OPERATING SYSTEMS

1. What is an Operating System?

An Operating System (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and
software resources and provides common services for computer programs.
2. What are the main functions of an Operating System?
1. Process Management
2. Memory Management
3. File System Management
4. Device Management
5. Security and Access Control
3. What is a process?
A process is an instance of a program in execution. It includes the program code, its
current activity, and its associated resources like memory, open files, etc.
4. What is a thread? How is it different from a process?
A thread is a lightweight process that shares resources like memory with other threads in
the same process, while processes are independent and have separate memory.
5. What is context switching?
Context switching is the process of saving the state of a currently running process or
thread and loading the state of another one, allowing multitasking in operating systems.
6. What is deadlock?
Deadlock is a situation in an OS where two or more processes are unable to proceed
because each is waiting for a resource held by the other.
7. What are the necessary conditions for deadlock?
1. Mutual Exclusion
2. Hold and Wait
3. No Preemption
4. Circular Wait
8. What is virtual memory?
Virtual memory is a memory management technique that gives an application the
impression it has contiguous working memory, while actually using physical memory fragments
and disk storage.
9. What is paging?
Paging is a memory management scheme that eliminates the need for contiguous
allocation of physical memory by dividing the program's memory into fixed-sized pages and
storing them in memory frames.
10. What is segmentation?
Segmentation is a memory management technique that divides the memory into variable-
sized segments, each of which can be assigned to different parts of a program (like code, data,
stack).
11. What are system calls?
System calls provide an interface for user-level processes to request services of the OS,
such as reading from a file, creating a process, or communicating with hardware devices.
12. What is a kernel?
The kernel is the core part of an operating system that manages system resources and
allows hardware and software to interact.
13. What is scheduling in operating systems?
Scheduling is the process of determining which processes run at any given time by the
OS. It involves deciding the order in which processes are executed.
14. What are the different types of scheduling algorithms?
1. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)
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 2. Shortest Job Next (SJN)
3. Round Robin (RR)
4. Priority Scheduling
5. Multilevel Queue Scheduling
15. What is a file system in an Operating System?
A file system is the way an OS organizes, stores, retrieves, and manages data on storage
devices like hard drives, SSDs, etc.
16. What is swapping in an OS?
Swapping is a process management technique where a process is temporarily moved from
main memory to secondary storage (disk) to free up space for other processes.
17. What is a mutex?
A mutex (mutual exclusion object) is a synchronization primitive used to prevent
multiple threads from accessing a shared resource simultaneously.
18. What is a semaphore?
A semaphore is a synchronization tool used to control access to shared resources by
multiple processes in a concurrent system, ensuring proper use of shared resources.
19. What is the difference between user mode and kernel mode?
o User Mode: The CPU runs with restricted privileges; user applications run in this
mode.
o Kernel Mode: The CPU can execute any instruction and access any memory
address. OS services and critical tasks run in kernel mode.
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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
1. What is a Database Management System (DBMS)?
A DBMS is a software system that enables users to define, create, maintain, and control
access to databases. It provides an interface between users and the database.
2. What are the types of DBMS?
1. Hierarchical DBMS
2. Network DBMS
3. Relational DBMS (RDBMS)
4. Object-oriented DBMS
3. What is a relational database?
A relational database is a type of database that stores data in tables (relations), where
rows represent records and columns represent attributes.
4. What is SQL?
SQL (Structured Query Language) is the standard language for managing and
manipulating relational databases. It is used to query, insert, update, and delete data.
5. What are the different types of SQL commands?
1. DDL (Data Definition Language): CREATE, ALTER, DROP
2. DML (Data Manipulation Language): SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
3. DCL (Data Control Language): GRANT, REVOKE
4. TCL (Transaction Control Language): COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT
6. What is a primary key?
A primary key is a column (or set of columns) in a table that uniquely identifies each row
in that table. It cannot contain NULL values.
7. What is a foreign key?
A foreign key is a column (or set of columns) in one table that uniquely identifies rows in
another table. It creates a relationship between the two tables.
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8. What is normalization?
Normalization is the process of organizing data to minimize redundancy and improve
data integrity by dividing larger tables into smaller, related tables.
9. What are the different normal forms?
1. 1NF (First Normal Form): Eliminate duplicate columns and ensure atomicity.
2. 2NF (Second Normal Form): Eliminate partial dependency.
3. 3NF (Third Normal Form): Eliminate transitive dependency.
4. BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form): Every determinant must be a candidate
key.
10. What is denormalization?
Denormalization is the process of combining normalized tables to improve read
performance by reducing the number of joins.
11. What is a JOIN in SQL?
A JOIN is a SQL operation that combines rows from two or more tables based on a
related column between them.
12. What are the different types of JOINs in SQL?
1. INNER JOIN: Returns records with matching values in both tables.
2. LEFT JOIN (LEFT OUTER JOIN): Returns all records from the left table and
matched records from the right table.
3. RIGHT JOIN (RIGHT OUTER JOIN): Returns all records from the right table
and matched records from the left table.
4. FULL JOIN (FULL OUTER JOIN): Returns all records when there is a match
in either table.
13. What is a transaction in DBMS?
A transaction is a sequence of one or more SQL operations that are treated as a single
logical unit of work, ensuring the ACID properties (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,
Durability).
14. What are ACID properties?
1. Atomicity: All operations of a transaction are completed; otherwise, none of them
are.
2. Consistency: A transaction brings the database from one valid state to another.
3. Isolation: Transactions are executed in isolation from each other.
4. Durability: Once a transaction is committed, its changes are permanent.
15. What is a trigger in SQL?
A trigger is a set of actions automatically executed in response to certain events (such as
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE) on a table.
16. What is the difference between DELETE, TRUNCATE, and DROP?
o DELETE: Removes rows from a table based on a condition and can be rolled
back.
o TRUNCATE: Removes all rows from a table without logging individual row
deletions, and it cannot be rolled back.
o DROP: Deletes the entire table and its structure from the database.
17. What is data integrity?
Data integrity refers to the accuracy, consistency, and correctness of data within a
database. It is enforced using constraints like primary key, foreign key, unique, and check
constraints.

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COMPUTER NETWORKS
1. What is a computer network?
A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices (computers, servers,
routers, etc.) that communicate and share resources such as files, printers, or internet access.
2. What are the types of networks?
1. LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small geographical area like a home,
office, or building.
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers a city or a large campus.
3. WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large geographical areas, such as a country
or continent (e.g., the Internet).
4. PAN (Personal Area Network): Covers personal devices in a small area, like
Bluetooth connections.
3. What is the OSI Model?
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a conceptual framework that
standardizes network functions into seven layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport,
Session, Presentation, and Application.
4. What are the layers of the OSI Model?
1. Physical Layer: Deals with the physical connection and transmission of raw data
bits.
2. Data Link Layer: Responsible for error-free transfer of data frames between
nodes on the same network.
3. Network Layer: Manages logical addressing (IP addresses) and routes data
between networks.
4. Transport Layer: Provides reliable data transfer (TCP/UDP).
5. Session Layer: Manages sessions or connections between applications.
6. Presentation Layer: Translates, encrypts, and compresses data.
7. Application Layer: Provides services for network applications (e.g., HTTP,
FTP).
5. What is the difference between TCP and UDP?
o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Connection-oriented, reliable,
guarantees the delivery of data packets, and ensures error-checking.
o UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Connectionless, faster but less reliable, does
not guarantee packet delivery or order.
6. What is IP addressing?
An IP address is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a network using
the Internet Protocol. It helps in identifying and locating devices on the network.
7. What is DNS (Domain Name System)?
DNS is a hierarchical naming system that translates human-readable domain names (like
www.example.com) into IP addresses.
8.What is a MAC address?
A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique hardware identifier assigned to
network interfaces for communication on the physical network segment.

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9. What is the difference between a switch and a router?
o Switch: Operates at the Data Link layer (Layer 2) and forwards data within the
same network using MAC addresses.
o Router: Operates at the Network layer (Layer 3) and forwards data between
different networks using IP addresses.
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10. What is HTTP and HTTPS?
o HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): A protocol used for transmitting
hypertext (web pages) between clients and servers.
o HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): A secure version of HTTP that
uses SSL/TLS to encrypt data for secure communication.
11. What is a firewall?
A firewall is a network security device or software that monitors and filters incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules.
12. What is a VPN (Virtual Private Network)?
A VPN is a secure network that extends a private network across a public network,
enabling users to send and receive data as if their devices were directly connected to the private
network.
13. What is a packet?
A packet is a formatted unit of data carried by a network. It consists of control
information (headers) and user data (payload).
14. What is bandwidth?
Bandwidth refers to the maximum rate of data transfer across a network, usually
measured in bits per second (bps).
15. What is a proxy server?
A proxy server is an intermediary server that separates end users from the websites they
browse. It provides anonymity, caching, and filtering capabilities.
16. What is a topology in networking?
Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements (links, nodes) in a
computer network. Common types include bus, star, ring, and mesh topology.
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1. What is Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)?
OOP is a programming paradigm based on the concept of objects, which can contain data
(attributes) and methods (functions). It emphasizes reusability, modularity, and organization of
code around real-world entities.
2. What are the four pillars of OOP?
1. Encapsulation: Bundling data (attributes) and methods (functions) that operate
on the data into a single unit (class) and restricting access to certain components.
2. Abstraction: Hiding the implementation details and exposing only the
functionality to the user.
3. Inheritance: A mechanism by which one class can inherit properties and
behavior from another class.
4. Polymorphism: The ability to take many forms. It allows methods or functions to
behave differently based on the object or data type they operate on.
3. What is a class?

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 A class is a blueprint or template for creating objects. It defines attributes (data members)
and methods (functions) that the created objects will have.
4. What is an object?
An object is an instance of a class. It represents a real-world entity with a specific state
(attributes) and behavior (methods).

5. What is encapsulation?
Encapsulation is the principle of wrapping data (attributes) and code (methods) into a
single unit, i.e., a class, and restricting access to certain components by using access modifiers
(private, protected, public).
6. What is inheritance?
Inheritance is a feature of OOP that allows a class (child or derived class) to inherit
properties and behaviors (methods and attributes) from another class (parent or base class). It
promotes code reusability.
7. What is polymorphism?
Polymorphism allows objects to be treated as instances of their parent class, making it
possible for the same function to behave differently depending on the object calling it. It can be
achieved through method overloading and method overriding.
8. What is method overloading?
Method overloading is a type of polymorphism where multiple methods in the same class
have the same name but different parameters (number, type, or both).
9. What is method overriding?
Method overriding is a type of polymorphism where a subclass provides its specific
implementation of a method that is already defined in its parent class. The method in the subclass
should have the same name and parameters as the one in the parent class.
10. What is an abstract class?
An abstract class is a class that cannot be instantiated on its own and is meant to be
subclassed. It can contain both abstract methods (without implementation) and concrete methods
(with implementation).
11. What is an interface?
An interface defines a contract (a set of methods) that a class must implement. It only
contains abstract methods and does not provide any implementation, allowing multiple
inheritance in languages like Java.
12. What is the difference between an abstract class and an interface?
o Abstract Class: Can have both abstract and concrete methods, and can also have
attributes. A class can inherit only one abstract class.
o Interface: Can have only abstract methods (before Java 8) and no attributes. A
class can implement multiple interfaces.
13. What is a constructor?
A constructor is a special method in a class that is called when an object of the class is
instantiated. It is used to initialize the object's attributes.
14. What is a destructor?
A destructor is a special method that is called when an object is destroyed or goes out of
scope. It is used for cleanup activities, like releasing resources.

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15. What is the difference between a constructor and a destructor?
o Constructor: Initializes an object when it is created.
o Destructor: Cleans up resources when the object is destroyed.
16. What is multiple inheritance?
Multiple inheritance is when a class inherits properties and methods from more than one
parent class. Some languages like C++ support multiple inheritance, while others like Java use
interfaces to simulate it.

17. What are access modifiers?

Access modifiers control the visibility of class members (attributes and methods).
Common access modifiers are:
o Private: Accessible only within the same class.
o Protected: Accessible within the same class and subclasses.
o Public: Accessible from anywhere.
18. What is the 'this' keyword?
The this keyword refers to the current object in a method or constructor. It is used to
distinguish between instance variables and parameters or to call other constructors in the same
class.
19. What is the 'super' keyword?
The super keyword refers to the parent class and is used to call a parent class's
constructor or methods from within a subclass.
20. What is dynamic (runtime) polymorphism?
Dynamic polymorphism refers to the method overriding process where the method call is
resolved at runtime, allowing different behaviors for the same method based on the object type.
21. What is static (compile-time) polymorphism?
Static polymorphism refers to method overloading where the method call is resolved at
compile time, depending on the method signature.
22. What is an exception in OOP?
An exception is an event that occurs during the execution of a program that disrupts its
normal flow. Exception handling mechanisms, such as try, catch, and finally, are used to manage
these errors.