LESSON 01 – PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 OTHER TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS

ETHICAL STANDARDS IN WRITING A

RELATED LITERATURE A. USE OF LANGUAGE

(1) Avoid racially charged, sexist, and offensive

ETHICS (rules of moral behavior) language and tendencies (University of Richmond,
– Theory of morality. 2017).
– Rules of behavior based on ideas of what is morally
good or bad (Merriam-Webster). (2) Be sensitive to the sensibilities of the audience.
– Standards that govern the conduct of a person,
especially a member of a profession. (3) Avoid overly inclusive racial terms, such as “Asian”
or “Hispanic”; instead, use specific terms such as
“Japanese,” “Chinese,” and “Filipino.”
PLAGIARISM (critical evaluation of material)
– Taking and using another person’s hard work and (4) When referring to a person with disabilities, place
claiming it, directly or indirectly, as your own (Neville, the description after the subject. For example, it
2017). should be “the man who is blind,” not “the blind
man.”
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8293
(TITLE) Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (5) Do not make sweeping generalizations about a
(DATE ENACTED) June 6, 1997 specific gender, ethnic minority, or any other category
(KEY POINTS) Copyright infringement carries a penalty of people.
of 3-6 years of imprisonment, and a fine ranging from
₱50,000 to ₱150,000 B. FRAUD

– Copying words or ideas from someone else without (1) Fabricate data and results just to get over the
giving credit. coursework or school requirement.
– Failing to put a quotation in quotation marks.
– Giving incorrect information about the source of a TO AVOID FRAUD, RESEARCHERS MUST OBSERVE THE
quotation. FOLLOWING
– Changing words but copying the sentence structure of
a source without giving credit. 1. HONESTY – Do not deceive colleagues by
– Copying many words or ideas from a source that make fabricating or falsifying data. Honestly report data.
up the majority of your work, whether you give credit or
2. OBJECTIVITY – Avoid or minimize bias or sub-
not.
deception.
ETHICAL WRITING (crediting borrowed ideas accurately) 3. INTEGRITY – Act with sincerity and strive for
– Impactful contract between the author and the reader, consistency of thought and actions. Stick to your
where the latter is the originator of the written work, promise of safeguarding the secrecy of information
and any text or ideas borrowed from others are clearly from respondents.
and accurately identified in his scholarly works.
– Clear, accurate, fair, and honest (Kolin, 2002). 4. CAREFULNESS – Carefully and critically examine
your own work, and keep records of research activities
(data collection, research design, and correspondence
TYPES OF PLAGIARISM with agencies and journals).

1. BLATANT PLAGIARISM (deception of authorship)

The writer tries to deceive the teacher or reader, either Respect whatever decision a person has about your
for a grade or acclaim, into believing he or she is the sole research work for his or her participation in your study,
originator of the content. based solely on his or her own decision-making powers.

2. TECHNICAL PLAGIARISM (improper citation of sources) Research work in a way that will be safe from any injury
When a writer is not trying to cheat or deceive but fails or damage that may arise from their physical and
to follow accepted methods of using and revealing emotional involvement in the study.
sources.
Make sure that your study, while instrumental in
elevating the living conditions of people around you, is
also brought above for world progress.
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LESSON 02 – PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 3. TERTIARY SOURCES (summaries of sources)

EXAMPLES – Encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases,
REVIEW (critical evaluation of material) handbooks.
– According to Merriam-Webster, it’s a critical
evaluation (such as of a book).
– Renewed study of material previously studied.
(1) Select a topic
(2) Select and choose literature
LITERATURE (printed or written records) (3) Analyze and interpret literature
– Printed materials (such as booklets, leaflets, and (4) Write the review
brochures) that provide information about something.
– Oral or written records of man's significant
experiences that are artistically conveyed in a prosaic
manner.
PARTS OF THE MANUSCRIPT THAT RESEARCHERS
CAN FIND USEFUL FOR MAKING REVIEW
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE (analysis of
knowledge) 1. ABSTRACT
– Analysis of man's written or spoken knowledge of the Copy exactly as written in the manuscript or article.
world.
– To go beyond and explore what other knowledgeable 2. RATIONALE OR BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
persons or authorities say about the problem in focus. Note the researchers' motivation and justifications for
conducting the study.
PURPOSES OF REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
(1) To obtain background knowledge of your research. 3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
(2) To relate your research to the current conditions or List them exactly as stated in the manuscript.
situations of the world.
(3) To increase your understanding about theories or 4. HYPOTHESES
concepts underlying your research and to learn from
them with respect to your own research study. 5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
(4) To highlight the significance of your work with the List the research design, locale of the study, the
kind of evidence it gathered to support the conclusion respondents of the study, sampling procedures, data
of your research. gathering procedures, research instruments
(5) To familiarize yourself with the technical terms (questionnaires, interview schedules), and statistical
related to your research. treatment of data.
(6) To learn from others and stimulate new ideas.
6. FINDINGS
SOURCES (materials for research) List of major findings.
– Refers to print, electronic or visual materials necessary
for you research. 7. CONCLUSION

1. PRIMARY SOURCES (original documents or eyewitness)

Original documents or remains of an eyewitness to an BASIC METHODS IN REVIEWING RELATED
event, with no interpretation coming between the LITERATURE
original event and the user of the material.
1. TRADITIONAL
EXAMPLES – Letters, correspondence, diaries,
– Used in qualitative research.
autobiographies, official or research reports, patents,
– Begins with research questions (open-ended and
and designs.
subjective questions).

2. SECONDARY SOURCES (analyses of primary sources)

2. SYSTEMATIC
Reports of those who relate what happened, as
– Used in quantitative research.
gathered from primary sources.
– Question-driven methodology (one big question sets
EXAMPLES – Academic journal articles, conference sub-questions).
proceedings, books (mimeographs or chapters of – Aims at obtaining exact, specific, and objective
books), documentaries. answers whose origin or sources are easy to trace.

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Terms used in expressing your appreciation for or PATTERNS OF CITATION
recognition of people's ownership of borrowed idea
(Sharp, 2012). 1. SUMMARY (shortens text)
Shortened version of the original text that is expressed
1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT in your own language.
The beginning portion of the work that identifies
individuals who have contributed something to the 2. PARAPHRASE (rewords text)
production of the paper. You explain what the text means to you using your own
words. In doing so, it is possible that your explanation
2. REFERENCES OR BIBLIOGRAPHY may decrease or exceed the number of words in the
Complete list of all reading materials, including books, original text.
journals, periodicals, etc., from which the borrowed
ideas came. 3. SHORT DIRECT QUOTATION (short direct quotation)
Citation pattern that makes you copy a part of the
3. CITATION OR IN-TEXT CITATION author's sentences, not exceeding 40 words. It is
References within the main body of the text. necessary that you give the number of the page where
the readers can find the copied words.

PURPOSE OF CITATION 4. LONG DIRECT QUOTATION, BLOCK QUOTATION,

OR EXTRACT (copies 40-100 words, poem)
(1) To give importance and respect to other people for
Citation pattern that makes you copy the author's exact
what they know about the field.
words numbering from 40 to 100 words. Under APA, the
(2) To give authority, validity, and credibility to other limit is eight lines. Placed at the center of the page with
people's claims, conclusions, and arguments. no indentation, the copied lines look like they compose
a stanza of a poem.
(3) To prove your broad and extensive reading of
authentic and relevant materials about your topic.

(4) To help readers find and contact the sources of ideas JUSTIFICATION IN QUOTING AUTHOR'S WORDS
easily.
(1) The idea is quite essential.
(5) To permit readers to check the accuracy of your (2) The idea is refutable or arguable.
work. (3) The sentence is ambiguous or has multiple meanings.
(4) There's a strong possibility that questions may be
(6) To save yourself from plagiarism. raised about the citation.
(5) It's an excellent idea that, by making it a part of your
paper, will bring prestige and credibility to your entire
STYLES OF CITATION work.

1. INTEGRAL CITATION (names the author)

Reflects the author's personal inclinations to a certain MOST COMMONLY USED REFERENCING STYLES
extent and is often used in social sciences.
1. AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA)
EXAMPLE OF INTEGRAL CITATION – (Lopena, 2016)
– One study by Manalo (2015) reveals... – (Cortez, Mabeza, & Brado, 2016, pp. 120-130)
– According to Abad et al. (2015), context is... – (Ligos et al., 2016)
– According to Flores (2017)...
2. NON-INTEGRAL CITATION (highlights the info) – Olidan (2016) maintains that...
The stress is given to the piece of information rather – A study on the Pork Barrel Scam is a "doable research
than to the owner of the ideas. work" (Abunda, 2016, p. 78).

EXAMPLE OF NON-INTEGRAL CITATION 2. MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION (MLA)

– The Code of Ethics for Intercultural Competence – (Zovel 287)
gives four ways by which people from different – (Lopena, Torres, & Bado 90-150)
cultural backgrounds can harmoniously relate to one – (Carlos et al. 134-150)
another (De la Cruz, 2015). – (Gorio 1:66-70) for periodicals
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 2. AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA)
ACTIVE VERBS are effective words to use in reporting – Uses an author-date system.
author's ideas. Present their ideas in any of these tenses: – Widely used in the Social Sciences field such as
present, simple past, or present perfect tense. anthropology, business, communication, education,
political science, and psychology.
The APA system, however, prefers the use of PRESENT – Uses in-text citation in the text that refers to an
PERFECT TENSE. alphabetical list of references appearing the end of the
– (present tense) Marcos explains... work.
– (past tense) Marcos explained... – Et al. comes from the Latin phrase et alia, which refers
– (present perfect tense) Marcos has explained... to “and others.”

A. BOOKS
BASIC CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING INFORMATION (PATTERN) Author’s last name, Initial of First Name.
FROM ANY SOURCES (Year of publication). Book Title. City of Publication:
Name of Publication.
(1) Holistic world perspective.
(EXAMPLE) Allen, T. (1974). Vanishing Wildlife of North
(2) Conditions that's directly related to the topic and to
the focus of your study. America. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic
(3) Factors contributing to the focus of your study. Society.
(4) The current condition of the topic in your school or
locale. B. ENCYCLOPEDIA AND DICTIONARY
(5) Reason why you chose to study the topic. (PATTERN) Author’s Last Name, Initial of the First
Name. (Year of Publication). Title of the Article. Title of
CREDIBLE SOURCES OF INFORMATION Encyclopedia (volume, pages). City of Publication:
Name of Publication.
(1) Government pages
(2) Scientific journals, periodicals (EXAMPLE) Bergmann, P.G. (1993). Relativity. In the
(3) Educational websites New Encyclopedia Britannica (v.26, pp. 501-508).
(4) Journal articles Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.
(EXAMPLE) Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary
(10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: Meriam-Webster’s.
STYLES OF CITATION USED IN AN ACADEMIC
PAPER C. MAGAZINES AND NEWSPAPER ARTICLES
Don’t enclose the title with quotation marks and put a
1. MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION (MLA) period after the title. If a periodical includes a volume
– Widely used in Humanities such as in the field of number, italicize it and then give the page range (in
english, literatures, arts, and philosophy. regular type) without “pp.” If the periodical doesn’t
– Uses brief parenthetical citations in the text that refers use volume numbers, as in newspapers, use “p” or
to an alphabetical list of work cited appearing at the end “pp.” for page numbers.
of the work.
(PATTERN) Author’s Last Name, Initial of the First
Name. (Year of Publication). Title of the Article.
A. WHEN THE AUTHOR'S NAME AND HIS WORK IS
Periodical Title, volume number (issue number if
CITED IN THE PARAGRAPH
available). Inclusive pages.
According to Gullans, in his book Poetic Form, the
importance of structure... (23) (EXAMPLE) Harlow, H.F. (1983). Fundamentals of
preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of
B. WHEN THE AUTHOR'S WORK NEEDS TO BE Physiological and Psychology, 55, 893-896.
IDENTIFIED IN THE PARAGRAPH
In the book entitled, Poetic Form, importance of D. WEBSITE OR WEBPAGE
structure... (Gullans 23). (PATTERN) Author’s Last Name, Initial of the First
Name. (Date of Publication). Title of the Article. Title
C. WHEN THE AUTHOR'S WORK IS NOT IDENTIFIED of periodical, volume number. Retrieved month day,
AND NOT REVEALED IN THE TEXT year, from full URL.
...importance of structure... (Gullans, Poetic Form, 23).

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 (EXAMPLE) Devitt, T. (2001, August 2). Lightning
injuries for at music festival. The Why/Files. Retrieved
January 23, 2002, from BIBLIOGRPAHY OR REFERENCES
http://whyfiles.org/37lightingindec.html
A. ONE AUTHOR
A. PLACE THE AUTHOR’S NAME AND YEAR OF – Flora, J.A. (2016). The Colds Virus. Quezon City: GB
PUBLICATION IN PARENTHESES AND SEPARATE IT Press.
USING A COMMA – Gorres, B.M. (2017). The Philippines Educational
In the beginning stages… (Jenkins, 2003). System. Manila: Adarna Publishing House.

B. IF THE NAME OF THE AUTHOR APPEARS IN THE B. TWO AUTHOR

TEXT, CITE ONLY THE YEAR IN PARENTHESES – Oropesa, N.C. and Danes, J.L. (2017). Coron Islands.
Jenkins (2003) described the beginning stages… Baguio City: KLM Company.
– Relado, M.R. and Sabando, J.M. (2017). Academic
C. IF BOTH AUTHOR AND THE PUBLICATION YEAR Institutions. Manila: National Bookstore.
APPEARED IN THE TEXT, DON’T INCLUDE A
PARENTHETICAL CITATION C. THREE AUTHOR
In his influential 2003 study, Jenkins described… (List down the names in the order they appear in the title page)
– Bora, E.N. et al. (2016). BIR Regional Offices. Quezon
D. IF THERE ARE TWO AUTHORS, CITE BOTH NAMES City: Rex Bookstore.
EVERY TIME – Avilla, V. et al. (2016). Labour Unions. Pasig City: Hope
Based on the findings of Sun and Cheng (2016), it Press.
appeared that…
D. ANONYMOUS AUTHOR
E. IF THE SOURCE OF YOUR REVIEW OF RELATED (If the authorship of a work is known but not revealed on the title
page, the name is given in brackets)
LITERATURE HAS THREE OR MORE AUTHORS, CITE (If the identity of the author is guessed, a question mark follows the
ONLY ONE AUTHOR’S NAME PLUS “ET AL.” AND ITS name before the closing bracket)
PUBLICATION YEAR – [Candelrio, E.]. The Opium Craze. (2016). Nowhere:
As mentioned in the study of Cavanaugh et al. (2009), Nonesuch Press.
there are newly emerging standards for K-12 online – [Amarillo, L.]. Pragmatism. (2016). Nowhere: Nonesuch
learning… Publication.
– [Candelario, E.?]. The Opium Craze. Nowhere:
F. FOR CITING A DIRECT QUOTATION (RATHER THAN Nonesuch Publication.
A PARAPHRASE), PROVIDE A PAGE NUMBER IN THE
CITATION TO THE AUTHOR AND DATE E. POPULAR MAGAZINES
But in the words of the inimitable Winnie: “Rivers – Alamares, M. (March 2016). “The French cuisine.”
know this: there is no hurry. We shall get these Panorama, pp. 23-26.
someday” (Mine, 1926, p. 79). – Paras, A. (May 8, 2016). “The 2016 ASEAN
conference.” World Mission, p.8.
G. FOR CITING SECONDARY SOURCES, FIND THE
PRIMARY SOURCES AND CITE IT DIRECTLY RATHER F. NEWSPAPERS
THAN CITING THE SECONDARY SOURCES. IF THE YEAR – Tan, C.S. “Posh subdivisions in Pasay City.” (2016).
OF THE PUBLICATION FOR THE PRIMARY SOURCE IS Philippine Daily Inquirer. 7 May.
KNOWN, INCLUDE IT IN THE TEXT. MEANWHILE, IF – Manila Bulletin. (2017). Editorial 2 December.
THE PUBLICATION YEAR OF THE PRIMARY SOURCE IS – Malaya. (2016). Editorial, 18 July.
UNKNOWN, OMIT IT IN THE IN-TEXT CITATION
Rabbit (1982), as cited in Lyon et al. (2014), described G. INTERVIEWS
it as the… – Corpuz, F. (April 2016). “Quantitative research:
interview with Felicitas Corpuz.” April 2016. Interview by
3. CHICAGO Anabelle Gomez. The Manila Bulletin.
– Introduced and published by the Chicago University. – Claro, E. (May 2017). “High-school institutions:
interview with Dr. John Almeda.” Interview by Lina
TWO STYLES OF CHICAGO
Carillo. The Daily Tribune.
– Notes and Bibliography – Author-Date
H. THESES, DISSERTATIONS, AND OTHER UNPUBLISHED
WORKS

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– Parayno, R.D. (2016). “Meta-cognitive reading
amongbasic learners.” Ph.D. diss., U.P. Diliman.
– Mariano, D.G. (2017). “English plus textbooks in LESSON 03 – PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

college: Discourse Analysis.” M.A. UST. SAMPLING

I. SLIDES AND FILM’S VIDEOCASETTES SAMPLING (selecting part of a population)
– Prudencio, K.C. (2016). “Urban planning.” Quezon City: – Means choosing from a large population the
Palmall Press slides. respondents or subjects to answer your research
– Barcenas, E.A. (2017). “Philippine shopping malls.” questions.
Manila SSG Press filmstrip. – The process whereby a sub-group (sample) is picked
out from a larger group (population), then used as a
basis for making judgments about the larger group.
MATERIAL THROUGH COMPUTERS – The entire population is involved, but for your research
study, you choose only a part of the whole.
1. SIGNED ARTICLE IN A MAGAZINE
– Alegre, R. (July 2016). “Social-media networks.” It’s expected that you should be able to collect data
Personality growth. Retrieved from from all cases; however, it would be impossible to do so,
http://www.inter.com/Jol/labor.htm/ especially for a large population or sample. Thus, there
is a need to select a sample size.
2. UNSIGNED ARTICLE IN A MAGAZINE
– “Unsigned interview. (August 2016).” Business Trends POPULATION (the whole group studied)
Magazine. Retrieved from – Technical term in research, which means a large group
http://www.BusTRendscom/BusTrends/Trends/ctshoot. of people from where you choose the sample.
htmlz – All members of any well-defined class of people,
events, or objects.
3. ARTICLE IN JOURNAL
– “Linguistic competence. (18 May 2016).” English SAMPLE (a subset of the population)
Forum. Retrieved from – Chosen set of people to represent the population.
http://www.jhu.edu/EnglishStudiesJournal/vol.83/83.1.s – Group of individuals who will participate in the
trethson.htmlz. research.
– Subset or a part of a large population.
– A smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of
units from a population used to determine truths about
the population (Crewel, 2015).

SAMPLING FRAME (a list of population members)

– List of the members of the population to which you
want to generalize or apply your findings about the
sample.

SAMPLING UNIT (an individual from the population)

– Term referring to individuals in the population.

PURPOSE OF SAMPLING
1. REDUCED COST – Expenditures are smaller than if a
complete census is attempted.

2. LESS COSTS – Data can be collected and summarized

more quickly with a sample than with a complete count
and with less field time.

3. GREATER SCOPE – Get information about a large

population.

4. GREATER ACCURACY

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 be divided into strata of different income levels (low,
5. WHEN IT’S IMPOSSIBLE T9O STUDY THE WHOLE
average, high) with specific numeric values of annual
POPULATION
family income per level.
– Other possible strata: Gender, social status, academic
achievement.
WHEN WILL YOU USE THE ENTIRE POPULATION AS – Requires prior information about the population to
YOUR SAMPLE? create subgroups.

(1) When your population is very small SAMPLE SIZE FOR PROPORTIONAL ALLOCATION
(2) When you have extensive resources (WALPOLE, 1982)
(3) When you don’t expect a very high response
WHERE:
n
n 1= N = total of strata
¿
SOLVING FORMULA iN = total population
n = statistical random sample
n WHERE: 6. CLUSTER SAMPLING
n= 2 n = sample size desired
1+ N e - used when he target respondents in a research study is
N = population size spread across geographical location.
e = desired margin/sampling - in this method, the population is divided into grops
error called slusterwhich are heterogenous in antur and are
mutally exclusive

CLASSIFICATION CLUSTER SAMPLING CAN BE DONE IN FOLLLOWING

1. Probability Sampling WAYS
2. Non-Probability Sampling
1. SINGLE STAGE CLUSTER SAMPLING
Entire cluster is selected randomly for sampling
1. PROBABILITY SAMPLING (random, equal chance for all)
– Uses randomization to ensure that every element of 2. TWO ATAGE CLUSTER SAMPLING
the population has an equal chance of being part of the First we randomly select clusters and then from rhse
selected sample. selcted we randomly select elements for sampling
– Also known as random sampling.

2. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING (pure chance selection) 7. NON-PROPAPABILITY SAMPLY

– Every element has an equal chance of being selected
for the sample.
– Selection of respondents is based on pure chance.
– Example: Fishbowl technique (drawing names or
numbers randomly).

3. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING (select at regular intervals)

– Elements of the sample are chosen at regular intervals
from the population.
– All elements are placed in a sequence, and each
element has an equal chance of being selected.
– Example: Selecting every 8th member listed in the
sampling frame until the desired number of respondents
is reached.

4. STRATIFIED SAMPLING (divide into subgroups, random)

– Divides the population into small subgroups (strata)
based on similarities, ensuring the elements within each
group are homogeneous.
– Elements are randomly selected from each stratum.
– Example: If the variable of interest is economic status,
based on combined family income, the population can

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