“as soon as”.)
Middle continued (What further compli-
cations will occur?)
Ending (How is your story going to end?
How will the problem be resolved? Or
won’t it be resolved?

•• Transforming an existing story

You can also assist learners with their writing by giving them the following
very boring story (Natal College of Education 1998:192-193) and asking them to
transform/improve it.

A young girl was digging in the garden one day. She dug up an old box.
When she opened the lid, a strange little man jumped out. They had lots
of adventures together.

Now discuss the story using the following questions as a guide:

−− Why is the story so boring?

−− What could we do to make the story more interesting?
−− What things in the story should be expanded on?

Now plan and write (as a class, in groups or individually) how the story could be
made more interesting. You must provide the following information:

−− The child’s name. (The girl may be replaced by a boy.)

−− What did the box look like? Was it difficult or easy to open the box?
−− Was the child scared or excited?
−− What did the little man look like?
−− Can the little man speak, sing or dance? Is he naughty or well behaved?
−− What did the little man and the child do?
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−− What happened to the little man at the end of the story?

−− Find an appropriate title for the story.

•• Using pictures to stimulate the writing of narratives

Magazines and newspapers often publish series of pictures, with or without

dialogue. Learners can use a series of pictures to narrate what is happening or
to rewrite it in indirect speech. Alternatively, the dialogue can be erased so that
learners can insert their own. In the same way, the captions of cartoons can be
erased and learners can write in their own appropriate captions.

Ac tivit y 5h
Study the following picture and then write down in your notebook as
many possible writing activities as you can think of (and other activities
that could be linked to language skills).

FIGURE 5.7
Using pictures as a basis for creative writing activities

A whole range of activities can be based on pictures. Compare your ideas with
the following:

•• Determine the context and speculate about what happened. The picture
tells a story, but not the whole story. For instance, it does not tell us where
the accident took place, what caused it or who was involved. The learners
can supply all the background information. Let them decide on the name
of the town, who drove the truck, how old he is, what company he works
for, where he was going, who the cyclist is, the age of the cyclist, the injuries
suffered by the cyclist and the outcome of the accident. This kind of activity
can be done in groups and the learners could then compare the differences
and similarities between the groups’ answers.

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•• Role-play based on the picture. Now tell the learners to act as journalists,
medical personnel, police and traffic officers and to question the truck driver.
•• An ‘’eyewitness’’ could tell the police and the journalist what he or she saw,
or the ‘’cyclist’’ could tell his side of the story.
•• Taking notes. The journalist, police officer or agent from the insurance company
could take notes while questioning the eyewitnesses and those involved in
the accident.
•• Diary entries. Ask learners to make diary entries from the points of view of
the various people involved.
An eyewitness could write: ‘’Today I saw a frightful accident. A cyclist ...’’
The cyclist could write: ‘’Today I was nearly killed. I was just cruising along on
my bike ...’’
The truck driver could write the following: ‘’My truck’s brakes failed today and ...’’
Letters. Short letters could be written to grandparents, describing the accident.

Ac tivit y 5i
Now look for a picture or a series of pictures. Paste the picture or pictures
in your Teachers Resource File. Explain what writing activities your learners
could do.

5.6.2.3 ‌Imaginative writing (e.g. short poems)

Learners enjoy writing simple rhymes or poems. To start with, tell them to use a
particular rhyme scheme or topic. Give them simple poems and then ask them
to write their own poem based on the example.

•• Dialogues and short play scripts, based on stories

Before learners can be expected to write a dialogue, you need to do a lot of

pre-writing activities. Apart from discussing punctuation and direct speech, you
need to explain the purpose of a dialogue to them:

(1) A dialogue is a conversation between two or more people.

(2) Dialogue is essential to fiction writing.
(3) Dialogue brings characters to life and adds interest.
(4) Dialogue must do more than just duplicate real speech.
(5) Dialogue consists of the most exciting, interesting, emotional and dramatic
words.

When teaching learners to write a dialogue, you need to show them pictures of
people speaking. Alternatively, show them a picture illustrating several different
people and then let them imagine that two of the people are speaking to each
other. First they have to decide on the following:

•• Who are the characters?

•• What are they talking about?
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You could also give them a topic to write a dialogue on or you could use a writing
frame, such as the following one, so that they gradually learn how to master the
art of writing dialogues.

Title: Tips for safety at home

You would like to get more information about safety in the home from Captain
Clever, a policeman.

Complete the following dialogue between yourself and Captain Clever.

Instruction Expected dialogue

Introduce yourself to Captain Clever: You: Good morning..................................
He greets you and asks how he can be Captain Clever: ..........................................
of service:
..........................................................................
Say what the purpose of your visit is: You: ...................................................................
Captain Clever answers and asks you Captain Clever: Of course I can help
what you would like to know: you. What ....................................................
..........................................................................
Ask your first question: You: ................................................................
..........................................................................
Captain Clever answers: Captain Clever: Firstly, home owners
should install good locks on all their
doors and windows. Secondly, ...........
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
Ask your second question You: ................................................................
..........................................................................
Captain Clever answers: Captain Clever: Well, if you would like
to involve the community, you could
always establish a neighbourhood
watch.
You ask your next question: You: ................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
Captain Clever answers: Captain Clever: Yes, that will work.
People will be able to sleep more
peacefully.
You thank the captain for his help and You: ................................................................
greet him:
..........................................................................
Captain Clever greets you in return: Captain Clever: ..........................................
..........................................................................

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5.6.3 Transactional writing

Transactional writing comprises the writing of notes, messages, letters, greeting
cards, invitations, posters, brochures, advertisements, news reports and graphic
texts. It involves those writing tasks that have a particular purpose, such as
airing your views in a letter to the press, writing a report or review, or requesting
information from someone in writing.

5.6.3.1 Writing letters

Apart from the standard form – date, address, salutation, conclusion and the
address on the envelope – the question of content is important. It is essential
to give the learners examples. Take care that you don’t spend so much time on
the structure of the letter that you neglect to teach the learners how to write
the content (tone and register).

As in the case of all other writing activities, learners need to read a few examples
before they can be expected to write their own letters. Look, for example, again
at the letter that Daisy wrote to the President.

How could this letter be used to teach letter writing? Explain what you would
do during the pre-writing, writing and post-writing phases.

When teaching letter writing, learners must understand the communicative

function of letter writing. We write letters to someone so that they can read
the letters. It is therefore important that learners determine the target reader
before starting to write the letter.

5.6.3.2 Writing an instructional text

When teaching learners to write instructions (e.g. how to make a sandwich or a
cup of tea), you need to teach learners the following as part of the writing process:

(1) The materials or ingredients needed must be listed first.

(2) Each instruction is numbered/ordered.
(3) There is only one instruction per number
(4) Instructions are given in the exact order of performance.
(5) Instructions are short, precise and uncomplicated.
(6) Instructions are grammatically complete.
(7) The imperative form of the verb (e.g. mix, cut, bring) is used.
(8) Words showing order/sequence, such as “first”, “second” and “thereafter”,
must be used.

As a pre-writing activity, learners can be given a recipe to read. This can also be
linked to speaking by letting learners do a “show and tell” before they have to
write the instructions. Alternatively, they can write the instructions and then do
a “show and tell” in class.

You are probably tired of hearing that you need to use examples, but we need
to emphasise the importance of using examples during functional writing. If
you want learners to write instructions, you therefore need to give them several
examples of texts containing instructions (e.g. how to change an electrical plug,
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how to bake muffins, how to cook “pap”) first. You will find lots of instructions
on prepackaged food boxes (how to cook rice, etc.).

5.6.3.3 ‌Writing reports (newspaper reports and book reviews)

The scenario discussed at the beginning of this unit (Ms Mojela’s classroom)
explains how the writing of a newspaper report should be approached. You
can also keep the following information in mind when teaching learners how
to write a newspaper report.

A newspaper article is usually constituted by five key parts:

(1) The headline is a short, attention getting statement about the event
(2) The byline tells who wrote the story
(3) The lead paragraph contains the what happened, where and when did
it happen, who was involved, how did it happen, why is it newsworthy?
Answers to these questions must be written in the opening sentences of
the article and often provide the basis as to whether the reader continues
with the rest of the story or not.
(4) The body/explanation comprises of the relevant facts or details that
the intended audience needs to know after reading the headline and
lead paragraph. Depending on the context of the event, it could include
direct quotes from the researchers, study participants and or community
stakeholders.
(5) The additional information part contains those details that are of least
importance. In other words, these are details that even if the editor opted
to delete from the article, the author would not have to rewrite it so as to
convey the intended meaning.
Source: http://ktnetafrica.net/news/writing-newspaper-articles.

A book or film review is a type of report about a book or a film. Before the learners
can write a review, they need to have read the relevant book or watched the
film (or even a television show). They cannot write a review about something
that they have not experienced themselves. Of course, you could give them a
few film reviews to read and then ask them which film they would most like to
go and see and why.

When learners write a film review, they must keep the following in mind:

•• Genre. Is it a comedy, thriller, drama or romance?

•• Events. What happened? Is there a good storyline?
•• Character development. Do the characters grow? Are they convincing? Can
we identify with them?
•• Acting. Do the actors/actresses play their characters convincingly? Is the
acting overdone?
•• Dialogue. Is it fast, convincing or full of cliches?
•• Cinematography. Has the movie been well filmed?
•• Direction. Do the scenes flow into each other? Are the changes from one
scene to another confusing?
•• Music. Does the music fit the events? Does the music help to create atmosphere?
•• Special effects. Are the explosions, earthquakes, fires, wind, rain, etc convincing?
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5.6.3.4 Writing a short summary

Learners should be able to make summaries of and draw up schemes for topics.
They can be taught how to do this by proceeding as follows, while reading the
text:

•• Underline the main ideas.

•• Draw lines in the margin alongside the main ideas.
•• Draw asterisks in the margin to mark key facts.
•• Number the main ideas and details.
•• Circle keywords or phrases.
•• Make notes (e.g. keywords) in the margin.
•• Tabulate the information.
•• Mark important information with a highlighter.

To make a summary, these notes are organised and turned into a summary.

Ac tivit y 5j
Choose any reading passage of between 150 and 200 words and paste it
in your notebook. Explain how you would teach learners to summarise
the passage.

5.6.3.5 ‌Writing advertisements

When aiming to work with advertisements, you should first start with small
advertisements (e.g. my cat has gone missing), an announcement on a poster
(e.g. a school function or fete) or a mini-advertisement (e.g. items for sale, holiday
work required). There will be time later on for creating an advertisement for a
particular product. Learners (especially in urban areas) are usually very familiar
with advertisements and so it is easy to link up with their prior knowledge by
asking them to bring examples to class. The purpose of an advertisement is to
convince the reader of a particular action. The message must thus be clear, the
text should be short and concise, and no essential information may be omitted.
The following should also enjoy special attention: structure; colour; clear, readable
fonts; an illustration and visibility. It is essential – particularly in the case of home
language teaching – that learners use a variety of media when creating their
own advertisements. The advertisements will initially be based on the learners’
life world, but may be extended at a later stage to include those situations that
they will experience as adults.

When teaching learners to draw up advertisements, you need to teach them

the AIDA principle (Adapted from: https://www.cleverism.com/lexicon/
aida-principle-attention-interest-desire-action/):

•• Attention: An advertisement must grab the attention of a potential customer.

•• Interest: It is essential to keep the potential customers interested in the
advertisement. An original, entertaining, brief, witty and informative approach
should result in a positive reaction and building of the interest.
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•• Desire: Building up the desire to have or use a product/service in potential

customers consists mostly of an accumulation of positive arguments. In
addition to the basic information provided up to this point, now is the time
to mention numerous benefits of a product/service, which have not been
mentioned before.
•• Action: Closing the deal is the last step of the AIDA principle. Some customers
have fallen away with the progression of each stage. The people who arrive
at the action stage are the ones that acquired a positive impression of the
product/service advertised; the only step remaining is to offer them a sale.

These principles could be explained by letting learners analyse numerous real-

life advertisements to see if they can identify each of the principles.

Once again, examples are essential. Learners could, for example, be asked to
find two different advertisements that advertise the same item, such as a car
(e.g. a Mercedes and a Nissan). They could compare the advertisements and
write down all the similarities and differences between them. They should take
particular note of the image created by the different products, the language
used (facts, opinions, convincing language), the illustrations, font and font size.

Learners enjoy working on an advertisement in a group context. Let each group

decide on the following before they compile their own advertisement: what
they want to advertise, what/who the target market is, what the purpose of
the advertisement is, what the focus should be, whether or not they are going
to use illustrations, whether the advertisement will be convincingly visual or
language-based, etc.

Before compiling their advertisements, the learners must be made aware of

the following advertising techniques, which are generally used to convince
consumers to use/buy a specific product (Paul, Ponniah, Seah & Keng 1994:82):

•• persuasive language (e.g. new, improved, sensational offer, lasts longer,

powerful)
•• satisfaction of needs (e.g. suggestion that users will be stronger, healthier,
more attractive, more popular, more appealing)
•• endorsements (e.g. movie stars or sports figures may give a false impression
that they actually use the product)
•• inaccurate information about the product (e.g. implying that it has special
powers or that it is larger than it is)

You can also let learners design a shopping bag for a specific shop as part of
teaching them how to write advertisements.

The above-mentioned discussion on teaching different types of writing exercises

is far from complete. Refer to the list of references at the end of this study guide
if you would like any additional information about the different types of writing.

5.7 ASSESSING WRITING

Although assessment is dealt with in a separate learning unit, the assessment
of writing is such a unique task that we want to discuss it briefly here as well.
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Ac tivit y 5l
Read the following two scenarios (adapted from Soven 1999:109):
Classroom A
Janet has finished her essay and is ready to hand it in; she hesitates because
she is very nervous. All she can think about is the mark she is going to get.
Will she get an A this time? She worked really hard on her previous essay,
but only got a C. When she got her last essay back from the teacher, she
could clearly see where her mistakes were and she was also sure that she
would be able to improve her mark if she were given a second chance.
Janet is a very neat person and it really upsets her to see all the red scribbles
on her neat work.
Classroom B
Susan has finished her essay and is ready to hand it in. She is excited to
see what her teacher will think of it. She is not the slightest bit concerned
about her mark because she knows she will get another chance to improve,
if she chooses to use it. Although this essay will be corrected and given a
mark, she will be allowed to improve her work and write the final version,
which will then be put up on the classroom wall. Her teachers always
include interesting comments about her work, which she enjoys reading.
Now answer the following questions in your notebook:
1. Which of the situations above do you prefer? Why?
2. What role should assessment play in writing?
3. If you indicate mistakes in a piece of writing, do these corrections help
the learner to avoid making these mistakes again?
4. What is the difference between assessment of and feedback
(commenting) on a learner’s work?

We prefer the second scenario for the reasons outlined below.

•• In the first scenario, there is too much focus on assessment of the final product

By neglecting to mark the draft copies and by taking only the end product
into consideration, you lose much of the value of the writing process (see our
discussion in section 5.4). You should give regular feedback in the writing process.
There is far more value in identifying mistakes in the draft copies than in the
end product, once the entire process has been completed. Very few learners
take note of corrections that have been made with a red pen – they generally
only focus on the mark they have been given.

•• Your (i.e. the teacher’s) reaction is more important than the mark you award

We know that it is difficult to write lengthy comments if you have a large group
of learners, so why not mark fewer writing exercises so that you will be able to
write more comprehensive comments? Forget about giving marks on occasion
and just concentrate on giving written feedback on the learners’ work.

Compare, for example, the following two ways of approaching a learner’s work:
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Option 1

Suzy, your positive feelings about your grandmother come through

very strongly in your essay. I really like the way in which you have
described the good food that she cooked. If I were you, I would write
each characteristic of your grandmother in a separate paragraph rather
than writing them all in one long paragraph. I noticed a few punctuation
errors. See if you can find them and correct them.

Option 2

Content: Good

Language and style: Pay more attention to punctuation and

paragraphing.

10 out of 20

The comments in the second option are worthless and the mark allocation is
vague. Why did the learner get such a poor mark if the content was so good?
What was good about the content? What was the problem with the paragraphs
– were they too long or were there too many or too few?

•• Mistakes should be regarded as friends

The learners’ errors should be seen as friends, rather than as enemies. Mistakes
tell you a lot about your learners. They give an indication of where the problems
are and what you should pay attention to in the future.

•• Aim for a balance between conveying meaning and correctness

The content is the most important part of any piece of written work – regardless
of whether the ideas and events are meaningful and interesting. You should
attempt to maintain a balance between conveying meaning and correctness.
Learners become very discouraged when they get their work back (after putting
so much effort into it) and it looks like a ‘bloodbath’ because of all the red ink.
We prefer to mark with a pencil and to write only the final mark in red. Before
marking a text, decide if you are going to concentrate only on punctuation,
for example. Then the next time you may wish to concentrate on spelling or
something else.

•• Don’t be overly critical

Sometimes teachers tend to be too critical of the learners’ work; they are
too inclined to look for errors and penalise the learners for them, rather than
rewarding the learners for the things they did right/well.

•• Use symbols to indicate mistakes

Teachers often use symbols to indicate language and spelling errors in the
learners’ writing. The learners must know exactly what the symbols stand for.
The following are only suggestions – you are welcome to use your own symbols:
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The following are only suggestions – you are welcome to use your own symbols:

[ – new paragraph underline word

sp – spelling error

C – capital letter

sl – small letter

x – punctuation mark omitted

– word order (He kicked the dog.)

– word or letter omitted

() – write as one word

– faulty sentence structure

circle word – poor or incorrect choice of word

—- – leave out

Sc in the margin – poor sentence construction

? – incomprehensible

5.8 OVERVIEW OF THE LEARNING UNIT

In this learning unit we have explained what the writing process comprises and
how learners should be taught to produce effective written texts. We want to
emphasise that we did not discuss all the different types of written texts. If,
however, you use a lot of examples and take the learners through the correct
writing process (pre-writing activities, writing a draft copy, revising the draft
copy and finalising the end product), you will be able to teach any type of
writing effectively.

Now page back to the objectives that were set for writing and presenting at the
beginning of this learning unit. Answer the following questions without paging
back to see whether you have achieved all the outcomes.

1. Which principles should be kept in mind when teaching writing skills?

....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
2. What activities would you do to orient (prepare) the learners with regard
to writing an advertisement?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

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3. What are the steps in the writing process?

....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
4. Why is it important to use examples when teaching writing?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
5. What is the difference between formal and informal language?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
6. What would you do to ensure that the learners revise and improve their
writing tasks?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
7. How could visual images be incorporated in the teaching of writing?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
8. The writing skill includes “presenting”. What do your understand under
the concept “presenting” in Writing and Presenting?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
9. How can writing be integrated with reading and speaking?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
10. Why should teachers mark the learners’ writing tasks with compassion?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

5.9 CONCLUSION
Writing comprises a set of complex skills and writing instruction is therefore
a complex process. If, however, you work through the writing process with the
learners, that is, plan with them, write a draft copy yourself, revise your draft copy
and then reflect on it with the learners, you will have positive results. However,
as the teacher, you should not just work through the process with them, but
serve as a model for them to follow.

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6 LEARNING UNIT 6

Teaching language structures and

6

conventions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Once you have worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:

•• teach home language structures and conventions in context

•• plan and present lessons on language structures and language conventions, using
the communicative approach

6.1 INTRODUCTION
We often hear teachers complaining that learners find the learning of language
structures and conventions very boring. However, when we ask them how they
go about presenting their lessons, it often turns out that they rely heavily on
textbooks. Homework usually consists of doing exercises out of textbooks, which
are then corrected the following day. Yet these teachers are usually quite taken
aback when we ask them: “But wouldn’t you also be bored if you had to learn
language like this?’’

For learners to be able to use their home language to speak, listen, read and write
in different contexts, they need the necessary vocabulary and they need to know
how to spell, use punctuation, formulate sentences and combine sentences by
means of conjunctions and transition words, etc. In other words, learners need
to know the grammar of the language.

Grammar comprises three dimensions: morphosyntax (form), semantics (meaning)

and pragmatics (use). These dimensions are interdependent and influence one
another. Take, for example, the active and passive voice: Although they are
usually described as morphosyntactic, they offer a unique perspective on how
the speaker evaluates a situation. In (1) “The robbers robbed the bank’’ and (2)
“The bank was robbed by the robbers’’, it becomes clear that in (1) the emphasis
is on the robbers and in (2), the emphasis is on the bank. We could therefore say
that the passive has a pragmatic meaning, since it indicates what the focus of
the discussion or statement is.

However, it is not always easy to teach these aspects in an interesting way. In

this learning unit, we will discuss different ways to teach language structures
and conventions.
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6.2 ‌WHAT THE CAPS SAYS ABOUT THE TEACHING OF LANGUAGE

STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS
As in all the previous learning units, the starting point for this unit is the CAPS.

Ac tivit y 6 a
Read what is written about language structures and conventions under
section 2.1.2 in the CAPS Home Language for the language you intend to
teach. Then read what the CAPS says about the time allocated to language
structures and conventions. Also take note of the comment about the
integration with the time allocation for the four language skills. Then
consider section 3.1, which deals with examples of language structures
and conventions. Lastly, familiarise yourself with section 3.2.5 (vocabulary
to be acquired by home language learners).

The CAPS explains that learners need the necessary vocabulary and knowledge
of grammar so that they can build meaning from word and sentence levels up
to whole texts and see how a text and its context are related. It is clearly stated
that language structures and conventions should be taught in context, as is the
case with the other language skills. In other words, the teaching of language
structures and conventions should be done while teaching reading, listening or
writing; therefore, the reading texts and writing tasks should be selected and
done in such a way that they contain the language items that need to be covered.
Moreover, items that learners find difficult must be actively taught – half an hour
per two-week teaching cycle is set aside for this purpose.

The CAPS provides a comprehensive discussion and examples of the specific

language structures and conventions that need to be covered in the IP. These are
punctuation, spelling, parts of words, nouns, determiners, pronouns, adjectives,
adverbs, prepositions, verbs, conjunctions and transition words, interjections,
figurative language, synonyms, antonyms, paronyms, homonyms, homophones,
alliteration, one word for a phrase (i.e. substituting one word for a phrase), clauses,
phrases, sentences, passive voice and reported speech.

Did you take note of the number of common spoken words learners must master,
as well as the new words?

6.3 ‌
G UIDELINES FOR TEACHING LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND
CONVENTIONS

Ac tivit y 6b
Read the scenario below and then answer the questions that follow.
The Grade 6 learners love being taught their home language by Ms Naidu.
She always makes their classes interesting and uses themes that they are
interested in. Since the beginning of the year, they have worked with
“Thank you for the music”, “Heroes”, “This is me”, “Friends” and “Smile for
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145 TM N3702 /1


the camera” as themes. The theme that they are currently working on is
“Movies”.
Two weeks ago, Ms Naidu asked learners to watch a movie on TV and take
notes while watching the movie. She showed the movie in her classroom
on her laptop one afternoon to accommodate those who do not have TVs
at home. During the speaking lesson the previous day, she had divided
them into groups according to the movies they had watched and learners
got the chance to discuss the specific movie they had watched, in their
groups, under the following headings:
•• What type of movie was it (a documentary, science fiction, historical
fiction, drama, horror, soap, comedy, musical?)
•• Which character did you like most?
•• Which character did you not like?
•• What was the plot? Was it believable and true to life?
•• What do the following film terms mean (if you don’t know, look them
up in the dictionary): editing, producer, ad lib, ambiance, animation,
director, blockbuster, censorship, credits, gaffer
•• What is the difference between animation and other types of films?

During the lesson, Ms Naidu walked from group to group and listened to
what the learners were talking about.
During the reading lesson the next day, Ms Naidu gave the learners a
newspaper article to be read. Please read this article at: https://www.
thesun.co.uk/fabulous/8344763/girl-letter-disney-more-characters-glasses/
The article deals with a nine-year old girl, Lowri Moore from Nottingham
who plucked up the courage to write to Disney’s CEO, Robert Igor and
requested him to let some Disney Princesses wear glasses. Lowri has
worn glasses since she was one year old. She explained that she grew up
watching Disney Princesses and thought that they were beautiful, but
none of them wear glasses like herself, which made her (Lowri) feel that
she wasn’t beautiful as well. She also pointed out how most characters who
wear glasses are portrayed as “geeks”, which she doesn’t believe is “fair”.
Ms Naidu showed them a picture of the little girl with her glasses (spectacles).
Thereafter, they had some fun looking at a few Disney characters and
picturing them with glasses. Ms Naidu asked the learners to suggest a
possible headline for the newspaper article and, after considering many
suggestions from the learners, they settled on Little girl writes to Disney
asking for more characters to wear glasses as the best title. She asked a few
questions about the article and they had a discussion on the emphasis that
is often placed on people’s looks, as well as whether a person’s appearance
is more important than their personality.
Thereafter, Ms Naidu discussed phrases such as “plucked up the courage”
and “keeping our fingers crossed”, which appeared in the article. Then she
explained that “I feel like there are lots of little girls who wear glasses and I
don’t want them to feel like I did” are the actual words that Lowri used in
her letter, but that “In her letter, Lowri explained how she grew up watching
Disney Princesses, and has always admired them and thought they were
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beautiful” are not her direct words. She then used this as a starting point
to explain direct and indirect speech to the learners.
The next day they analysed the newspaper article to identify the who,
what, where, when and how in the article. Ms Naidu explained that a
newspaper article could be written by using the inverted (reverse/upside
down) triangle/pyramid as a guideline:

FIGURE 6.1
The inverted triangle for writing a newspaper article (Artist: Nadia Nel)

Adapted from: h
 ttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/newspaper/
invertedtriangle.GIF.
Thereafter, the learners each had to write a newspaper article on one of
the learners in their school who was selected to act in a local television
drama. However, Ms Naidu first brainstormed a few ideas with them.
On day three, learners had to assess their own newspaper articles
by completing the following checklist:
What is the headline for your article?
Is the headline less than six words? If not, try to change it so that there are
not more than six words in the headline.
Identify the following important points in your article:
•• Who is the article about?
•• What happened?
•• When did it happen?
•• Where did it happen?
•• How and why did it happen?

Does your article have quotations (e.g. of an eyewitness or an expert)?

•• What was said?
•• Who said it?
•• How are these persons related to the event?
Does your article have a photograph?
•• What does it show?

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•• What is the caption below the photograph?

On day four, Ms Naidu showed Lowri’s actual letter to the

learners (available at https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/
girl-writes-heartfelt-letter-disney-13947851).
They then used the letter to discuss present perfect tense (“I’ve worn
glasses”, “I’ve grown up”, I’ve always admired them and thought…”). She
drew their attention to “worn” (wear), “grown” (grow), “thought” (think),
as opposed to “admired” (admire). She also pointed out the spelling of
“princesses”, “beautiful”, “characters” and “enough”. The learners then had
to practise writing these words in their exercise books. During a previous
lesson, the class learnt about nouns. Ms Naidu reminded them what nouns
are and asked them to identify the proper nouns, common nouns and an
abstract noun in the newspaper article. One of the learners listed the word
“pen” as a noun and Ms Naidu asked the rest of the class whether they
agreed with this. Only one or two were of the opinion that pen is not a
noun in the article and Ms Naidu asked one of them to explain to the rest
of the class why the word “pen” is actually a verb in this particular text.
For homework, the learners had to do an exercise in the textbook on the
use of present perfect tense.
Activity
Now answer the following questions:
1. Does Ms Naidu make use of a communicative language teaching
approach? Provide reasons for your answer.
2. How did Ms Naidu succeed in making the lesson topical and interesting?
3. Did Ms Naidu teach language structures and conventions as part of a
whole or in isolation?
4. What was the purpose of doing revision of nouns in the last lesson
(even though she had focused on the present perfect tense and the
homework exercise was on the present perfect tense)?
5. How did Ms Naidu integrate the teaching of language structures and
conventions with other language skills?
6. Why do you think learners enjoy being taught by Ms Naidu?

We will now explain how to teach language structures and conventions by

referring to Ms Naidu’s lesson from time to time.

6.3.1 ‌Teaching language structures and conventions as part of the whole

Although language structures and conventions are indicated separately in the
CAPS, this does not mean that they should be taught and assessed (examined)
separately in the classroom. Rather, they ought to be seen as guidelines for the
teacher on what the learners should be able to apply throughout the speaking,
writing and reading programmes. It is clear that Ms Naidu realises this, which
is why she has used a newspaper article (reading) to teach direct and indirect
speech, as well as the letter written by Lowri to teach the present perfect tense.

It is important to initiate every lesson with an authentic piece of language. It

should be a written text that forms a whole, not merely a number of separate
sentences taken out of context. This text may be a story, poem, review or
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newspaper or magazine article – as long as it forms a logical whole. It may even

be something to which the learners have to listen, such as a movie, play, a taped
radio advertisement or a videotaped television advertisement or conversation.
The language structures to be discussed should preferably be introduced in
your introduction so that learners have some idea of what they will be dealing
with (without your spelling it out to them).

Here we would like to repeat what we said in section 3.2 of learning unit 3: You
should not be under the mistaken impression that explaining language and
spelling rules and purposeful vocabulary building, etc are completely taboo in
the classroom. We merely want to show you that these aspects should not be
taught in such a formal manner that they are almost a “subject’’ on their own. For
example, you should not devote an entire lesson to nouns or a specific spelling
rule. The days of walking into the classroom and announcing “Today we are
going to learn about verbs’’ are over. Language teaching must be derived from
reading (or even listening). When you are reading a piece of writing or dealing
with an advertisement, newspaper article, short story, novel or any other text
and you come across several good examples of punctuation, for example, you
should use the opportunity to discuss them in context. By “context’’, we mean
that you should deal with the punctuation as it appears in the text. Also, don’t try
to cover all the punctuation marks at once. If a specific punctuation mark does
not appear in the text you are considering, leave it until you find it in another
text, at which time you can then explain it to the learners.

Punctuation is not something you can cover in a single lesson – it needs to

be reinforced repeatedly. Sawyer, Watson and Adams (1989) conducted an
experiment in which they taught one group of learners (Group A) drills and
similar exercises, while another group (Group B) had to complete various writing
tasks three times a week in hour-long sessions. On average, Group B could
identify 8,66 types of punctuation, while Group A could define only 3,85 types
of punctuation. What was more, Group B, the writing group, was often able
to cite what punctuation sign had been used, even if they could not give the
reasons why it had been used.

Similarly, you cannot teach adjectives without pointing them out in a text and
explaining how they are used. (This principle actually applies to all language
teaching, since you cannot teach learners how to write a report, advertisement
or review without first using examples of these texts.) We will return to this
point later in this unit.

6.3.2 ‌Revise on a regular basis

Revision must be done on a regular basis. When, for example, your reading text
is a newspaper article that contains certain language structures that you have
already covered, you could briefly revise them by asking a few questions – even
if your main focus is to teach learners to write a newspaper article.

Ms Naidu saw her chance and revised nouns because she found some good
examples of them in the newspaper article that she could review.
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6.3.3 D ‌ on’t go down the row of learners and ask them each to answer a
question
If you go down the row of learners and ask each learner to answer a question,
the class will slowly be switching off. This kind of “slow death’’ can be explained
as follows:

•• Once the learner has answered the teacher, they tend to switch off because
their turn has passed.
•• Learners work out which question they are going to be asked and then
concentrate solely on that question, without paying any attention to the
rest of the work.
•• Learners soon become bored with this kind of activity.

6.3.4 ‌Make your lessons as interesting as possible

There are certainly ways in which you can make language lessons interesting.
In Ms Naidu’s case, she has used a real-life event and a theme that all learners
are interested in: Movies.

The textbook is a useful aid, especially when you are dealing with difficult
language structures such as the infinitive, but you need not use the textbook
day in and day out, because learners get bored with it. You can develop your
own interesting activities.

6.4 THE PROGRESSIVE APPROACH TO TEACHING LANGUAGE STRUCTURES

AND USE IN A HOME LANGUAGE
All language teachers share the same goal, namely to improve the standard
of their learners’ listening, reading, writing and speaking skills. It is generally
agreed that the purposeful teaching of language structures and conventions
contributes to achieving this goal. Davison and Dowson (1998:158-159) describe
the progressive approach as follows:

There are four important issues to consider:

1. Choice of texts

The progressive approaches use longer texts and the texts are chosen because
they are interesting in themselves, as well as illustrating a grammatical feature.
Often they will clearly have been taken from real communication. Ms Naidu chose
a text that learners found interesting, since it was taken from a real newspaper
and was, therefore, true to life.

2. Attitude to rules

In the progressive approach, grammatical rules are seen as useful descriptions of

the patterns of language. However, where people’s actual use of language differs
from the supposed rule, those differences are explored rather than condemned.

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3. Form and function

Progressive approaches focus on how grammar contributes to the meaning or

effect of a text, that is, its function: “The writer has chosen to use the present
tense here because ...”

4. Exercises

Progressive approaches teach grammar by helping children to reflect on their

own reading and writing. The focus is on practical, real-life use of the language.

Ac tivit y 6 c
Read through Ms Naidu’s lesson once more and explain how you think
she approached the choice of texts and her attitude towards language
rules, forms, functions and exercises.

6.5 THE WHOLE-LANGUAGE APPROACH

We have referred to the whole-language or integrated-language approach
several times throughout this study guide. Shrum and Glisan (1994:93) describe
the whole-language approach as follows:

As early as 1976, psycholinguist Ken Goodman stated that “Language is

language only when it is whole’’ (quoted in Fountas and Hannigan 1989, p.
134). According to Goodman, the whole is always viewed as being greater
than the sum of its parts, and it is the whole that gives meaning to the
parts. In terms of grammar instruction, words, phrases or sentences are
not linguistic islands unto themselves; on the contrary, these linguistic
elements only gain meaning when they are placed in context, and when
used in conjunction with the whole. According to Goodman, once students
experience the whole, they are better prepared to deal with the analysis
of the parts.

The whole-language approach emphasises natural language use (discourse) and

encourages learners and readers, right from the beginning of the lesson, to read
or listen to and understand meaningful and longer examples of language use.

The whole-language approach requires that the teacher progress through four
stages when teaching.

•• Stage 1

In the first phase/stage, the teacher starts the lesson with a complete text (e.g.
a story, song, poem, fairy tale or magazine or newspaper article). At this point,
the meaning or comprehension of the text is of prime importance. The teacher,
however, “foreshadows” the grammar structure by using the text with appropriate
examples of the grammar to be taught later on in the text. This is to the learners’
advantage because it gives them a “feeling’’ of what is to come. In this way,
the functional meaning of the grammatical structures are highlighted even
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before the learners’ attention is drawn to them. The whole-language approach

encourages the learner to use language in a functional and focused manner in
integrated discourse. Therefore, from the very start of the lesson, the teacher
and learners are using language authentically. The learners are drawn into the
text by questions and other activities, but the emphasis is initially only on the
meaning of the text.

•• Stage 2

The second stage is actually an extension of the first stage, since, once again,
the emphasis is on meaning. However, the second stage differs because of an
increased level of learner participation. Now the learners have a general idea
of the significance of the story (text); consequently, they can become more
participatory through a variety of activities, such as mime or role-play. All of
these activities serve to deepen comprehension for the learners.

•• Stage 3

Once the learners understand the text (whether it is a reading or listening piece),
their attention can be drawn to the various linguistic elements and language
structures in the text. Here the teacher may use a wide variety of methods, such
as giving explanations, asking questions about language structures in the text,
letting learners use a dictionary to look up the meaning of words or using the
writing board to explain.

•• Stage 4

Once the specific language structure has been explained in enough detail and
the learners have internalised it, they must be given the opportunity to practise
using it, preferably in a communicative situation, by doing paired or group work,
writing a letter to someone or preparing a speech. Alternatively, they can be
expected to write a similar story. At this point, the emphasis is on the transfer
of meaning and not on a demonstration of their knowledge of language rules.
Through these extension activities, the learners become more aware of the
function of the grammatical structure, that is, they learn that they can carry out
a particular task or function by exploiting or using the appropriate grammatical
structure.

Remember, if a teacher fills the learners’ heads with grammar rules, they will come
to think in terms of grammar rules. However, if the teacher confronts them
with language use in real-life situations, their thinking will be focused on using
language in real life.

You can watch the following online video clip for more background on the
whole-language approach:

“Top down theory and the whole language model” by Cheryl McKenzie at https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIrfIM7mxiY.

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Ac tivit y 6 d
Reread Ms Naidu’s lesson and explain how she progressed through the
stages, as described above.

6.6 ‌LEARNING VOCABULARY

Learning new vocabulary is critical when learning a language. However, try not
to give learners lists of words to memorise and match to definitions. If you do
that, the words are decontextualised and learners will engage in rote learning.
As a result, they will be unlikely to use such words that they have memorised
in their writing.

Keep the following recommendations in mind (Kilfoil & Van der Walt 1997:187):

Relevant factors in learning new vocabulary are how frequently the word occurs
and how often learners come across the word, whether the word relates to a
concept or a group of concepts the learners already know; how important it is
for the learners to understand and use the word and whether they have a real
need to use a word in order to communicate or understand communication.
Words that fall into these categories are most easily learnt.

When coming across new words in a reading passage or listening lesson, you
may want to write the words on your “word wall” in the classroom. A word
wall can be created by making vertical columns on a chart on the wall; then, as
learners learn new words and literary terms, you can add the word onto the wall
chart. This will support the reinforcement of new vocabulary. Learners can also
be required to write new words in their own personal dictionary as indicated
in CAPS. The personal dictionary do not need to be a separate exercise book. It
can be done by starting at the back of any of their exercise books.

•• Using context and prediction

Learning new vocabulary while reading has two purposes, namely to learn the
meaning of words to understand the current text better and to increase the
learning of vocabulary so that meanings in future texts will be understood. It is
important to realise that it is not necessary to comprehend each and every word
that we read; we often skip over words that we don’t understand and try to infer
the meaning of the word from the context. You should teach your learners to
do the same by letting them read a passage, predict what an unfamiliar word
means and then find the word in the dictionary to check whether they were
correct or not.

•• Using visuals

The saying “a picture is worth a thousand words” is very true. Therefore, if at all
possible, use pictures to explain words. When, for example, you have to explain
“manual labour” to learners, they will easily understand this concept if you show
them a picture of a man laying bricks or working in the field.
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•• Highlighting words in context

We have already explained that words should be taught in context. When coming
across new words in a text, it is also acceptable to explain the opposite of those
words or to explain different meanings of the same word. Learners can then
be asked to formulate sentences in which the newly acquired words are used.

•• Teaching synonyms or connotations

You need to teach learners to avoid using the same word repeatedly when
writing; therefore, it is important for them to learn what other words could
be used instead. When assessing their writing, you could always ask them to
consider replacing words that they have used with synonyms. When teaching
them about synonyms, you also need to teach them about connotation. There
is a skill involved in choosing the most appropriate synonym and it is important
to consider the connotation of a word because some synonyms can convey a
different meaning.

For example, a synonym for unhappy is “gloomy”. However, this word has a
very negative connotation. It could be used in certain circumstances, but if
you just want to say that someone is a bit sad, you should rather use “blue” or
“despondent”.

•• Using knowledge of prefixes and suffixes to deduce meaning

Learners must be taught to break words down to deduce their meaning. If

they know that “re-“ means again, they can deduce that “reassemble” means to
assemble something again. Likewise, if they know that “anti-“ means opposed
to or against, they can easily deduce the meaning of “antisocial” or “antiseptic”.
We call these “word-attack skills”.

Here is a table showing some prefixes and their meanings:

TABLE 6.1
Common prefixes and their meanings

Meaning Prefix Example

Negative: not, the un-, non-, in-, dis-, a- unfair, non-smoker,
opposite of, lacking in insane, disloyal, amoral
To reverse an action un-, de-, dis- untie, defrost, disconnect
Something is wrong, bad mis-, mal-, pseudo- misinform, maltreat,
or false pseudo-intellectual

Greatness, superiority arch-, super-, out- archbishop, superman,

outrun
Tiny, little, less than micro-, mini-, sub- microcosmos, miniskirt,
substandard

Let learners try to think of as many words as possible, using the root word. They
can be asked to explain how the prefix or suffix change the meaning of the word.
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Examples:

Happy – happiness, unhappy, unhappiness, happier, happiest

Believe – believable, believer, unbelievable
Use – user, useless, usable, misuse

•• Understand parts of speech

Learners need to understand how the part of speech changes when adding
prefixes or suffixes.

Let them complete a table, such as the one below, by using suffixes to form the
different parts of speech. They must, however, also be expected to use these
words in sentences so that the meaning becomes clear.

Verb Noun Adjective Adverb

refer referential referentially
purify Purity pure
speciality special specially
govern governmental governmentally

•• Using games

Crossword puzzles are a fun way to teach vocabulary. You could scan newspapers
and magazines for appropriate crossword puzzles or you could develop your own.

You could also develop an activity such as the following:

Each of the items below contains the word “pen”. How many words can you
identify? (The number of dashes gives you a clue as to the number of letters in
the word.)
Example: Land bordered on three sides by water: peninsula
•• A five-sided figure: ________
•• Punishment or fine: _______
•• Rely upon: _________
•• Pass into; break through: _________
•• Piece of jewellery: _______

The following activity is also useful:

C P M

I R N

A O A

Learners must try to form as many words as possible with the letters provided.
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6.7 ‌TEACHING SPELLING

Spelling should be taught continuously and progressively. You should devise a
specific spelling programme and spelling should be taught daily. Initially, spelling
rules should be taught directly, followed by revision on a regular basis. When a
difficult word comes up in a text, you should draw the learners’ attention to it.

Spelling should be assessed continuously in the learners’ compositions, answers

to literature studies, answers to questions based on silent reading activities and
integrated language learning, but short tests and dictations should also be given
regularly. Examples of spelling should not be evaluated in isolation, but in the
context of the sentences in which they appear (Subject Committee for Afrikaans
First Language 1991:1).

The Subject Committee for Afrikaans First Language (1991:1–2) gives the following
general hints on teaching spelling

•• You should preferably work inductively. If you guide learners to discover the
underlying spelling rule or principle, they will remember it better than if they
are given a long list of examples of the spelling rule to memorise.
•• When dealing with a particular spelling rule, learners should be encouraged
to give as many of their own examples as possible.
•• As many of the senses must be used to learn the correct spelling as possible.
Spelling cannot be taught meaningfully without the learners’ being able to
remember the written image, the sound image and the meaning of the word.
•• It is often confusing to spell out a word letter by letter. Rather allow the
learners to spell out the word syllable by syllable, for example in-te-rest-ing,
rather than i-n-t-e-r-e-s-t-i-n-g.
•• Repetition is crucial. You should continuously revise material already dealt
with, and when a specific word comes up again, remind the learners of the
relevant spelling principle.
•• Dictionaries and vocabulary lists (on the classroom wall or in their personal
dictionary) should be available and the learners should use them frequently.
Learners should constantly check their own spelling when they are in any
doubt.

•• Lists of commonly misspelt words

Learners may also find it helpful to keep a list of their commonly misspelt words.
You can then draw their attention to those words and remind them to check
the spelling of those words before using them. If you are teaching English, you
might find the following website helpful: https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/
spelling-and-word-lists/misspelled.html.

Below is an excerpt from the above-mentioned web page, entitled “100 Most
Often Misspelled Words in English”:

Ready to explore the 100 most often misspelled words in English? Hint:
“misspell” is one of them. Below, you’ll find a one-stop cure for all your
spelling ills.

Each word is paired with a mnemonic pill and, if you swallow it, it’ll help
you to remember how to spell these tricky words. Once you master
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the orthography of the words on this page, you'll spend less time searching
through the dictionary. Let's dive right in.

•• accidentally - If an -ly adverb comes from an -al adjective (“accidental”

in this case), the -al has to be in the spelling. No publical, then publicly.
See? And don’t forget to double the C.
•• accommodate - Remember, this word is large enough to accommodate
both a double C AND a double M.
•• believe - You must believe that I usually comes before E except after
C. (Actually, the “i-before-e” rule has more exceptions than words it
applies to!)
•• conscientious - Work on your spelling conscientiously and remember
this word has the CH sound spelled two different ways: SC and TI.
English spelling, huh!
•• grateful - Keeping "great" out of "grateful" is great.

It is a very good idea to make a list of the words that your learners spell wrongly
while you are marking or assessing their work. After a month or so, see whether
you can group these words together. Are there certain sounds that they spell
incorrectly? Are there words that they confuse (e.g. desert, dessert)? Pay specific
attention to problem areas.

•• Organise a spelling bee at your school

A great way of promoting spelling is to organise a spelling bee at your school.

A spelling bee is a competition where learners have to spell words. The learner
who can spell the most words correctly is the winner. You can begin by letting
each class in Grades 4-6 hold a spelling bee. You can then extend the competition
to school level, where the three best learners from each grade compete against
one another.

You will need to gather a list of words to be used for the competition. You can
decide on an overall theme for the spelling bee or use different themes for
different rounds of the competition. However, if you don’t want to work with
themes, that is also fine. Make sure that the words that learners get to spell are
more or less at the same difficulty level. For example, it wouldn’t be fair to expect
one learner to spell “table” and another to spell “accommodate”.

Learners who are taking part in the competition sit in front of the class or on the
stage. Each learner gets a word to spell. The learner must repeat the word, spell
it and say it again after it has been spelt. Once the learner has started spelling
the word, he or she may say “stop” and then start again. If the speller spells the
word correctly, he/she may return to his or her seat on the stage or in front of
the class. If the word is spelt incorrectly, you (as the teacher) need to give the
correct spelling and the learner must return to his or her seat in the audience.
The next learner is then called to the stage and given a word to spell. Follow
this procedure until only two learners are left. If one of the two spells a word
incorrectly, the other learner is given a chance to spell the word. If he or she also
spells it incorrectly, the spelling bee continues, but if it is spelt correctly, he or
she is declared the winner.
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•• The CAT-CALL method

The CAT-CALL method is derived from the words “copy, apply, tear, colour,
another, left, learned” (Wessels & Van den Berg 1998:105). This method is very
useful in cases where learners find the spelling of a particular word very difficult.

C–Copy: Learners copy down the word from the textbook, dictionary
or board.
A–Apply: They apply it in a sentence.
T–Tear: They break the word down into its syllables.
C–Colour: They write out the word in a pen or pencil of another colour.
A–Another: They write out the word in another way, for example in
print, italics or in capitals.
L–Left Right-handed learners write out the word with their left
hand, and vice versa.
L–Learned: Can I spell the word now? The learners test themselves. For
example:

Impatient

C impatient
A She is so impatient, she never waits for anything!
T im-pa-tient
C impatient (written in pencil)
A impatient
L impatient
L impatient √

•• Look, close, write and check

Learners may also be taught the following way of learning spelling:

•• Look: Learners take a good look at the words to try to remember how
to spell them.
•• Close: They close up the words so that they can’t see them.
•• Write: They write out the words and read them out softly to themselves.
•• Check/revise: They check what they have written. If they have misspelt
any of the words, they should not simply write them out correctly, but
should go through the whole process again.
•• Make spelling fun

There are different methods that can be used to make spelling fun.

For example, the teacher writes out ten difficult words on the writing board
related to the theme they are working on and gives the learners about a minute
to look at the words – particularly the way they are spelt.

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temperature food drought

annual perennial deciduous
autumn season evergreen

FIGURE 6.1
A spelling game

When playing this game, try to choose words that are related to a specific theme
and that the learners have come across in a text – or will be coming across soon.
The teacher explains that he or she is going to rub out (erase) one of the words
and that the learners will each have to write that word down. The teacher then
proceeds to rub out words at random and the learners must write down the words
as they are rubbed out. This continues until every last word has been rubbed
out. The learners then work in groups of three or so to compare their spelling.
They help one another and make corrections that they think are necessary. They
then look the words up in a dictionary and mark their work.

•• Spelling and reading

The ability to spell well is developed through reading. The more learners read,
the more their spelling will improve. Once they have read a piece of writing,
the teacher may ask them to go back and circle the words that they think are
difficult to spell. The teacher then discusses these words with them and tries to
establish why they think they are difficult to spell.

Ask yourself the following question: Are my learners aware of their spelling
problems? If they are writing about something, you may, for example, ask them
to underline those words that they are not sure how to spell. You can then ask
them to go and check their spelling in the dictionary. This activity should tell
you a lot about the learners’ spelling ability and need for guidance. Learners
who underline a lot of words are clearly unsure about spelling and require extra
exercises and help.

•• Using dictionaries to teach spelling

Encourage learners to look up difficult words in the dictionary. In this way they
will learn to solve spelling problems on their own. The ability to use a dictionary
is a very important skill that learners need to acquire; it also helps them to “fix’’
the incorrect spelling of words. Therefore, give your learners full access to a
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dictionary. In the following section, we will give you a few ideas on how to use
a dictionary effectively.

•• Have weekly spelling tests

Many older people are good spellers because of the spelling test they had to
write each Friday at school. Learners can be given a list of new words that they
have come across during the week and then be required to write a spelling test
on these words every Friday. If learners know that every Friday is spelling-test
day, they will get into the habit of learning spelling for Fridays.

The following method works well: Give learners a list of spelling words that they
need to learn for the week. Then use the first 3 or 4 minutes of every lesson from
Monday to Friday to let them practise the words by writing each word once or
twice in their exercise books. Finally, on Friday, they will write a spelling test.

6.8 TEACHING DICTIONARY USE

You should actively teach learners how to use a dictionary (especially an
explanatory dictionary). This means that learners must be given the opportunity
to look up words in the dictionary and you should explain that the dictionary
contains information on the following:

•• the spelling of words

•• the pronunciation of words
•• how words are divided into syllables
•• the meaning of words
•• the meaning of phrases (i.e. a group of two or more words without a verb)
•• the different forms a word can take in a sentence (part of speech)
•• how words are formed by using

−− prefixes and suffixes

−− compounds
−− abbreviations
−− declensions

•• the plural of words

•• the stem of words
•• figures of speech
•• synonyms and antonyms
•• the origins of words

The following are some activities that you can do with learners during the year
to get them accustomed to using a dictionary.

•• Alphabetical order: Give the learners a word to look up as quickly as possible in

the dictionary. You can make it more fun by having the girls compete against
the boys, or have different rows or groups compete against one another.
•• Photocopy a page out of a dictionary and ask the learners to circle all the
adjectives, underline all the verbs, mark the nouns in red and put a star next
to the adverbs. Before they will be able to do this, you will have to explain
what the abbreviations behind every word mean.
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•• Use a dictionary to show the learners that one word may have different
meanings, depending on its context. Help them to choose the right word
for a particular context. Teach them that a word may have both a lexical and
a linguistic context. The linguistic context determines whether the word is
functioning as a verb, noun, adjective or adverb and, therefore, its meaning. A
word’s lexical context depends on the other words and sentences in the text.
•• Help learners to identify the catchwords, homonyms (words that look the
same, but have different meanings), derivations and compounds, stress or
accent, pronunciation, style (e.g. archaic, formal, slang), abbreviations, etc in
the dictionary.
•• Make use of an online dictionary (available on the internet) to look up words,
phrases and meanings.

Ac tivit y 6 e
1. Summarise the section on teaching spelling and using dictionaries in
half a page.
2. Watch the following online videos and answer the questions:
•• “5th Grade Visualisation Spelling Lesson” by Steven Haas at https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=NxQ-4Jxk4To.
•• “Spelling list 4” by LogicofEnglish at https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=8TnQJo38x4Q (you need only watch 5 minutes).
What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of the teaching
methods demonstrated in these video clips? Could you adapt any of these
techniques for your own purposes?
Also find some more internet resources on teaching spelling and share
them with your fellow students Discussion forum on myUnisa.

6.9 TEACHING IDIOMS AND PROVERBS

It is often said that today’s children don’t know or use idioms and proverbs. There
are generally very few – if any – idioms used in a text, so it might be a good
idea to give learners a list of a few idioms and proverbs that they must learn.
You should, however, try to make the teaching of these idioms and proverbs as
interesting as possible. You might, for example, give learners a text such as the
following one to teach idioms:

Idioms used in a short story (written by a German student)

November 5, 2014

Bob was sick as a dog. But after having fully recovered from his illness, Bob
had a new lease on life. He took up work again, but his boss was a pain in the
neck. After work Bob used to go for a walk, which did him a world of good.
Just like that, he could recharge his batteries. After the walk he felt fresh as a
daisy. After getting home from his walk, Bob had dinner. He used to eat fast
food for dinner, but he kicked that habit and preferred to fix something himself.
He knew “You are what you eat”.
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http://www.americanenglishonskype.com/student-homework/2014/11/5/
idioms-used-in-a-short-story-written-by-a-german-student.

Once they have read the story and identified all the idioms, you could give the
learners a list of idioms and expect them to write a similar “silly” story by using
at least five idioms on the list you have provided.

Learners at this age would also enjoy drawing pictures to illustrate an idiom. You
could, for example, explain to them what “kick the bucket” means and then let
them draw a picture to depict this idiom. You could do the same with “hold your
horses”, “a storm in a teacup”, etc. A variation on this would be to show them
pictures and then expect them to tell you which idiom each picture represents.

We have found that the best way to teach proverbs is to make a point of using
them deliberately on a regular basis in the classroom. For example, every time
the learners are doing group work, you could remind them that “a chain is only
as strong as its weakest link”. When you tell them to start with their homework
in class and they do not start immediately, you could say “a stitch in time saves
nine”. We are sure that you will come across many situations in the classroom
where you could use proverbs such as “out of the frying pan into the fire”, “it’s
raining cats and dogs” and “many hands make light work”.

If you have learners with different home languages in your class, you could give
them a list of proverbs in the home language that you are teaching and then
ask them to ask their parents for the isiZulu, Afrikaans, Sesotho, Setswana, etc
equivalent. They must then translate them into the home language you are
teaching. Look, for example, at the following proverbs from different African
countries:

•• If you are looking for a fly in your food, it means that you are full.
•• Wait until it is night before saying it has been a fine day.
•• What one hopes for is always better than what one has.

Do you have proverbs in your home language that depict the same meaning
as the ones above?

Ac tivit y 6f
Read the following proverbs and indicate whether you have a proverb in
your language that means the same:
IsiXhosa: Ukukhula kukubona izinto.
Literal translation: To grow is to see things.
Meaning: A person grows through experience.
English proverb with the same meaning: Experience is the best teacher.
Proverb in your home language with the same meaning:
.................................................................................................................................................

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Setswana: Ere o tlhalefela ngaka, le bolwetse o bo tlhalefele.

Literal translation: When you become wise of the healer, also become
wise of the sickness.
Meaning: It’s better to prevent sickness from occurring in the first place.
English proverb with the same meaning: Prevention is better than cure.
Proverb in your home language with the same meaning:
.................................................................................................................................................
Xitsonga: Nomu a wu taleriwi hi nambu.
Literal translation: The mouth can cross any river.
Meaning: It is not as easy as you think it is.
English proverb with the same meaning: It is easier said than done.
Proverb in your home language with the same meaning:
.................................................................................................................................................
Siswati: Emehlo lamabili ayabonisana
Literal translation: Two eyes help each other.
Meaning: If you have people to help you, you can make informed decisions.
English proverb with the same meaning: Two heads are better than one.
Proverb in your home language with the same meaning:
.................................................................................................................................................
IsiZulu: Ibhubezi liyisilwane esihle uma libonakala likude
Literal translation: The lion is a beautiful animal when seen at a distance.
Meaning: Things aren’t always as they seem at first glance, so be careful
what you wish for; it may not be what is best for you.
English proverb with the same meaning: The grass is always greener on
the other side.
Proverb in your home language with the same meaning:
.................................................................................................................................................
IsiZulu: Indoda ehamba njalo ayisakhi isibaya
Literal translation: A walking man builds no kraal.
Meaning: A kraal is a homestead. If you keep moving, you won’t settle
down or be forced to settle down.
English proverb with the same meaning: A rolling stone gathers no moss.
Proverb in your home language with the same meaning:
.................................................................................................................................................

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6.10 TEACHING PUNCTUATION

You can teach punctuation marks as part of all reading and writing lessons. The
teaching of punctuation can be made fun by giving learners a paragraph without
any punctuation marks and then expecting them to add the punctuation marks,
where necessary. You can also give them a sentence such as the following: It is
in my room.

Then ask the following questions:

•• What punctuation mark is needed at the end of the sentence?

•• Place a question mark at the end of the sentence. How does this change the
meaning of the sentence?
•• Place an exclamation mark at the end of the sentence. How does this change
the meaning of the sentence?
•• Place an ellipsis at the end of the sentence. How does this change the meaning
of the sentence?

The following sentences can be used to show the importance of correct

punctuation:

“We’re going to learn to cut and paste kids!” versus “We’re going to learn to cut
and paste, kids!” Commas certainly do make a difference!

“Let’s eat, grandpa!” versus “Let’s eat grandpa”. Punctuation can potentially
save lives!

There is also the joke about the professor who gave the following sentence to his
students to punctuate: “A woman without her man is nothing.” All of the males
in the class wrote: “A woman, without her man, is nothing.” All the females in
the class wrote: “A woman: without her, man is nothing.” We are sure that you
can see how powerful punctuation is!

It is very important to distinguish between punctuation marks. The most common

punctuation marks are the full stop (.), question mark (?), exclamation mark
(!), comma (,), semicolon (;), colon (:), dash (–), brackets/parenthesis ( )/– –, quotation
marks (“ ” or ‘ ’), apostrophe (’) and ellipsis (…).

6.11 OVERVIEW OF THE LEARNING UNIT

Kilfoil and Van der Walt (1997:78) summarise the latest trends in teaching language
structure and use as follows:

Clearly the teacher can no longer grab just any structure, make a few
disjointed sentences to demonstrate its working’ and give similar sentences
for homework. The lesson on a specific grammatical point must be a tight
unit of functional language use in a realistic setting to which the teacher
should adhere when providing additional examples or material.

Now turn back to the objectives for this learning unit and ask yourself whether
you have achieved them. Test yourself by answering the following questions –
without paging back to the relevant sections in the text:
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Ac tivit y 6 g

1. Give an example of how language structures and conventions may be

used in an authentic situation.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
2. Discuss at least two ways in which teachers can go about making language
structures interesting for learners.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
3. Describe the progressive approach to teaching.
4. _____________________________________________________..
....................................................................................................................................................
5. What is the relationship between the whole language approach and
text-based teaching?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
6. Demonstrate two methods of learning spelling, which learners can use.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
7. Choose four aspects of dictionary usage to which you could draw your
learners’ attention and explain how you would go about doing this.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
8. What advice would you give an inexperienced colleague on teaching
vocabulary?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
9. How would you apply the whole-language approach in your class?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
10. How would you teach punctuation?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

6.12 CONCLUSION
An understanding and knowledge of language structures and conventions are
key factors in effective communication. Although, in terms of the communicative
approach, meaning is regarded as more important than form, this does not mean
that language structures need not be taught. However, language structures and
conventions should not be taught as isolated rules; the communicative objective
must always be taken into account.
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7 LEARNING UNIT 7

Lesson planning, presentation and

7

assessment

Give me six hours to chop down a tree and I will spend the first four
sharpening the axe.
Abraham Lincoln

Failing to plan is planning to fail.

Alan Lakein

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Once you have worked through this learning unit, you should be able to:

•• do long- and short-term lesson planning and preparation

•• formulate learning objectives
•• explain the different phases of a lesson
•• plan and prepare for assessment
•• assess the language skills in an integrated way

7.1 ‌INTRODUCTION
Successful teaching and learning is mostly the result of thorough and effective
planning and preparation on the part of the teacher. If you consider Abraham
Lincoln’s words about chopping down a tree at the beginning of this unit, you
will realise that a lot of planning (sharpening the axe) is done before the actual
action (chopping down the tree) can take place. Likewise, a lot of planning and
preparation needs to be done before an actual lesson can be presented.

Remember that how you teach – the resources and materials you select, the
way you organise your classroom, the climate for learning you establish and the
decisions you take as you work with your pupils – will inevitably be influenced
by your beliefs and aims as a teacher. This is why there can be no single right or
best way to teach. The “best” way will depend partly on the kind of person that
you are and partly in what you – the teacher – are trying to achieve (Peacock,
as quoted by Viljoen 1996:165).

Teachers work under different circumstances. Some teachers have many resources,
others have to handle two grades in one classroom (multigrade teaching), still
others have 70+ children in one class, and then there are the fortunate few who

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have only 15 learners per class. Nevertheless, whatever your circumstances, you
need to do thorough planning and preparation before you can start teaching.

7.2 WHAT THE CAPS SAYS ABOUT PLANNING

As with all the other units, the starting point for this unit is the CAPS.

Ac tivit y 7a
Read everything in section 3.3 in the CAPS HL for the language you are
planning to teach.

The interaction between the different language skills and structures should
be kept in mind when planning to teach and to assess. The CAPS makes
provision for this type of integration, as all four language skills, as well as
language structures and conventions, need to be addressed in a two-week
cycle. Remember that you have to plan and prepare not only for teaching, but
also for assessment. And assessment should also be integrated. For example,
you could start a lesson by reading a given text aloud and then using the same
text for reading comprehension. Activities involving language structures and
conventions could also be dealt with using the same text. After reading the
text, the learners could be asked to respond to the text by, for example, writing
a letter about the issues raised in the text or writing some creative response to
the content of the text. To conclude this activity, discussions could be held on
the topic and thus you would address all of the language skills in one integrated
activity.

If you are working with a textbook, you will note that textbooks usually do
not make sufficient provision for reading texts and the teaching of language
structures and conventions. Therefore, you will need to develop additional
activities and exercises. Nevertheless, the advantage of textbooks is that they
are usually organised around themes, which will enable you to link the activities
and teach them so that you do not teach the content out of context.

Planning and preparation ensure that the learning content is arranged and
presented logically. Remember, it is more often the approach to teaching and
learning, rather than the learning content itself, that ensures that successful
learning takes place. Therefore, even when confronted with a boring subject, a
resourceful teacher can present an exciting lesson.

7.3 THE NATURE OF PLANNING AND PREPARATION

Note that there is a difference between planning and preparation – they are
not the same.

Planning involves, firstly, long-term planning for a term or year. You will need
to decide what to do during each two-week cycle and what you are planning to
teach and assess in each cycle. This includes what content you will cover when
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teaching each of the four language skills. You will also decide on the activities
to be done during the pre-, while- and post-activities of each skill. (Note: Some
of the provincial departments of education have their own templates for doing
long-term planning and we will give you some examples from the Gauteng
Department of Education (GDE) in this unit.)

Planning also involves short-term planning. When doing short-term planning,

you will need to decide on the objectives of the specific lesson, what part of the
textbook you are going to deal with, which activities you are going to incorporate,
what additional work you are going to add and how both informal and formal
assessment will be done.

Preparation, in contrast, is a result of planning and is more practical. Preparation

has to do with the application of the planning process and involves organising
the learning material, preparing media (e.g. making posters or a power point
presentation), compiling worksheets to be completed, making recordings for
listening exercises and formulating questions based on the recorded piece,
duplicating suitable visual material for each learner, identifying difficult vocabulary
in a reading text and deciding how you are going to teach these difficult words
or terms to the learners, preparing questions to ask learners, preparing the
answers to homework assignments learners were given the previous day or
week, deciding on new homework exercises, etc.

Each school has its own way of planning, so we will give you only some broad
guidelines, which should help you to adapt to your future school’s way of
planning. Let’s first look at long-term planning:

•• First familiarise yourself with the time available for home language teaching
and the time to be allocated to each of the skills in a two-week cycle, as well
as per term.
•• Consult the CAPS to see what needs to be covered in each skill.
•• Consult the CAPS to see how texts should be spread across the two-week
cycles and the year.
•• Consult the textbook to see what themes are addressed.
•• Now decide on the activities and tasks you wish to include.
•• Plan how you are going to assess (including both informal and formal
assessment).

Note the following important points:

•• The teaching plan indicates the minimum content you should cover every
two weeks per term. You do not have to cover all the content prescribed over
a two-week cycle. The sequence of the content listed is not prescribed and
the time given is an approximate indication of how long it could take to cover
the content. Therefore, you need not follow the plan precisely.
•• As a teacher, you should design your lesson plans from your textbook and
from any other relevant sources and teach the content per term, using an
appropriate sequence and pace. You are also encouraged to use content or
concepts that are relevant to the learners’ environment (as prescribed in the
CAPS 2011:34).
•• Construct activities that are meaningful to learners and that relate to the texts
they are studying in the two-week cycle. More activities should be done as
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learners make progress from Grade 4 through to Grade 6. Carefully select

which language rules you will explain to learners and make sure that they
get ample opportunities to practise these rules when teaching language
structures and conventions. Teaching should integrate all the language skills
and language structures, since they are interrelated. All of these should be
taught in context and should preferably be based on a text, e.g. a listening
text or a written text.

7.4 LONG-TERM PLANNING: THE ANNUAL TEACHING PLAN (ATP)

The following is an example of an annual teaching plan developed by the Gauteng
Department of Education. You must use this annual teaching plan when doing
your short-term planning for each two-week cycle.

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TABLE 7.1
Provincial Annual Teaching Plan English Home Language Grade 6 2019 Term 2
CONTENT
Listening and speaking Reading and Viewing Writing and Presenting Language Structure and Comment

...........
Conventions

170
% completed
Date completed

Term 2
2 hours 5 hours 4 hours 1 hour
Week 1&2 Listens to and discusses Reads a recipe or other Writes an instructional Word level work: stems,
an instructional text, instructional text text prefixes, suffixes
e.g. recipe or directions Sentence level word:
Subject, object
Spelling and
punctuation:
Word division,
dictionary use
2 informal assessment 4 informal assessment 4 informal assessment 2 informal assessment
activities activities activities activities
Week 3&4 Listens to a novel. Reads a short novel. Writes a book review. Word level work: verbs
Reflects on texts and (finite, infinitives)
Participates in group
read independently. Sentence level work:
discussions.
Present continuous
tense, past continuous
tense, future continuous
tense
Spelling and
punctuation:
Dictionary use
2 informal assessment 4 informal assessment 4 informal assessment 2 informal assessment
activities activities activities activities
 Week Listens to and discusses Reads a story. Writes a story. Word level work:
a story. auxiliary verbs
5&6
Sentence level work:
Present prefect tense
Word meaning: idioms
2 informal assessment 4 informal assessment 4 informal assessment 2 informal assessment
activities activities activities activities
Week 7&8 Listens to and discusses Reads an information Writes an information Word level work:
an information text, e.g. text, e.g. a weather text, e.g. a weather chart adjectives (attributive)
a weather report report
Sentence level work:
simple past tense
Spelling and
punctuation:
Dictionary use
2 informal assessment 4 informal assessment 4 informal assessment 2 informal assessment
activities activities activities activities
Week Summative assessment
9&10

171
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7.5 ‌SHORT-TERM PANNING

•• Which learners performed well and which did not? How can this be addressed?
•• Were there any learners who did not learn anything? What can I do to help
them?
•• Were the learners motivated to learn? If not, what should I have done to
motivate them?
•• Did the learners express their opinions? If not, what can I do to ensure that
they do in future?

Ac tivit y 7c
Consult CAPS and identify a two-week-cycle that you would like to do
planning for. Focus on one specific lesson that you will need to plan and
prepare. Do the following:
•• Formulate two objectives for the lesson.
•• Explain what you will do during the introductory phase of the lesson
to get the learners’ attention.
•• List three activities that you will let learners do during the middle
phase of the lesson.
Watch the following lesson on YouTube and answer the two questions
that follow:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y5WOptpiG0o&list=PL61ED7D7BBE
FBC1C3&index=24.
•• Identify the introductory phase, middle phase and conclusion.
•• Indicate whether you think the lesson was presented in an effective
way. Justify your opinion and make suggestions for improvement if
necessary.

7.6 ‌PLANNING FOR AND CONDUCTING ASSESSMENT

Give a kid a grade & the learning stops. Give feedback & extending
questions & the learning goes deeper.
Justin Tarte

As you work through this section on assessment, you will understand that
assessment forms an integral part of teaching and learning. You will also realise
that you need to plan for teaching and assessment at the same time; assessment
should not be seen as an “add-on” that must be dealt with as a separate entity.

Ac tivit y 7b
1. Why do teachers assess learners? Write down the numbers of all the
statements you agree with.
1.1 The department or principal expects them to do assessment.
1.2 They want to establish whether or not learners have achieved
the outcomes.
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1.3 They want to determine which learners need more assistance.

1.4 They want to ascertain whether learners can be promoted to
the next grade.
1.5 They want to ensure that learners study the learning content.
1.6 They want to know if learners have benefited from their teaching.
1.7 They want to establish which aspects the learners find difficult
to understand.
2. Do you think there is a difference between assessment and the allocation
of marks? If so, which form of evaluation is most beneficial to learners?
Give reasons for your answer.

Assessment consists of a task – or a series of tasks – that is set by the teacher to

learn more about a learner’s knowledge, skills and attitudes; this information will
help the teacher to decide whether the learner has achieved all the prescribed
objectives. This information is then evaluated (value is attached) and decisions
based on the information are then made (e.g. that the learner may not be
promoted to the next grade, that the learner has not achieved a certain objective
satisfactorily and thus has to do some additional work, or that the teacher has
not enabled the learner to understand the relevant concepts).

Assessment is a continuous and planned process of identifying, gathering and

interpreting information about the learners’ performance. It is essential to record
all assessment results and learners should receive detailed feedback on their
achievements. Learners need to get constructive feedback based on assessments.
A remark such as “You are capable of doing better’’ is not constructive; it does
not indicate the areas in which the learner needs to improve or how he or she
could improve his or her performance. Assessment in the languages discipline
is ongoing and should be done in such a way that it supports the growth and
development of learners.

7.6.1 ‌What the CAPS says about assessment

Ac tivit y 7e
Before you proceed, you need to familiarise yourself with what the CAPS
says about assessment.
Read section 4 in the CAPS to familiarise yourself with what assessment is
all about. Make sure that you understand what informal or daily assessment
entails and how it differs from formal assessment. The formal assessment
requirements are set out in section 4.3.1 and the types of tasks that need
to be set per term are set out in section 4.3.2. It is very important that you
study the table of cognitive levels and the kinds of questions that need
to be set. Lastly, study the programme of assessment. Make sure that
you know what tasks need to be addressed in each term, as well as what
percentage each of the subsections of a task must comprise.

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7.6.2 ‌Assessment of languages

Learners’ listening skills, oral competence, ability to answer questions, participation
in discussions and writing skills should be observed in an informal way on a daily
basis.

When assessing reading, it is important to assess learners’ understanding of

what they are reading and not just their ability to recognise or decode words.
Assessment of reading should therefore take place regularly and should not be a
one-off event. Formal reading assessment should focus on reading aloud, as well
as activities that help you to determine how much the learner has understood,
for example reading a story or answering questions.

Assessment of written work will focus primarily on the learner’s ability to convey
meaning, as well as how correctly they have written, for example, correct language
structures and conventions, spelling and punctuation. All assessment should
recognise that language learning is a process and that learners will not produce
a completely correct piece of work the first time around. Therefore, the various
stages in the writing process should also be assessed.

When giving a formal assessment task, there will be a focus on a particular skill,
for example, listening and speaking or reading and writing. However, because
language learning is an integrated process, more than one skill will be used. The
language structures and conventions should be assessed in context. Furthermore,
assessment should entail not only written work, but also allow for practical and
oral work. It is important to assess what learners understand and apply, not what
they can memorise, so it is necessary to assess in context as much as possible.
Learners may, for example, be able to spell all words correctly during the weekly
spelling test on Friday, but are they able to use and spell those words correctly
when writing a story?

7.6.3 ‌Types of assessment

Assessment should be both informal and formal. Informal assessment is also
called formative assessment or assessment for learning, while formal assessment
is also known as summative assessment or assessment of learning.

•• Informal assessment tasks (assessment for learning)

The purpose of assessment for learning, or informal assessment, is to collect

information about a learner’s achievement on a regular basis and to use this to
improve his or her learning. Assessment for learning (or informal assessment) can
be done through observations, discussions, practical demonstrations, learner–
teacher conferences, informal classroom interactions, homework exercises,
regular spelling tests, reading aloud and other forms of assessment. Learners
should receive feedback based on informal assessments, but it is not necessary to
record these types of assessments. If you wish to keep your own informal records
of how students are progressing, you are welcome to do so. Nevertheless, these
results should not be taken into consideration for promotion and certification
purposes.
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The number of informal activities that must be completed by the learners are
indicated in table 7.2. (Note that these activities are assessed, but do not form part
of the promotion marks. They might, for example, be homework assignments
that are assessed in the classroom.)

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 TABLE 7.2


Provincial annual assessment plan for informal/formative activities to be completed by learners (Gauteng Department of Education)
CAPS ANNUAL TEACHING PLAN
SUGGESTED MINIMUM NUMBER OF INFORMAL/FORMATIVE ACTIVITIES COMPLETED BY LEARNER

...........
Informal/formal Term 1 Term 2 Term 3 Term 4 Breakdown of activities
activities 10 weeks 8 weeks 10 weeks 8 weeks

176
Jan
Oct

Apr

Feb
July
Dec

Nov

Aug

May
Sept

June

Marc

Total
Total number of 120 33 Activities 27 Activities 33 Activities 27 Activities 33 activities for term 1
informal activities:
27 activities for term 2
Languages
33 activities for term 3
27 activities for term 4
Total number of 36 2 4 4 2 4 2 2 4 4 2 4 2 There should be a total of 36 informal activities to
Listening and cover enough depth of Listening and Speaking
Speaking (Oral) skill over 36 weeks period for Terms 1-4
Informal activities •• 1 Oral informal activity per week
−− 18 listening and speaking activities
−− 18 reading aloud activities

Total number 18 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 There should be a total of 18 eading comprehen-

of Reading sion informal activities to cover the 36 week
Comprehension period for Terms 1-4
informal activities
•• Reading comprehension activities should be
as follows:
−− 6x Literary text;
−− 6x Visual text; and
−− 6x Summary.
•• Barrett taxonomy of 40:40:20 should be applied
Coverage of different reading comprehension
strategies
 Total number of 12 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 There should be a total of 12 literature informal
Literature informal activities to cover the 36 week period for Terms
activities 1-4
•• 3 x literature informal activities per term, on
the following:
Poetry; Short stories; Folktales; Drama; Novel
•• For extended reading there should be a
reading card that prescribes the number of
pages that learners should read per day per
Grade (Homework to inculcate the culture
of reading).
−− Grade 4 – 7-10 pages;
−− Grade 5 – 10-12 pages; and
−− Grade 6 – 12-15 pages.
The reading card should have a signature of
the parent, guardian, or an elder brother/sister/
cousin/neighbour, etc. (to accommodate different
family contexts)
Total number of 18 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 1
Writing informal
activities

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•• Formal assessment tasks (assessment of learning)

Formal assessment tasks must be marked and formally recorded. Formal

assessment tasks must be moderated for the purpose of quality assurance and
the maintenance of high standards. Examples of formal assessments are tests,
examinations, practical tasks, projects, oral presentations, demonstrations (e.g.
retelling a story, doing a role-play), performances (e.g. acting out a story), essays,
participation in oral tasks (e.g. dialogues, conversations and discussions), written
tasks (e.g. completing a worksheet, writing paragraphs or other types of texts), etc.

In formal assessments, you need to make use of memoranda, rubrics, checklists

and rating scales. You also need to choose the correct assessment tool for the
type of activity. A rubric would, for example, be better suited to assessing a
creative writing piece, while a memorandum would be better suited to marking
a spelling test or a reading comprehension activity.

Formal assessment tasks must assess a range of aspects of the language skills
so that the key aspects will be assessed over the course of the term or the year.
Before you can do formal assessment of reading aloud, writing a summary or
an essay, etc, you must make sure that the learner has been assessed informally
in these areas (i.e. reading aloud, writing a summary or an essay, etc) and has
received appropriate feedback.

7.6.4 ‌Programme of assessment (formal assessment)

The number and nature of formal assessments that learners need to be subjected
to are set out in tables 7.3 and 7.4 (CAPS, 2011):

TABLE 7.3
Number of formal assessment tasks in Grades 4-6 for home language

Number of formal assessment tasks

Grade Term 1 Term 2 Term 3 Term 4 Total
Grade 4 3 1 3 1 8
Grade 5 3 1 3 1 8
Grade 6 3 1 3 1 8

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 TABLE 7.4
Nature of formal assessment tasks

Tasks Nature of the tasks Form of Marking tool

assessment
Oral •• Oral task comprises two sections (Section A-Reading Aloud and Section B Reading Rubric
Listening and Speaking)
Speaking Grid
•• 1 Oral task per term
•• Total of 4 oral tasks per annum Memorandum
•• Terms 2 and 4 oral tasks are used as Paper 1 for the Midyear and the Year-end
examinations
•• The marks that learners get in Term 2 and Term 4 will be recorded under Paper 1
•• Listening and speaking sections: prepared speech / unprepared speech /
conversation / interview / debate / dramatization / roleplay / discussions /
listening comprehension / mime
Reading comprehension •• Reading Comprehension task comprises 4 sections Test Memorandum
−− Section A–Literary text Rubric
−− Section B–Visual text
−− Section C–Summary
−− Section D–Language Structure and Conventions in context
•• 1 Reading Comprehension test in Term 1
•• 1 Reading Comprehension in Term 2 as Paper 2 for the Midyear examination
•• 1 Reading Comprehension test in Term 3
•• 1 Reading Comprehension in Term 4 as Paper 2 for the Yearend examination
Response to literature study •• Response to literature test comprises poetry and two genres Test Memorandum
−− Section A – Poetry Assignment Rubric
−− Section B – genre 1

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−− Section C – genre 2
•• 1 Response to literature test in Term 3

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Tasks Nature of the tasks Form of Marking tool

assessment
Writing •• Writing task comprises two sections Project Rubric

...........
−− Transactional text Assignment
−− Essay / story
Test

180
•• 1 Writing task in Term 1 · 1 Writing task in Term 2 plus 1 as Paper 3 for the Mid-
year examination
•• 1 Writing task in Term 3 · 1 Writing task in Term 4 plus 1 as Paper 3 for the Year-
end examination
•• Transactional texts: formal & informal letters to the press / formal letters of
application, requests, complaint, sympathy, invitation, thanks, congratulations
& business letters / friendly letters / magazine articles & columns / obituaries /
reports (formal and informal) / reviews / written formal & informal speeches /
curriculum vitae / editorials / brochures / written interviews / dialogues / factual
recounts / procedural texts
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7.7 ‌AT WHAT LEVELS SHOULD LEARNERS BE ASSESSED?

There has been a meaningful change in assessment and the tendency is now to
assess not only knowledge and understanding, but also higher-order thinking
skills, such as the ability to analyse and evaluate. The following table makes a
distinction between lower-order, middle-order and higher-order thinking. Also
look at the examples of questions and possible activities set out in the table. The
verbs that are given may be used to ensure that the specific level of thinking
is used.

A variety of types of questions, such as multiple-choice, cloze, comparison and

direct questions, should be used.

TABLE 7.5
Assessing all levels of thinking
Level of thinking Verbs Examples of questions Possible activities
Lower order
Ask learners to Tell, list, describe, How many characters ...? List the most important
recall information. name, find, spell, Who did ...? events in the book.
The focus is on the memorise, order, Give synonyms for ...
Name the ...
facts learners have define
previously learnt. Where does it take place?
Spell the word
“immediately’’.
Where did the boy
disappear to?
Middle order
Ask learners to show Explain, give What are the differences In your own words, ...
understanding examples, compare, between ...? Explain the reasons
and to apply their translate, illustrate, What is the main idea? why Thabo ran away.
knowledge. apply, use, tell me
Which word best fits this Tell the story in your
about
sentence? own words.
Which word in the
passage indicates that ...?
Higher order
Ask learners to Distinguish, What would happen if ...? Design an
design, develop, Is there a better solution? advertisement for ...
analyse the
predict, plan, If so, what is it? Conduct a debate
information they
assume, combine, about the free
have received Do you think it is a good
summarise, judge, provision of HIV/AIDS
idea to …?
generate new ideas debate, justify, medicine – is it a good
criticise How would you feel if ...?
judge or give their or bad idea?
What is your opinion
own views Explain why it is a
of ...? good/substandard
Imagine you are Thabo. book.
What would ...? Give five criteria for
writing a review.

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You will be astonished to see how quickly learners adapt to answering higher-order
questions. These types of questions encourage learners to make judgements/
evaluations, give their views, give reasons for their statements/comments, see
relationships between things, find solutions to problems, create new ideas and
make predictions. These types of skills are essential for everyday life and should
receive specific attention in the classroom.

Learners can be stimulated to think at different levels. For example, show them a
picture depicting a street in Johannesburg immediately after a robbery has taken
place. Then ask the following questions (adapted from Martin & Miller 1999:14):

•• Lower-order questions (check knowledge and test insight): What do you see
in the picture? Where does this scene take place?
•• Middle-order questions (application of knowledge): Name some other places
that look like this? Why are there so many policemen in the picture?
•• Higher-order questions: What would have happened if there had been no
policemen present?
•• What could be done in future to prevent situations like the one illustrated
in the picture?
•• Would you like to live in a city like this or would you rather stay in the country?
Give a reason for your answer.

Apart from stimulating the various levels of thinking, questions like these can
also provide information about a learner’s language skills. The answer to the
first question (What do you see in the picture?) will, for example, provide a great
deal of information about the learner’s vocabulary (or lack thereof), while the
answer to a question such as “What would have happened if there had been
no policemen present?’’ will provide information about the learner’s ability to
indicate the relationship between cause and effect.

Remember that learners must be taught how to answer higher-order questions.

You cannot confront them with this type of question for the first time during
assessment.

Table 7.6 is an extension and refinement of table 7.5 and provides guidelines for
the types of questions to be set when assessing listening, reading and viewing
and literature. It also indicates the percentage of questions that needs to be
asked at each level. It is known as Barret’s taxonomy.

...........
182
 TABLE 7.6
Barrett’s taxonomy for assessment (CAPS, 2011:91–92)
Cognitive level Activity Percentage
Literal (Level 1) Questions that deal with information explicitly stated in the text. 20%
•• Name the things/people/places/elements …
•• State the facts/reasons/points/ideas …
•• Identify the reasons/persons/causes …
•• List the points/facts/names/reasons …
•• Describe the place/person/character ...
•• Relate the incident/episode/experience …
Reorganisation (Level 2) Questions that require analysis, synthesis or organisation of information explicitly stated in the text. 20%
•• Summarize the main points/ideas/pros/cons/ …
•• Group the common elements/factors …
•• State the similarities/differences …
•• Give an outline of …
Inference (Level 3) Questions that require a candidate’s engagement with information explicitly stated in the text in terms of his/ 40%
her personal experience.
•• Explain the main idea …
•• Compare the ideas/attitudes/actions …
•• What is the writer’s (or character’s) intention /attitude/motivation/reason …
•• Explain the cause/effect of …
•• What does an action/comment/attitude (etc.) reveal about the narrator/ writer/character …
•• How does the metaphor/simile/image affect your understanding …
•• What, do you think, will be the outcome/effect (etc.) of an action/a situation …

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Cognitive level Activity Percentage

Evaluation (Level 4) These questions deal with judgements concerning value and worth. These include judgements regarding reality, 20%
credibility, facts and opinions, validity, logic and reasoning, and issues such as the desirability and acceptability
Appreciation (Level 5) (Levels 4 &
of decisions and actions in terms of moral values.

...........
5)
•• Do you think that what transpires is credible/realistic/ possible …?

184
•• Is the writer’s argument valid/logical/conclusive …
•• Discuss/Comment critically on the action/ intention/ motive/ attitude/suggestion/implication …
•• Do you agree with the view/statement/observation/ interpretation that…
•• In your view, is the writer/narrator/character justified in suggesting/ advocating that … (Substantiate your
response/Give reasons for your answer.)
•• Is the character’s attitude/behaviour/action justifiable or acceptable to you? Give a reason for your answer. •
What does a character’s actions/attitude(s)/motives … show about him/her in the context of universal values?
•• Discuss critically/Comment on the value judgements made in the text.
These questions are intended to assess the psychological and aesthetic impact of the text on the candidate.
They focus on emotional responses to the content, identification with characters or incidents, and reactions to
the writer’s use of language (such as word choice and imagery).
•• Discuss your response to the text/incident/situation/ conflict/dilemma.
•• Do you empathise with the character? What action/decision would you have taken if you had been in the
same situation?
•• Discuss/Comment on the writer’s use of language …
•• Discuss the effectiveness of the writer’s style/ introduction/ conclusion/imagery/metaphors/use of poetic
techniques/ literary devices …
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Ac tivit y 7f
Read the following fable. You want to use it during a reading lesson to
teach learners the characteristics of a fable. Set ten questions based on
the fable. Make use of Barret’s taxonomy in table 7.6 and indicate why you
regard each question as being aimed at a certain level of thinking. Make
sure that the percentage of questions set at a specific level is according
to the specifications.
Post your answers in the relevant Discussions space of your e-tutor site.
Read some of the other students’ postings and see if they can help you
to improve your own answers.
The Thirsty Crow (https://www.moralstories.org/the-thirsty-crow/)
One hot day, a thirsty crow flew all over the fields looking for water.
For a long time, he could not find any. He felt very weak, almost lost
all hope. Suddenly, he saw a water jug below the tree. He flew straight
down to see if there was any water inside. Yes, he could see some water
inside the jug!
The crow tried to push his head into the jug. Sadly, he found that the
neck of the jug was too narrow. Then he tried to push the jug to tilt for
the water to flow out, but the jug was too heavy.
The crow thought hard for a while. Then, looking around it, he saw some
pebbles. He suddenly had a good idea. He started picking up the pebbles
one by one, dropping each into the jug. As more and more pebbles filled
the jug, the water level kept rising. Soon it was high enough for the crow
to drink. His plan had worked!

7.8 ‌ASSESSING DIFFERENT LANGUAGE SKILLS

7.8.1 ‌Using rubrics to assess reading and writing

Rubrics are used to assess a variety of learners’ work. Rubrics are mostly used
to assess reading aloud, speaking and shorter and longer writing pieces (e.g.
stories, instructions, poems, advertisements). To assess language structures and
conventions, or listening or reading comprehension, however, a memorandum
would be more suitable.

Most of the textbooks provide rubrics that can be used, but you can also consult
the internet for a variety of different rubrics that can be used – either as is or
with certain adaptations.

The following rubric can be used to assess reading aloud:

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TABLE 7.7
Rubric for assessing reading aloud

Criteria for reading Not achieved Partially Achieved Exceeded

achieved requirements
Reads fluently

Pronunciation correct

Interpretative
reading
Reads audibly and
clearly
Keeps eye contact
with the audience

Effective variation of
reading tempo

Shows under-
standing of what is
being read
Assessed by: Date:
Comments:

Source: Beeld 2003:3

When assessing writing, the writing process – and not only the end product –
must be assessed. The rubric in table 7.8 is used by Ms Christine de Villiers at
Doringkloof Primary to assess not only the product, but the process as well.

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TABLE 7.8
Assessment rubric for assessing a narrative essay

Category 3 2 1
Writing process Learner devotes a lot of Learner devotes some Leaner devotes little
time and effort to the time and effort to the time and effort to the
writing process (mind writing process but writing process.
map, first draft, editing was not thorough. Does
and improvements and enough to get by.
a neat legible final draft).
Works hard to make the
story wonderful.
Introduction First paragraph has a A catchy beginning No attempt was made
“grabber” or catchy was attempted but was to catch the reader’s
beginning. confusing rather than attention in the first
catchy. paragraph.
Organisation The story is well There is some kind of The story is a little
organised. One idea or organization. One idea hard to follow. Ideas
scene follows another in or scene may seem out and scenes seem to be
a logical sequence with of place. Transitions are randomly arranged,
clear transitions. sometimes not clear.
Setting Many vivid, descriptive Some vivid descriptive The reader has trouble
words are used to tell words are used to tell figuring out when
where and when the the audience when and and where the story
story took place. where the story took took place. No details
place, but the author supplied.
did not supply enough
detail.
Dialogue There is an appropriate There is too much There is not enough
amount of dialogue to dialogue in this story, dialogue in this story
bring the characters but is clear which and it is not always
to life and it is always character is speaking. clear which character is
clear which character is Direct speech rules are speaking. Direct speech
speaking. Direct speech mostly used correctly. rules are mostly used
rules are used correctly. incorrectly.
Spelling, punctuation There are a few spelling There are some spelling There are many spelling
and vocabulary or punctuation errors or punctuation errors and punctuation errors
in the final draft. Very in the final draft. Some in eth final draft.
good vocabulary used. good vocabulary used. Learner uses very basic
vocabulary or use works
in the wrong context.
Idioms/figurative Very good use of Very little use of
language figurative language. figurative language.
Total: _________/20

The criteria used during assessment are listed vertically in the extreme left-hand
column. These criteria must be given to learners beforehand so that they know
what you will be looking at when assessing their essays. The mark is also indicated
in the bottom row – in this case, a total of 20 marks can be obtained. The rest of

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the columns contain descriptions of the learner’s work and the teacher should
decide which description best reflects the specific learner’s work.

Different rubrics need to be used for different writing activities. For example, a
rubric that is used to assess a story cannot be used to assess an advertisement or
an instructional text (e.g. how to make a sandwich). If the textbook that is used at
the school where you teach does not contain a rubric for a specific activity, you
must find a suitable rubric on the internet or develop your own. For example,
the following is a rubric that is used by Ms Christine de Villiers at Doringkloof
Primary to assess a transactional text in which learners had to write instructions
to show the Grade 2 class how to do something practical. Note how the format
of the rubric in table 7.9 differs from the one in table 7.8.

TABLE 7.9
Transactional text assessment rubric

Assessment criteria Mark allocation

Structure
•• Uses a list of materials and/or ingredients. _________/5
•• Organises information logically.
•• Sequences steps appropriately.
Content
•• Selects appropriate information. _________/10
•• Includes correct and specific details.
•• Uses topic and supporting sentences to develop coherent
paragraph for information text.
•• Summarises information.
•• Designs appropriate visuals.
Language
•• Uses command form of verbs when writing instructions. _________/10
•• Uses correct and appropriate spelling and punctuation.
•• Links sentences into a coherent paragraph.
•• Writes information text from materials/ingredients
correctly in a paragraph.
•• Makes judgements and draws conclusions in an information
text.
Writing process
•• Brainstorms ideas using mind maps and word lists ________/5
•• Produces a first draft – writes ideas down as practice.
•• Revises and refines – imprvoes the content and structure.
•• Edits and proofreads – corrects mistakes in grammar,
spelling and punctuation; uses a dictionary to check
spelling and meanings of words.
•• Presenting – presents a neat, legible, correct final version.
Total: ________/30

Note how the rubrics used by Ms De Villiers also make provision for assessing the
writing process. Although it counts very little in each case, the learners will learn

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that it is not just the end product that counts, but also the process (planning,
drafting, revising).

Ac tivit y 7g
Find two rubrics on the internet (or develop your own) for marking
1. an advertisement that Grade 6 learners had to create
2. a poster that Grade 6 learners had to design
Explain why you regard these rubrics as suitable for marking the
advertisement and the poster, respectively.
Post your rubrics in the relevant Discussions space on your e-tutor site.
Compare your rubrics with those of other students and see if theirs are
perhaps more suitable for the specific grade and type of text involved.

7.8.2 ‌Providing constructive feedback

The feedback that you provide when doing formal assessment is often more
important than the mark itself. We have already referred to this aspect in the
Learning unit on Writing.

Compare, for example, the following two ways of approaching a learner’s work:

Option 1

Ndileka, you went through a very scary situation when the dog almost bit you.
I really like the way you have described the dog’s vicious growling and barking,
his yellow teeth and his mad-looking eyes. I noticed a few spelling mistakes and
I have underlined them. Use the dictionary to find the correct spelling and then
rewrite the words. If I were you, I would rather write five different paragraphs,
instead of only three. The first paragraph can stay as it is, but the second and
third paragraphs can be broken up into four different paragraphs. If you look
carefully, you will see where you need to break them up. Each paragraph must
have only one main idea.

Option 2

Good work. Pay more attention to punctuation and paragraphing. Marks: 10

out of 20.

The comments in the second option are worthless and the mark allocation is
vague. Why did the learner get such a poor mark if the content was so good?
What was good about the content? What was the problem with the paragraphs
– were they too long or were there too many?

Try not to find fault too much. Sometimes teachers tend to be overly critical of
their learners’ work – too inclined to look for errors and penalise the learners for
them, rather than rewarding the learners for what they did right/well.

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Ac tivit y 7h
Read the following paragraph, which was written by a Grade 5 learner:
Our family holiday
My family went to holiday in Derban, that is me mom, me dad, me, me
brother and me sister. We play games on the beach we had a lots of
ice cream. I had a pink swimming custoom with yellow butterflys. We
wanted to swim but my dad he says their was a shak and we can not.
We did swim the next day the water was strong the waves white and it
was hot. We loved our holiday in Derban.
•• Use the symbols provided in the previous learning unit to assess the
paragraph.
•• Find a rubric for assessing paragraphs and assess the learner’s paragraph
by making use of the rubric.
•• Allocate a mark for the paragraph.
•• Provide constructive feedback to the learner.

7.9 ‌OVERVIEW OF THE LEARNING UNIT

We hope that you now have the knowledge and skills you need to do long- and
short-term planning for teaching, learning and assessment.

If you are able to answer the following questions, you have mastered this learning
unit:

1. Why is thorough planning necessary?

....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
2. What is the starting point of all planning?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
3. What is the difference between long and short term planning?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
4. Why is it necessary to formulate objectives for a lesson?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
5. Name the three phases of a lesson.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

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Why is thorough planning necessary?

....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
What is the starting point of all planning?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
What is the difference between long and short term planning?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
Why is it necessary to formulate objectives for a lesson?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
Name the three phases of a lesson.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
6. What is the purpose of homework assignments?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
7. Why is assessment necessary?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
8. What are the advantages of using rubrics when assessing writing?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
9. What does “constructive feedback” mean?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
10. What are the levels of thinking that questions must be formulated on?
Give examples of each.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

7.10 CONCLUSION
Each province and school has its own policy and guidelines for planning and
preparation. Your planning (both long- and short-term) and preparation will
thus need to be in accordance with these policies. However, by keeping in mind
the guidelines provided in this learning unit, you will be able to do any type of
planning.

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191 TM N3702 /1


When planning, you need to plan for assessment as well. Assessment forms an
integral part of teaching and it must be done continuously to determine if you
and the learners are on the right track.

Remember, you are not the only one assessing: Your learners also asses you as
a teacher and a person, as well as your teaching skills, your ability to convey
information clearly, your patience and your willingness to help them. As teachers,
we are seldom aware of our learners’ opinion of us and so we should ask them
to do an assessment of our abilities and skills from time to time.

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192
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