Business Mathematics & Statistics (LB 110)

Dr. Biswaranjan Rath

MATRICES
A matrix is a fundamental mathematical concept used to represent and manipulate data, particularly in linear
algebra and various areas of science, engineering, and computer science. A matrix is essentially a
rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions organized into rows and columns. Each element in
the matrix is called an entry or element.

The matrix is a set of numbers that are arranged in horizontal and vertical lines of entries. The horizontal
entries called rows, and the vertical entries called columns. The numbers are called
the elements or entries of the matrix. It is written inside a pair of square brackets []. In other words, it is
an array of numbers. It is a rectangular representation of numbers in the form of an array.

Matrix is usually denoted by a capital letter and its elements denoted by the small letters along
with subscript of the row and column number.
The general form of a matrix is often denoted as an "m x n" matrix, where "m" represents the number of
rows, and "n" represents the number of columns. For example, a matrix with 2 rows and 3 columns would
be referred to as a "2 x 3" matrix.
Here's an example of a 2 x 3 matrix:
1 2 3
[ ]
4 5 6
In this matrix:
The first row consists of the numbers 1, 2, and 3. The second row consists of the numbers 4, 5, and 6. There
are 2 rows and 3 columns.
There are the following types of matrices:

Empty Matrix: A Matrix with no rows and no columns is called an empty matrix.
Ex: [ ].
Row Matrix: A matrix that has only a row is called a row matrix. It is also known as the row vector.
For example: [4 3 6]
Column Matrix: A matrix that has only a column is called a column matrix. It is also known as
the column vector. For example:
1
[2]
3
Horizontal Matrix: A matrix in which the number of rows is lower than the number of columns is
called a Horizontal Matrix. Columns.
1 2 3
Ex: [ ]
4 5 6

Vertical Matrix
The matrix in which the number of rows exceeds the number of columns is called a Vertical Matrix.
1 2
Ex: 3 4]
[
5 6
Zero Matrix or Null Matrix: A matrix whose all elements are zero is called a zero matrix. It is also
known as the null matrix. For example:

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 Business Mathematics & Statistics (LB 110)
Dr. Biswaranjan Rath
0 0 0 0 0
[0 0] [0 0 0]
0 0 0 0 0
Singleton Matrix: If there is only one element in a matrix, it is called a Singleton matrix.
Ex: [1], [a]
Square Matrix: A matrix in which row and column dimensions are equal (m=n) is called the square
matrix. For example:
1 4 7
[2 5 8 ]
3 6 9
Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix in which all the non-diagonal elements are zero and contain at least
one no-zero element in its principal diagonal is called the diagonal matrix. For example:
1 0 0 0 0 0
[0 6 0] or [0 2 0]
0 0 2 0 0 0
Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix whose all diagonal elements are equal is called the scalar matrix.
The scalar matrix cannot be a unit matrix, while a unit matrix can be a scalar matrix. For example:
3 0 0
[0 3 0]
0 0 3
Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix: A scalar matrix whose principal diagonal elements are one and all
non-diagonal elements are zero is called the unit matrix. It is also called an identity matrix. It is
denoted by the letter I. It is also a scalar matrix.
For example:
1 0 0
I = [0 1 0]
0 0 1
Triangular Matrix: It is a special kind of square matrix that forms a triangle either upper or lower to
its principal diagonal. There are two types of the triangular matrix:

o Upper Triangular Matrix: A square matrix in which all the elements below the leading diagonal
are zero. For example:
2 3 5
[0 9 7 ]
0 0 1
o Lower Triangular Matrix: A square matrix in which all the elements above the principal diagonal
are zero. For example:
2 0 0
[1 11 0 ]
6 9 12
Submatrix: A submatrix of a matrix is determined by deleting any rows or columns or both. For
example, consider the following matrix:
2 14 0
A = [1 11 23]
6 9 12
From the above matrix A, we can generate a submatrix. We are deleting the 2nd row and 3rd column.
After deleting, we get the following submatrix:
2 14
[ ]
6 9

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 Business Mathematics & Statistics (LB 110)
Dr. Biswaranjan Rath
Properties of Matrix
Matrices have several important properties that make them a versatile tool in mathematics and various
applications. Here are some of the key properties of matrices:
1. Properties of matrix addition:

The matrix addition is the addition of corresponding elements of the matrices.

For the matrices A and B,

• Commutative property: A + B = B + A

Matrix addition is commutative, meaning that the order of addition does not affect the result. If A
and B are matrices of the same size, adding them in any order will yield the same matrix.
Example: Let:
1 2 5 6
A= ( ), B= ( )
3 4 7 8
Now calculate:
1 2 5 6 1+5 2+6 6 8
A+B=( )+( )= ( )=( )
3 4 7 8 3+7 4+8 10 12
5 6 1 2 5+1 6+2 6 8
B + A= ( )+( )= ( )=( )
7 8 3 4 7+3 8+4 10 12
As we can see, A+B=B+A
• Associative property: A + (B + C ) = (A + B ) + C
Matrix addition is associative, meaning that the grouping of matrices being added does not matter.
If A, B, and C are matrices of the same size, it does not matter how they are grouped during
addition.
Example: Let:
1 2 5 6 9 10
A=( ), B = ( ), C = ( )
3 4 7 8 11 12
Now calculate:
1 2 5 6 1+5 2+6 6 8
A+B=( )+( )= ( )=( )
3 4 7 8 3 + 7 4 + 8 10 12
6 8 9 10 15 18
(A + B) + C = ( )+( )=( )
10 12 11 12 21 24
5 6 9 10 5+9 6 + 10 14 16
B+C=( )+( )=( )=( )
7 8 11 12 7 + 11 8 + 12 18 20
1 2 14 16 15 18
A + (B + C) = ( )+( )=( )
3 4 18 20 21 24
Thus, (A + B) + C = A + (B + C), confirming the associative property.

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Dr. Biswaranjan Rath
• Additive identity (Zero Matrix): A + 0 = 0 + A = A
The zero matrix, denoted as 0, acts as the additive identity. When any matrix A is added to a zero
matrix (of the same size), the result is A itself.

Example: Let
1 2 0 0
A=( ),0=( )
3 4 0 0
Now calculate:
1 2 0 0 1+0 2+0 1 2
A+0=( )+( )=( )=( )
3 4 0 0 3 + 0 4 + 0 3 4
So, A + 0 = A, confirming the existence of the additive identity.
• Additive inverse (Negatives): A + ( - A) = (-A) + A = 0

Every matrix has an additive inverse (or negative matrix), denoted as −A, such that when added to
the original matrix A, the result is the zero matrix.
Example: Let:
2 4 −2 −4
A=( ), - A = ( )
−3 5 3 −5
Now calculate :
2 4 −2 −4 2−2 4−4 0 0
A + (- A) = ( )+( )=( )=( )
−3 5 3 −5 −3 + 3 5 − 5 0 0
Thus, A + (−A) = 0, confirming the existence of additive inverses.

• Closure Property

The sum of two matrices is always a matrix of the same dimensions.

Example: Let:

1 2 5 6
A=( ), B = ( )
3 4 7 8

Both matrices are 2 x 2.

1 2 5 6 1+5 2+6 6 8
The Sum = A + B = ( )+( )= ( )=( )
3 4 7 8 3+7 4+8 10 12

is also a 2 x 2 matrix, demonstrating closure.

• Dimension Compatibility

Matrix addition is only defined for matrices of the same dimensions.

Example: Let:

1 2
A=( ), B=(5 6 7)
3 4

Here, A is a 2 x 2 matrix and B is a 1 x 3 matrix. Since the dimensions do not match, A + B is undefined.
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 Business Mathematics & Statistics (LB 110)
Dr. Biswaranjan Rath
1. Properties of Matrix Subtraction

All constraints for the addition of matrices are applied to the subtraction of matrices as well. But there are
certain laws that matrix subtraction does not follow just like the subtraction of numbers. The most important
necessity for the subtraction of matrices to hold all these properties is that the matrix subtraction is defined
only if the order of the matrices is the same.
• The number of rows and columns should be the same for the matrix subtraction.
• The subtraction of matrices is not commutative, that is, A - B ≠ B – A

1 2 5 6
A=( ), B=( )
3 4 7 8
1 2 5 6 1−5 2−6 −4 −4
A–B=( )-( )=( )=( )
3 4 7 8 3−7 4−8 −4 −4
5 6 1 2 5−1 6−2 4 4
B–A=( )-( )=( )=( )
7 8 3 4 7−3 8−4 4 4
As you can see, A – B ≠ B − A, demonstrating that matrix subtraction is not commutative.

• The subtraction of matrices is not associative, that is, (A - B) - C ≠ A - (B - C)

1 2 5 6 9 10
A=( ), B = ( ), C = ( )
3 4 7 8 11 12
Now calculate:
1 2 5 6 1−5 2−6 −4 −4
A–B=( )-( )=( )=( )
3 4 7 8 3−7 4−8 −4 −4
−4 −4 9 10 −4 − 9 −4 − 10 −13 −14
(A – B) – C = ( )-( )=( )=( )
−4 −4 11 12 −4 − 11 −4 − 12 −15 −16
5 6 9 10 5−9 6 − 10 −4 −4
B–C=( )-( )=( )=( )
7 8 11 12 7 − 11 8 − 12 −4 −4
1 2 −4 −4 1 − (−4) 2 − (−4) 5 6
A – (B – C) = ( )-( )=( )=( )
3 4 −4 −4 3 − (−4) 4 − (−4) 7 8
As you can see, (A – B) – C ≠ A – (B – C), demonstrating that matrix subtraction is not associative.
• Associative with Addition: A – (B + C) = (A – B) – C
1 2 5 6 9 10
A=( ), B = ( ), C = ( )
3 4 7 8 11 12
Now calculate:
5 6 9 10 5 + 9 6 + 10 14 16
B+C=( )+( )=( )=( )
7 8 11 12 7 + 11 8 + 12 18 20
1 2 14 16 1 − 14 2 − 16 −13 −14
A – (B + C) = ( )-( )=( )=( )
3 4 18 20 3 − 18 4 − 20 −15 −16
1 2 5 6 1−5 2−6 −4 −4
A–B=( )-( )=( )=( )
3 4 7 8 3−7 4−8 −4 −4
−4 −4 9 10 −13 −14
(A – B) – C = ( )-( )=( )
−4 −4 11 12 −15 −16
Thus, A − (B + C) = (A − B) – C , confirming the associative property of matrix subtraction when
combined with addition.
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 Business Mathematics & Statistics (LB 110)
Dr. Biswaranjan Rath
• The subtraction of a matrix from itself results in a null matrix, that is, A - A = O.
• Subtraction of matrices is the addition of the negative of a matrix to another matrix (Additive
Inverse), that is, A - B = A + (-B).

Example: Let:
1 2 5 6
A=( ), B = ( )
3 4 7 8
1 2 5 6 1−5 2−6 −4 −4
A–B=( )-( )=( )=( )
3 4 7 8 3−7 4−8 −4 −4
1 2 −5 −6 −4 −4
A + (- B) = ( )+( )=( )
3 4 −7 −8 −4 −4
Thus, A – B = A + (−B), showing that subtraction is the same as adding the inverse.

• Closure Property: Matrix subtraction, like addition, is closed under the operation. The result of
subtracting two matrices of the same size is another matrix of the same size.
Example: Let:
1 2 5 6
A=( ), B = ( )
3 4 7 8
Both matrices are 2x2. The result:
1 2 5 6 1−5 2−6 −4 −4
A–B=( )-( )=( )=( )
3 4 7 8 3−7 4−8 −4 −4
is also a 2 x 2 matrix, showing that matrix subtraction is closed.

• Dimension Compatibility: Just like in matrix addition, matrix subtraction is only defined for
matrices of the same dimensions. If the matrices are not of the same size, subtraction is undefined.
Example: Let:
1 2
A=( ), B = ( 1 2 3)
3 4
Here, A is a 2 x 2 matrix, and B is a 1 x 3 matrix. Since the matrices do not have the same dimensions,
A−B is undefined.
3. Properties of Matrix Multiplication

The matrix multiplication is a product of two matrices that produce a single matrix.

For the matrices A, B and C

• Non-Commutative Property: A x B ≠ B x A

Example: Let:
1 2 5 6
A=( ), B = ( )
3 4 7 8
Now Calculate:
1 2 5 6 1x5+2x7 1x6+2x8 19 22
AxB=( )x( )=( )=( )
3 4 7 8 3x5+4x7 3x6+4x8 43 50
5 6 1 2 5x1+6x3 5x2+6x4 23 34
BxA=( )x( )=( )=( )
7 8 3 4 7x1+8x3 7x2+8x4 31 46
Clearly, A×B ≠ B×A, demonstrating that matrix multiplication is not commutative.

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Dr. Biswaranjan Rath
• Associative property: (A x B) x C = A x ( B x C )

Example: Let:
1 2 5 6 9 10
A=( ), B = ( ), C = ( )
3 4 7 8 11 12
Now calculate: (A x B) x C

1 2 5 6 1x5+2x7 1x6+2x8 19 22
AxB=( )x( )=( )=( )
3 4 7 8 3x5+4x7 3x6+4x8 43 50

19 22 9 10 19 x 9 + 22 x 11 19 x 10 + 22 x 12 413 454
(A x B) x C = ( )x( )=( )=( )
43 50 11 12 43 x 9 + 50 x 11 43 x 10 + 50 x 12 937 1030
Now calculate: A x (B x C)
5 6 9 10 5 x 9 + 6 x 11 5 x 10 + 6 x 12 111 122
B x C= ( )x( )=( )=( )
7 8 11 12 7 x 9 + 8 x 11 7 x 10 + 8 x 12 151 166
1 2 111 122 1 x 111 + 2 x 151 1 x 122 + 2 x 166
A x (B x C) = ( )x( )=( )=
3 4 151 166 3 x 111 + 4 x 151 3 x 122 + 4 x 166
413 454
( )
937 1030

Thus, (A x B) x C = A x (B x C), confirming the associative property.

• Distributive property: A x ( B + C ) = A x B + A x C

1 2 5 6 9 10
A=( ), B = ( ), C = ( )
3 4 7 8 11 12
Now calculate: A x (B + C)
5 6 9 10 5+9 6 + 10 14 16
B+C= ( )+( )=( )=( )
7 8 11 12 7 + 11 8 + 12 18 20
1 2 14 16 1 x 14 + 2 x 18 1 x 16 + 2 x 20 50 56
A x (B + C) = ( )x( )=( )=( )
3 4 18 20 3 x 14 + 4 x 18 3 x 16 + 4 x 20 114 128

1 2 5 6 1x5+2x7 1x6+2x8 19 22
AxB=( )x( )=( )=( )
3 4 7 8 3x5+4x7 3x6+4x8 43 50

1 2 9 10 1 x 9 + 2 x 11 1 x 10 + 2 x 12 31 34
AxC=( )x( )=( )=( )
3 4 11 12 3 x 9 + 4 x 11 3 x 10 + 4 x 12 71 78

19 22 31 34 50 56
AxB+AxC=( )+( )=( )
43 50 71 78 114 128

Thus, A×(B+C)=A×B+A×C, confirming the distributive property.

• Multiplicative identity: A x I = I x A = A , where I is an identity matrix

Identity matrix: It is always square, means it has the same number of rows and columns. The element
of the main diagonal (from the top-left to the bottom-right) are all 1. All other elements outside the
diagonal are 0.

Example: Let:
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Dr. Biswaranjan Rath
1 2 1 0
A=( ), I=( )
3 4 0 1

1 2 1 0 1x1+2x0 1x0+2x1 1 2
AxI=( )x( )=( )=( )
3 4 0 1 3x1+4x0 3x0+4x1 3 4

Thus, A × I = A

• Multiplicative property of zero: A0 = 0A = 0

• Dimension Compatibility

For two matrices A and B to be multiplied, the number of columns in A must equal the number of
rows in B. If A is of size m×n and B is of size n×p, their product A×B will be of size m×p.

Example: Let:

A = (2 3) mxn=1x2

4
B=( ) mxn=2x1
5

4
A x B = (2 3) x ( ) = ( 2 x 4 + 3 x 5) = (23)
5

Thus, the result is a 1× 1 matrix.

4. Properties of Scalar Multiplication

If A is a matrix and k any constant, then the product of a constant with the matrix is equal to the
product of the constant and all the elements of a matrix.

• Commutative property: kA=Ak

1 2
k = 3, A = ( )
3 4

1 2 3 6 1 2 3 6
kA= 3 x ( )=( ) Ak = ( )x3=( )
3 4 9 12 3 4 9 12

As expected, kA=Ak, demonstrating the commutative property of scalar multiplication in matrices.

• Distributive property over Matrix Addition: k(A+B) = kA+kB

1 2 5 6
k = 2, A = ( ), B = ( )
3 4 7 8
1 2 5 6 1+5 2+6 6 8
A+B=( )+( )= ( )=( )
3 4 7 8 3+7 4+8 10 12

Now multiply the scalar:

6 8 12 16
k x (A + B) = 2 x ( )=( )
10 12 20 24
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Separately,

1 2 2 4 5 6 10 12
kxA=2x ( )= ( ), k x B = 2 x ( )=( )
3 4 6 8 7 8 14 16

2 4 10 12 12 16
(k x A) + (k x B) = ( )+( )=( )
6 8 14 16 20 24

Thus, k × (A + B) = (k × A) + (k × B).

• Distributive property over Scalar Addition: (k + m) A = kA + mA ,

where k, m are scalars and A is a matrix

Example: Let:

1 2
k = 2, m = 3, A = ( )
3 4

Now Calculate:

1 2 1 2 5 10
(k + m) A = (2 + 3) x ( )=5x ( )= ( )
3 4 3 4 15 20

Separately:

1 2 2 4 1 2 3 6
kxA=2x ( )= ( ), mxA=3x ( )= ( )
3 4 6 8 3 4 9 12

Now add the results:

2 4 3 6 5 10
(k x A) + (m x A) = ( )+ ( )= ( )
6 8 9 12 15 20

Thus, (k + m) × A = (k × A) + (m × A).

• Associative property: k(mA) = (km)A

Example: Let:

1 2
k = 2, m = 3, A = ( )
3 4

Now Calculate:

1 2 3 6 6 12
k x (m x A) = 2 x (3 x ( )) = 2 x ( )= ( )
3 4 9 12 18 24
1 2 1 2 6 12
(k x m) x A = (2 x 3) x ( )=6x( )= ( )
3 4 3 4 18 24
Thus, (k x m) x A = k x (m x A).
5. Properties of Transpose Matrix

Transpose matrix is obtained by interchanging the rows and columns. The transpose of matrix A is
denoted as AT or A'.
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Dr. Biswaranjan Rath
• Transpose of the Transpose: Taking the transpose of the transpose of a matrix returns the
original matrix: (AT)T = A

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
A= ( ), AT = ( )
𝟑 𝟒 𝟐 𝟒

Now transpose AT:

𝟏 𝟐
(AT)T = ( )=A
𝟑 𝟒

• Transpose of a Sum: The transpose of the sum of two matrices is the sum of their
transposes: (A + B)T = AT + BT

Example: Let:

𝟏 𝟐 𝟓 𝟔
A=( ), B=( )
𝟑 𝟒 𝟕 𝟖

𝟏 𝟐 𝟓 𝟔 𝟏+𝟓 𝟐+𝟔 𝟔 𝟖
Then: A + B = ( )+( )= ( )=( )
𝟑 𝟒 𝟕 𝟖 𝟑+𝟕 𝟒+𝟖 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟐

Now, the transpose:

𝟔 𝟏𝟎
(A + B)T = ( )
𝟖 𝟏𝟐

Transposing A and B individually:

𝟏 𝟑 𝟓 𝟕
AT = ( ), BT = ( )
𝟐 𝟒 𝟔 𝟖

Adding their transposes:

𝟏 𝟑 𝟓 𝟕 𝟔 𝟏𝟎
AT + BT = ( )+( )=( )
𝟐 𝟒 𝟔 𝟖 𝟖 𝟏𝟐

Thus, (A + B)T = AT + BT

• Transpose of a Product (Reversal of Order): The transpose of the product of two matrices is
the product of their transposes, but in reverse order: (A x B)T = BT x AT

Example: Let:

𝟏 𝟐 𝟓 𝟔
A=( ), B=( )
𝟑 𝟒 𝟕 𝟖

1 2 5 6 1x5+2x7 1x6+2x8 19 22
AxB=( )x( )=( )=( )
3 4 7 8 3x5+4x7 3x6+4x8 43 50

Now transpose:

𝟏𝟗 𝟒𝟑
(A×B)T = ( )
𝟐𝟐 𝟓𝟎
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Next, calculate the transposes of A and B:

𝟏 𝟑 𝟓 𝟕
AT = ( ), BT = ( )
𝟐 𝟒 𝟔 𝟖

Now multiply in reverse order:

𝟓 𝟕 𝟏 𝟑 𝟓𝐱𝟏+𝟕𝐱𝟐 𝟓𝐱𝟑+𝟕𝐱𝟒 𝟏𝟗 𝟒𝟑
BT x AT = ( )x( )=( )=( )
𝟔 𝟖 𝟐 𝟒 𝟔𝐱𝟏+𝟖𝐱𝟐 𝟔𝐱𝟑+𝟖𝐱𝟒 𝟐𝟐 𝟓𝟎

Thus, (A x B)T = BT x AT

• Transpose of a Scalar Multiple: The transpose of a scalar multiple of a matrix is the scalar
multiplied by the transpose of the matrix: (kA)T = kAT , where k is a scalar and A is a matrix.

Example: Let:

𝟏 𝟐
k = 2, A = ( )
𝟑 𝟒

Then :

𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
(k x A) = 2 x ( )= ( )
𝟑 𝟒 𝟔 𝟖

𝟐 𝟔
(k x A)T = ( )
𝟒 𝟖

𝟏 𝟑
Now AT = ( )
𝟐 𝟒

𝟏 𝟑 𝟐 𝟔
k x AT = 2 x ( )= ( )
𝟐 𝟒 𝟒 𝟖

Thus, (k x A)T = k x AT
6. Properties of Inverse Matrix.
The inverse of a matrix A is denoted by A-1=1/|A| x adj.(A) ,
where adj.(A) is the adjoint matrix and
|A| is the determinant of the matrix A.
𝑎 𝑏
if A = ( )
𝑐 𝑑
1 1 d −b
A-1 = x adj(A) = x ( )
det (𝐴) ad−bc −c a

• (A-1)-1 = A

𝟏 𝟐
Let A = ( )
𝟑 𝟒

The determinant is : det(A) = (1 x 4) – (2 x 3) = 4 – 6 = -2

𝟏 𝟒 −𝟐 −𝟐 𝟏
A-1 = −𝟐 ( ) = ( )
−𝟑 𝟏 𝟏. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟓
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𝟏 𝟏
(A-1)-1 = x (𝐝 −𝐛
)= x (−𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟏)
𝐚𝐝−𝐛𝐜 −𝐜 𝐚 (−𝟐)(−𝟎.𝟓)−(𝟏.𝟓)(𝟏) −𝟏. 𝟓 −𝟐

𝟏 𝟏
= x (−𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟏) = −𝟎.𝟓 x (−𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟏) = (-2) x (−𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟏) = (𝟏 𝟐)
(𝟏)−(𝟏.𝟓) −𝟏. 𝟓 −𝟐 −𝟏. 𝟓 −𝟐 −𝟏. 𝟓 −𝟐 𝟑 𝟒

• (A×B)-1 = B-1×A-1

𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟎
A=( ), B=( )
𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐

1 2 2 0 1x2+2x1 1x0+2x2 4 4
AxB=( )x( )=( )=( )
3 4 1 2 3x2+4x1 3x0+4x2 10 8

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
(A×B)-1 = x (𝐝 −𝐛
)= x ( 𝟖 −𝟒
)= x ( 𝟖 −𝟒
)
𝐚𝐝−𝐛𝐜 −𝐜 𝐚 (𝟒)(𝟖)−(𝟒)(𝟏𝟎) −𝟏𝟎 𝟒 (𝟑𝟐)−(𝟒𝟎) −𝟏𝟎 𝟒

𝟏 𝟖 −𝟒 −𝟏 𝟎. 𝟓
= x ( )= ( )
−𝟖 −𝟏𝟎 𝟒 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟓

𝟏 𝟏
B-1 = x (𝟐 𝟎
)= x (
𝟐 𝟎
)= (
𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎
)
(𝟐)(𝟐)−(𝟎)(𝟏) −𝟏 𝟐 𝟒 −𝟏 𝟐 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎. 𝟓

𝟏 𝟏
A-1 = x (𝟒 −𝟐
)= x (𝟒 −𝟐
)= (
−𝟐 𝟏
)
(𝟒)(𝟏)−(𝟐)(𝟑) −𝟑 𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟑 𝟏 𝟏. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟓

𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎 −𝟐 𝟏
B-1 x A-1 = ( )x ( )=
−𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟓
𝟎. 𝟓 𝐱 (−𝟐) + 𝟎 𝐱 𝟏. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟓 𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟎 𝐱 − 𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟏 𝟎. 𝟓
( )= ( )
−𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝐱 − 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟓 𝐱 𝟏. 𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟓 𝐱 − 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟓

• (AT)-1 = (A-1)T

𝟏 𝟐
For A = ( )
𝟑 𝟒

𝟏 𝟏
A-1 = x (𝟒 −𝟐
)= x (𝟒 −𝟐
)= (
−𝟐 𝟏
)
(𝟒)(𝟏)−(𝟐)(𝟑) −𝟑 𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟑 𝟏 𝟏. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟓

−𝟐 𝟏. 𝟓
(A-1)T = ( )
𝟏 −𝟎. 𝟓

𝟏 𝟑
Transpose of A = (AT) = ( )
𝟐 𝟒

𝟏 𝟒 −𝟐 𝟏 𝟒 −𝟐 −𝟐 𝟏
(AT)-1 = x ( )= x ( )= ( )
(𝟏)(𝟒)−(𝟑)(𝟐) −𝟑 𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟑 𝟏 𝟏. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟓

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Addition of Matrices

The sum of two matrices can be done by adding the elements matching with the positions. Remember that
both matrices must be of the same size. The resultant matrix is also of the same size.

A+B = Aij + Bij

Suppose, there are two matrices A and B, each of size 3×3.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙
A = [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 ] and B = [𝑚 𝑛 𝑜]
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟

The sum of A + B will be:

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙 𝑎+𝑗 𝑏+𝑘 𝑐+𝑙

A + B = [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 ] + [𝑚 𝑛 𝑜 ] = [𝑑 + 𝑚 𝑒+𝑛 𝑓 + 𝑜]
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑔+𝑝 ℎ+𝑞 𝑖+𝑟

Example: Add the following matrices A and B.

3 6 8 14
A=[ ] and B = [ ]
0 9 1 5

3 6 8 14 3 + 8 6 + 14 11 20
A+B=[ ]+[ ]=[ ]=[ ]
0 9 1 5 0+1 9+5 1 14

Subtraction of Matrices

The subtraction of two matrices can be done by subtracting the elements matching with the positions. In
other words, it is an addition of a negative matrix. Remember that both matrices must be of the same size.
The resultant matrix is also of the same size.
A-B = Aij - Bij

Suppose there are two matrices A and B, each of size 3×3.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙
A = [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 ] and B = [𝑚 𝑛 𝑜]
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟

The subtraction of A - B will be:

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙 𝑎−𝑗 𝑏−𝑘 𝑐−𝑙

A-B=[ 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 ] – [𝑚 𝑛 𝑜] = [𝑑 − 𝑚 𝑒−𝑛 𝑓 − 𝑜]
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑔−𝑝 ℎ−𝑞 𝑖−𝑟
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Example: Subtract the following matrices A and B.

3 16 8 14
A=[ ] and B = [ ]
0 9 1 5

3 16 8 14 3−8 16 − 14
A-B=[ ]–[ ]=[ ] = [−5 2]
0 9 1 5 0−1 9−5 −1 4

Multiplication of Matrices
To perform multiplication of two matrices, we should make sure that the number of columns in the 1st
matrix is equal to the rows in the 2nd matrix. Therefore, the resulting matrix product will have a number of
rows of the 1st matrix and a number of columns of the 2nd matrix.

Example : Multiply the following matrices.

−1 4 9 −3
A=[ ] and B = [ ]
2 3 6 1

−1 4 9 −3 −1 (9) + 4 (6) −1 (−3) + 4 (1) 15 7

AxB=[ ]x[ ]=[ ]=[ ]
2 3 6 1 2 (9) + 3 (6) 2 (−3) + 3 (1) 36 −3

To understand the multiplication of two 3 × 3 matrices, let us consider two 3 × 3 matrices A and B.

12 8 4 5 19 3
A = [ 3 17 14] B = [6 15 9 ]
9 8 10 7 8 16

Each element of the Product matrix AB can be calculated as follows:

• AB11 = 12×5 + 8×6 + 4×7 = 136

• AB12 = 12×19 + 8×15 + 4×8 = 380

• AB13 = 12×3 + 8×9+4×16 = 172

• AB21 = 3×5 + 17×6 + 14×7 = 215

• AB22 = 3×19 + 17×15 + 14×8 = 424

• AB23 = 3×3 + 17×9 + 14×16 = 386

• AB31 = 9×5 + 8×6 + 10×7 = 163

• AB32 = 9×19 + 8×15 + 10×8 = 371

• AB33 = 9×3 + 8×9 + 10×16 = 259

Therefore,

136 380 172

AB = [215 424 386]
163 371 259

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Dr. Biswaranjan Rath
The Inverse of a Matrix

Suppose that we have a square matrix A, whose determinant is not equal to zero, then there exists an m×n
matrix A-1 that is called the inverse of A such that: AA-1 = A-1A = I, where I is the identity matrix.

It is easy to find the inverse of a 2×2 matrix in comparison to 3×3 or 4×4 matrix. Follow the steps to find
the inverse of a 2×2 matrix.

𝒂 𝒃
A =[ ]
𝒄 𝒅
o Swap the positions of the elements a and d.
o Put a negative sign in front of the b and c
o Divide each element of the matrix by the determinant.

Determinant (∆)= det(A)=ad−bc

If the determinant (ad - bc) is nonzero, proceed to find the inverse. If the determinant is zero, the
matrix does not have an inverse.

1 𝑑 −𝑏
𝐴−1 = [ ]
𝑎𝑑 – 𝑏𝑐 −𝑐 𝑎

Division of Matrices

The division of the matrices is a tricky process. To divide the two matrices, we perform the following steps:

o Find the inverse of the divisor

o Multiply the dividend matrix by the inverse matrix.

Suppose A and B are two matrices, then:

𝐴 1
= A x = A x B-1
𝐵 𝐵

Where B-1 represents the inverse of B.

Example: Divide the following matrices A and B.

6 7 3 4
A=[ ] and B = [ ]
1 5 2 3

Solution:

A is the numerator, and B is the denominator.

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First, we will find the inverse of B.

1 3 −4 1 3 −4 1 3 −4 3 −4
B-1 = [ ]= [ ]= [ ]=[ ]
(3)(3)– (2)(4) −2 3 9–8 −2 3 1 −2 3 −2 3

Now multiply the dividend matrix by the inverse.

6 7 3 −4 6(3) + 7(−2) 6(−4) + 7(3)

A x B-1 = [ ]x[ ] =[ ]
1 5 −2 3 1(3) + 5(−2) 1(−4) + 5(3)

18 – 14 −24 + 21 4 −3
=[ ]=[ ]
3 – 10 −4 + 15 −7 11

Scalar Multiplication

When a matrix is multiplied by a scalar (constant) is called scalar multiplication. In the scalar
multiplication, we multiply each element of the matrix by the scalar.

Suppose a matrix A of size 3×3 is given.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
A = [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓]
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖

It is multiplied by a constant k then the scalar multiplication k × A will be:

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑘x𝑎 𝑘x𝑏 𝑘x𝑐

k x A = k x [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 ] = [𝑘 x 𝑑 𝑘x𝑒 𝑘 x 𝑓]
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑘x𝑔 𝑘xℎ 𝑘x𝑖

1 4 7
Example: If A = [2 5 8], finds the value of 2A
3 6 9

1 4 7 2𝑥1 2𝑥4 2𝑥7 2 8 14

Solution: 2 x [2 5 8] = [2 𝑥 2 2 𝑥 5 2 𝑥 8] = [4 10 16]
3 6 9 2𝑥3 2𝑥6 2𝑥9 6 12 18

2 8 14
So 2A = [4 10 16]
6 12 18

Transpose of Matrix

When we convert the rows into columns and columns into rows and generates a new matrix with this
conversion is called the transpose matrix. It is denoted by AT or A′, or Atr, or At. For example, consider
the following matrix:

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Dr. Biswaranjan Rath
𝑎 𝑑 𝑔
A = [𝑏 𝑒 ℎ]
𝑐 𝑓 𝑖

The transpose of the above matrix is:

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
T
A = [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓]
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖

1 4 7
Example: Find the transpose of the matrix A = [2 5 8]
3 6 9

1 2 3
Solution: AT = [4 5 6]
7 8 9

Negative of a Matrix

Let, A=aij be a m×n matrix. The negative of the matrix A is the m×n matrix B=b ij such that bij=-aij for all i,
j. The negative of the matrix A is written as -A.

𝑎 𝑑 𝑔 −𝑎 −𝑑 −𝑔
Suppose, A = [𝑏 𝑒 ℎ ] then - A = [− 𝑏 −𝑒 − ℎ]
𝑐 𝑓 𝑖 −𝑐 −𝑓 −𝑖

1 −4 7
Example: Find the negative of the matrix A = [− 2 5 8 ]
3 6 −9

Solution :

−1 4 −7
The negative matrix of A is – A = [ 2 − 5 − 8]
−3 −6 9

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Determinants
A determinant is a scalar value that can be calculated from a square matrix and provides important
information about the matrix. It plays a significant role in linear algebra and has applications in areas such
as systems of linear equations, geometry, and vector spaces.

Key points about the determinant:

1. Square Matrix: The determinant is only defined for square matrices (matrices with the same
number of rows and columns).

2. Notation: The determinant of a matrix A is often denoted as det(A) or sometimes by placing the
matrix within vertical bars, like ∣A∣.

3. Calculation:

𝑎 𝑏
o For a 2 x 2 matrix: A= ( )
𝑐 𝑑

The determinant is calculated as: det(A) = ad − bc

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
o For a 3 x 3 matrix: A= (𝑑 𝑒 𝑓)
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖

The determinant is calculated using cofactor expansion:

det(A) = a (ei − fh) – b (di − fg) + c (dh − eg)

Matrices Vs. Determinants

• Matrices are a rectangular array of elements that are represented in the form of rows and columns.
Determinants are calculated for a matrix and it is a single numeric value that has been computed
from this array of elements.
• The matrix is represented with an alphabet in upper case and is written as A, and the determinant
is represented as |A|.
• The determinant value of a matrix can be computed, but a matrix cannot be computed from a
determinant.
• The matrices can be of any order. But a determinant can be found only for a square matrix having
an equal number of rows and columns.
• The multiplication of a constant K with a matrix multiplies it with every element of the matrix.
But the multiplication of a constant K with a determinant multiplies it with every element of a
particular row or column of a determinant.

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• The rows and columns of a determinant can be interchanged but the many rows and columns of a
matrix cannot be interchanged.
• The value of a determinant is equal to zero if any two rows or columns are identical, but identical
rows or columns in a matrix do not make it a null matrix.

Properties of Determinants
There are some properties of determinants, which are commonly used.

Property 1 (Interchange Property)

The value of the determinant remains unchanged if it’s rows and columns are interchanged

det(A’ ) or |A’| = - det(A) or -|A|

2 −3 5 2 6 1
|6 0 4 | = |−3 0 5 |
1 5 −7 5 4 −7

Example:

Expanding the determinant along first row,

0 4 6 4 6 0
∆ = 2| | - (-3) | | +5| |
5 −7 1 −7 1 5

= 2(0(-7)-5(4)) + 3(6(-7)-1(4)) + 5 (6(5)-1(0))

=2(0-20) + 3(-42-4) + 5(30-0) =2(-20) + 3(-46) + 5(30)

= - 40 – 138 + 150 = - 28

By interchanging rows and columns,

2 6 1
∆1 = |−3 0 5|
5 4 −7

0 5| −3 5 −3 0
= 2| -6| | + 1| |
4 −7 5 −7 5 4

= 2(0(-7) – 4(5)) – 6(-3(-7) – 5(5)) + 1(-3(4) – 5(0))

= 2(0-20) – 6(21-25) + 1(-12-0) = 2 (-20) – 6(-4) + 1(-12)

= - 40 + 24 – 12 = - 28

Hence ∆1 = ∆

Property 2 (Sign Property)

If any two rows or columns of a determinant are interchanged then sign of determinant changes

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2 −3 5
[6 0 4]
1 5 −7

R1 ↔ R3

1 5 −7 2 −3 5
Then [6 0 4 ] = - [6 0 4]
2 −3 5 1 5 −7

Property 3 (All Zero Property)

If all elements of a row or column are zero (0), then the determinant is zero (0).

0 0 0
[3 4 5 ] = 0
1 2 1

Property 4 (Zero Property)

If any two rows or columns of a determinant are identical, the value of determinant is zero (0).

3 2 3
[2 2 3 ] = 0
3 2 3

Property 5 (Multiplication Property)

If each element of a row or a column of a determinant is multiplied by a constant ‘k’, then determinant’s
value gets multiplied by ‘k’.

102 18 36 6(17) 6(3) 6(6) 17 3 6

[ 1 3 4]=[ 1 3 4 ]=6x[1 3 4]
17 3 6 17 3 6 17 3 6

Property 6 (Triangular Property)

If in a determinant all the elements above or below the diagonal is zero (0), then value of the determinant
is equal to product of the diagonal elements.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 0 0
[0 𝑒 𝑓 ] = [𝑑 𝑒 0] = a x e x i
0 0 𝑖 𝑔 ℎ 𝑖

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