People's Democratic Republic of Algeria
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
Mohamed Khider University of Biskra
Faculty of Sciences Exact and Life Sciences
Department of Computer Science
1st Year engineer
Module: Fundamental electronics
Chapter 1
Main theorems for electrical network analysis
Teacher:
Dr.Boussabeur Mohamed Tayeb
2024\2025
What is electronics?
1)Electronics: it is a technical or engineering science that
studies and designs structures that process electrical signals,
electrical currents or voltages, carrying information or energy.
Examples of electronic components:
Resistances
Capacitors
Inductances
Diodes
Transistors
Basic electronic components can be divided into two
main families:
1) The Passive components: Components that do not
increase the power of an electrical signal. This
classification includes:
- Capacitors
- Resistors
- Inductors
2) The Active components: An active component is a
component that increases the power of a signal:
- Transistors
- Diodes
- Triacs
2) Electrical networks: a network is a circuit composed of
various components interconnected by connectors.
Examples:
The Symboles The name and Unit of the symbols
Resistance (Ω)
Inductance (H)
Capacity (F)
Direct voltage source (V)
Direct current source (A)
Measuring instruments can be used to measure voltage
and current in an electrical circuit:
To measure current, use the ammeter.
The ammeter: it is the device used to measure
current intensity.
To measure voltage use voltmeter.
The voltmeter: it is the device used to measure
voltage.
Nb: The pinout of the voltmeter and the ammeter
A voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the
device whose voltage you wish to measure.
An ammeter is always connected in series with the
device whose current intensity is to be measured.
3) Ohm's law is a formula used to calculate the
relationship between voltage, current and resistance in an
electrical circuit.
Ohm's law is given by the equation :
𝑬 = 𝑹 ∗𝑰
This formula means Voltage = Current x Resistance
4) The power dissipated by the resistance: it is supplied
by the source. The power P (in W) dissipated by the
resistance is then:
𝑷 = 𝑬∗𝑰 = 𝑹 ∗ 𝑰𝟐
When the feed voltage increases, I increases and the
power dissipated by R increases.
When the value of R increases, I decreases
5) The Nodes: A node is a point in a circuit where three
or more wires meet.
Example:
Consider the above circuit:
The circuit comprises:
- Two nodes (A and B)
6) The Branches: it is a set of elements between two
consecutive nodes.
Three branches :
7) The Meshes: a mesh is any closed path in a circuit that
allows you to return to the starting point.
Series resistances: Resistances on the same branch.
Resistances in series carry the same current I, but do not
produce the same potential difference.
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 +……… 𝑅𝑛
Resistances connected by the same pair of knots.
Parallel resistance produce the same potential difference,
but do not carry the same current.
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ……………………..
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
Calculate the equivalent resistance :
1) Resistance in series
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =700Ω
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =220+480
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =700Ω
2) Resistance in Parallel
1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 220 480
𝑅𝑒𝑞= 150.86 Ω
𝑅𝑒𝑞= 150.86 Ω
The laws of Gustavo Robert Kirchhoff
In 1845, German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
applied conservation of charge and conservation of
energy to an electrical circuit. He derived two
fundamental laws of electrical circuit analysis, known as
Kirchhoff's law of nodes and Kirchhoff's law of meshes.
∑𝑰 = 𝟎 ∑ ∆𝑽 = 𝟎
𝑰: Current entering or leaving a node in a circuit.
∆𝑽: Potential variation produced by an electrical
component of a circuit.
Conventions on current :
-A current entering a node is a positive current ( I > 0 ).
- A current leaving a node is a negative current (I <0).
- The current is constant on a branch and changes when a
node is encountred.
∑𝑰 = 𝟎
𝑰 −𝑰 −𝑰 = 𝟎
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑰 =𝑰 +𝑰
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
The law of loops says that in an electric circuit loop, the
voltage (E) across the power source is equal to the sum of
the voltages across each of the other components.
∑ ∆𝑉 = 0
𝑬−𝑽 −𝑽 −𝑽 =𝟎
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑬=𝑽 +𝑽 +𝑽
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑽 = 𝑹 ∗𝑰 , 𝑽 = 𝑹 ∗𝑰 , 𝑽 = 𝑹 ∗𝑰
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
𝑬 = 𝑹𝟏 ∗ 𝑰 +𝑹𝟐 ∗ 𝑰 +𝑹𝟑 ∗ 𝑰
𝑬 = (𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐+𝑹𝟑) ∗ 𝑰
⇒I= 𝐸
(𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 )
Voltage Divider Bridge
This theorem is used to calculate voltages at the good
points of impedances placed in series (Fig.I.1). Let n
resistors be placed in series and supplied with a voltage
E.
Fig.I.1. Application of the voltage divider bridge on series resistors.
The voltage across the 𝑅𝑖 resistor is written:
𝑅𝑖
𝑉𝑖 =∑𝑛 E
𝑗=1 𝑅𝑗
Example 1 :
𝑅1
𝑉1 = 𝐸
𝑅1+𝑅2
𝑅2
𝑉2 = 𝐸
𝑅1+𝑅2
Example 2 :
Determine the voltage across resistor R2 (Fig 1. 2).
Fig.1.2. Example of the voltage divider bridge on resistors
𝑅2
Resistors 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 are in series, so: 𝑉2 = 𝑉23
𝑅2+𝑅3
Note that resistors 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 are in parallel with resistor
𝑅4 , so : 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = (𝑅2 +𝑅3 ) // 𝑅4
𝑅𝑒𝑞
Resistors 𝑅𝑒𝑞 and 𝑅1 are in series, so: 𝑉23 = 𝐸
𝑅𝑒𝑞+𝑅1
𝑅2 𝑅𝑒𝑞
Replacing 𝑉23 , we obtain: 𝑉2 = 𝐸
𝑅2+𝑅3 𝑅𝑒𝑞+𝑅1
Current Divider Bridge:
This theorem applies to branches containing resistors
and/or impedances in parallel, as shown in Figure 1.1.
Fig.1.1. Applying the current divider bridge to resistors in parallel.
The current 𝐼𝑖 , flowing through resistor 𝑅𝑖 , placed in
parallel with resistors 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , ... and 𝑅𝑛 , is given by:
1
𝑅𝑖
𝐼𝑖 = 1 I
∑𝑛
𝑗=1 𝑅𝑗
Where I is the current feeding the parallel circuit formed
by the n resistors.
Example 1:
Calculate currents 𝐼1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2
1
𝑅1
𝐼1 = 1 1 I
+
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅2
𝐼1 = I
𝑅1 +𝑅2
1
𝑅2
𝐼2 = 1 1 I
+
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅1
𝐼2 = I
𝑅1 +𝑅2
Example 2:
Describe the currents 𝐼1 as a function of the continuous
voltage E and the resistances r, 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝑅3
Fig.1.2. Example of the current divider bridge on parallel resistors.
Calculate 𝑰𝟏 :
Since resistors 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 are in parallel, so we
obtain after applying the current divider bridge
theorem:
1
𝑅1
𝐼1 = 1 1 1 I
+ +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Calculate I :
𝑅𝑒𝑞 is the resistance equivalent to the enclosed circuit
such that: 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =r +(𝑅1 //𝑅2 //𝑅3 )
Applying Ohm’s law, the current I is written as:
𝐸
I=
𝑅𝑒𝑞
by replacing the current I in the expression of 𝐼1 , we
obtain :
1
𝑅1 𝐸
𝐼1 = 1 1 1
+ + 𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Millman théorème
The Millman’s theorem is an electrical circuit analysis
technique that allows you to simplify complex circuit .It’s used
to find the voltage across and current through a particular
branch of circuit with multiple parallel voltage
source.Millman’s theorem applies only to circuits with parallel
voltage sources, and not to circuits with series voltage sources.
Fig .3. Application of Millman's theorem to parallel branches each comprising
a voltage source and a resistor
The voltage V is written:
𝐸𝑖
∑𝑛
𝑖=1𝑅𝑖
V= 1
∑𝑛
𝑗=1𝑅
𝑗
Example:
Consider the electrical circuit shown in figure 4.
Calculate the voltage across resistor 𝑅5 .
Fig.4. Application of Millmnn's theorem.
Applying Millinan's theorem directly, we obtain:
𝐸1 𝐸2 𝐸3 𝐸4 0
− − + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅5
V= 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅5
Thévenin's theorem
Consider a linear electric circuit placed between two points
A and B. With respect to points A and B (seen from an
element placed between A and B), the previous circuit can be
replaced by a Thévenin equivalent generator ETH and internal
resistance RTH.
The ETH value is equal to the measured voltage between
A and B at no-load.
The internal resistance RTH corresponds to the value of
the resistance seen between A and B when the
independent sources are passivated.
Let's take for example the assembly of the figure 1
Figure.5. Example of Thévenin's theorem application.
The Thévenin voltage ETH is the voltage obtained at no
load between A and B. This voltage obtained across R2 is
calculated by applying the divider bridge theorem.
The RTH resistance is obtained by passivating the voltage
source E. All you have to do is replace the E source with
a short circuit.
R2 R1 R2
ETH E RTH
R1 R2 R1 R2
