Principles of Physics

Twelfth Edition
International Adaptation

Halliday/Resnick/Walker

Chapter 3
Vectors

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Section 3.1: Vectors and Their
Components

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Vectors and Their Components
Learning Objectives
• Add vectors by drawing them in head-to-tail arrangements,
applying the commutative and associative laws.
• Subtract a vector from a second one.
• Calculate the components of a vector on a given coordinate
system, showing them in a drawing.
• Given the components of a vector, draw the vector and
determine its magnitude and orientation.
• Convert angle measures between degrees and radians.

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Vectors vs. Scalars
• Physics deals with quantities that have both size and direction
• A vector is a mathematical object with magnitude (size) and
direction
• A vector quantity is a quantity that can be represented by a
vector
o Examples: position, velocity, acceleration
o Vectors have their own rules for manipulation
• A scalar is a quantity that has magnitude, but no direction
o Examples: time, temperature, energy, mass
o Scalars are manipulated with ordinary algebra

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Displacement as a Vector

• The simplest example is a

displacement vector
• If a particle changes position from A
to B, we represent this by a vector
arrow pointing from A to B
• In (a) we see that all three arrows have
the same magnitude and direction:
they are identical displacement
vectors.
• In (b) we see that all three paths
correspond to the same displacement
vector. The vector tells us nothing
about the actual path that was taken
between A and B. Figure 3.1.1
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Resultant Vector Equals Vector Sum

• The vector sum, or resultant

o Is the result of performing vector addition
o Represents the net displacement of two or more displacement
vectors   
s= a + b Equation (3.1.1)

o Can be added graphically as shown on next page:

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Graphical Vector Addition: Head-to-
Tail

Figure 3.1.2

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Commutative Property of Vector
Addition
• Vector addition is commutative: We can add vectors in any order
   
a + b = b + a ( cummutative law ) Equation (3.1.2)

Figure (3.1.3)

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Associative Property of Vector
Addition
• Vector addition is associative: We can group vector addition
however we like when we add them
     
( ) (
a + b + c =a + b + c ) ( associative law ) Equation (3.1.3)

Figure (3.1.4)

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Vector Subtraction

• A negative sign reverses vector direction

 
( )
b + −b =0
• We use this to define vector subtraction
    
( )
d = a − b = a + −b Equation (3.1.4)

Figure (3.1.5) Figure (3.1.6)

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Universality of Vector Addition Rules
• These rules hold for all vectors, whether they represent
displacement, velocity, etc.
• Only vectors of the same kind can be added
o (distance) + (distance) makes sense
o (distance) + (velocity) does not

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Vector Addition Checkpoint #1
 

The magnitudes of displacements a and b are 3 m and 4 m,
respectively, and a and b . Considering various orientations of
  
a and b what are (a) the maximum possible magnitude for c
and (b) the minimum possible magnitude?

Answer:
(a) 3 m + 4 m = 7 m
(b) 4 m − 3 m = 1 m

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Vector Addition by Component

• Rather than using a graphical method, vectors can be added by

components
o A component is the projection of a vector on an axis
• The process of finding components is called resolving the vector

• The components of a vector

can be positive or negative.
Figure
• They are unchanged if the (3.1.8)
vector is shifted in any
direction (but not rotated).

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Calculating Vector Components

• Components in two dimensions can be found by:

= ax a= cos θ and a y a sin θ , Equation (3.1.5)

• Where θ is the angle the vector makes with the positive x axis,
and a is the vector length
• The length and angle can also be found if the components are
known
ay
a + a and tan θ =
a= 2
x
2
y Equation (3.1.6)
ax
• Therefore, components fully define a vector

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Components for Vectors in 3D

• In the three dimensional case we need more components to

specify a vector
o ( a ,θ , φ ) or (a , a , a )
x y z

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Vector Addition Checkpoint #2

In the figure, which of the indicated methods for


combining the x and y components of vector a
are proper to determine that vector?

Answer: choices (c), (d), and (f) show the components properly
arranged to form the vector

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Vector Components vs. Angles
Between
• Angles may be measured in degrees or radians
• Recall that a full circle is 360˚, or 2π rad
2π rad
40° =
0.70 rad.
360°
• Know the three basic trigonometric functions

Figure (3.1.10)

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Section 3.2: Unit Vectors and Adding
Vectors by Components

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Unit Vectors and Adding Vectors by
Components Learning Objectives
• Convert a vector between magnitude-angle and unit-vector
notations.
• Add and subtract vectors in magnitude-angle notation and
in unit-vector notation.
• Identify that, for a given vector, rotating the coordinate
system about the origin can change the vector's
components, but not the vector itself.

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Unit Vector Definition

• A unit vector
o Has magnitude 1
o Has a particular direction
o Lacks both dimension and unit
o Is labeled with a hat: ^
• We use a right-handed
coordinate system
o Remains right-handed when
rotated
Figure (3.2.1)

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Unit Vector Notation for Vector
Components
• The quantities ax ˆi and a y ˆj are vector components

=
a ax ˆi + a y ˆj Equation (3.2.1)

=
b bx ˆi + by ˆj Equation (3.2.2)

• The quantities ax and ay alone are scalar components

o Or just “components” as before

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Vector Addition by Component
Referenced to Coordinate Axis
• Vectors can be added using components parallel to each
coordinate axis.
  
Equation r = a + b → rx = ax + bx Equation (3.2.4)
(3.2.3)
r=
y a y + by Equation (3.2.5)

r=
z az + bz . Equation (3.2.6)

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Vector Subtraction by Component
Reference to Coordinate Axis
• To subtract two vectors, we subtract components
dx =
ax − bx , d y =
a y − by , and d z =
az − bz ,


d = d x ˆi + d y ˆj + d z kˆ Equation (3.2.7)

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Vector Addition Checkpoint #3

(a) In the figure here, what are the signs of the x components of
   
d1 and d 2 ? (b) What are the signs of the y components of d1 and d 2 ?
 
(c) What are the signs of the x and y components of d1 + d 2 ?

Answer:
(a) positive, positive
(b) positive, negative
(c) positive, positive

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Effect of Coordinate System Rotation on
Vectors: vector angles and magnitude
• Vectors are independent of the coordinate system used to measure
them
• We can rotate the coordinate system, without rotating the vector,
and the vector remains the same

a= ax2 + a y2 = a′x2 + a Equation (3.2.8)

θ= θ ′ + φ . Equation (3.2.9)

• All such coordinate systems are equally valid

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Coordinate Axis Rotation: Vector
Does Not Change

Figure (3.2.3)

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Section 3.3: Multiplying Vectors

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Vector Multiplication Learning
Objectives #1 - #5
1. Multiply vectors by scalars.
2. Identify that multiplying a vector by a scalar gives a
vector, the dot product gives a scalar, and the cross
product gives a perpendicular vector.
3. Find the dot product of two vectors.
4. Find the angle between two vectors by taking their dot
product.
5. Given two vectors, use the dot product to find out how
much of one vector lies along the other.

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Vector Multiplication Learning
Objectives #6 - #8
6. Find the cross product of two vectors.
7. Use the right-hand rule to find the direction of the
resultant vector.
8. In nested products, start with the innermost product and
work outward.

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Vector Multiplied by a Scalar

• Multiplying a vector z by a scalar c
o Results in a new vector

o Its magnitude is the magnitude of vector z times c

o Its direction is the same as vector z , or opposite if c is negative
o To achieve
 this, we can simply multiply each of the components of
vector z by c
1
• To divide a vector by a scalar we multiply by
c

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Example of Vector Multiplied by
Scalar

Example: Multiply vector z by 5

z=−3iˆ + 5 ˆj

5z =
−15iˆ + 25 ˆj

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Multiplying Vectors

• Multiplying vectors yield a scalar product

o Also called the dot product
o Results in a scalar, where a and b are magnitudes and φ is the angle
between the directions of the two vectors:
 
a ⋅b =ab cos φ , Equation (3.3.1)
• The commutative law applies, and we can do the dot product in
component form
 
a ⋅ b= (a     
)(
x i + a y j + a z k ⋅ bx i + by j + bz k , ) Equation (3.3.3)
     
a ⋅b = b ⋅a a ⋅ b = ax bx + a y by + az bz . Equation (3.3.4)

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Dot (Scalar) Product: Definition

• A dot product is: the product of the magnitude of one vector times
the scalar component of the other vector in the direction of the
first vector
 
a ⋅b =ab cos φ Equation (3.3.1)

• Either projection of one vector onto the other can be used

• To multiply a vector by the projection, multiply the magnitudes

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Dot Product Graphical View

Figure
(3.3.1)

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Dot Product for Vectors Parallel and
Perpendicular to Each Other
If the angle ϕ between two vectors is 0°, the component of one
vector along the other is maximum, and so also is the dot
product of the vectors. If, instead, ϕ is 90°, the component of
one vector along the other is zero, and so is the dot product.

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Dot Product Checkpoint
 
Vectors and
C have magnitudes of 3 units and 4 units,
D

respectively.
  What

is the angle between the directions of C
and D if C ⋅ D equals (a) zero, (b) 12 units, and (c) –12 units?

Answer:
(a) 90 degrees; (b) 0 degrees; (c) 180 degrees

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Cross (Vector) Product: Definition

• Multiplying two vectors: the vector product

o The cross product of two vectors with magnitudes a & b, separated
by angle φ, produces a vector with magnitude:

c = ab sin φ , Equation (3.3.5)

o And a direction perpendicular to both original vectors
• Direction is determined by the right-hand rule
• Place vectors tail-to-tail, sweep fingers from the first to the
second, and thumb points in the direction of the resultant vector

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Cross Product for Parallel and
Perpendicular Vectors
   
If a and b are parallel or antiparallel, a × b =0. The magnitude of
     
a × b , which can be written as a × b , is maximum when a and b
are perpendicular to each other.

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Cross Product Direction by Right
Hand Rule

Figure
(3.3.2)

  
The upper shows vector a cross vector b , the lower shows vector b

cross vector a

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Cross Product Algebraic Properties

• The cross product is not commutative

   
(
b × a =− a × b ) Equation (3.3.6)
• To evaluate, we distribute over components:
 
=a ×b ( a ˆi + a ˆj + a kˆ ) × (b ˆi + b ˆj + b kˆ )
x y z x y z Equation (3.3.7)
a ˆi × b=ˆi a b ( ˆi ×= ˆi ) 0
x x x x

a ˆi × b=ˆj a b ( ˆi ×= ˆj) a b kˆ
x y x y x y

• Therefore, by expanding (3-26):

 
a ×=
b (a b
y z − by az ) ˆi + ( az bx − bz ax ) ˆj + ( ax by − bx a y ) kˆ Equation (3.3.8)

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Cross Product Checkpoint
 
Vectors C and D have magnitudes of 3 units and 4 units,

respectively.
 What is the angle between the directions
 
of C
and D if the magnitude of the vector product C × D
is (a) zero and (b) 12 units?

Answer:
(a) 0 degrees; (b) 90 degrees

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Chapter 3 Summary: Vectors, Scalars,
and Vector Components
Scalars and Vectors
• Scalars have magnitude only
• Vectors have magnitude and direction
• Both have units!
Vector Components
ax cos θ and a y a sin θ ,
a= Equation (3.1.5)

Relates to:
ay
a + a and tan θ =
a= 2
x
2
y
Equation (3.1.6)
ax

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Chapter 3 Summary: Properties of Vector
Addition and Unit Vector Notation
• Obeys commutative and associative laws
   
a + b = b + a ( commutative law ) Equation (3.1.2)
     
( ) ( )
a + b + c =a + b + c ( associative law ) Equation (3.1.3)

Unit Vector Notation: We can write vectors in terms of unit

vectors

a = ax ˆi + a y ˆj + az kˆ Equation (3.2.1)

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Chapter 3 Summary: Vector Addition by
Component and Dot Product
Adding by Components:
  
r = a + b → rx = ax + bx Equation (3.2.4)
r=
y a y + by Equation (3.2.5)
r=
z az + bz . Equation (3.2.6)

Dot (Scalar) Product:

 
a ⋅b =ab cos φ Equation (3.3.1)
 
= ( )(
a ⋅ b ax ˆi + a y ˆj + az kˆ ⋅ bx ˆi + by ˆj + bz kˆ ) Equation (3.3.3)

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Chapter 3 Summary: Scalar Times a
Vector and Cross Product
Scalar Times a Vector
• Product is a new vector
• Magnitude is multiplied by scalar
• Direction is same or opposite
Cross Product
• Produces a new vector in perpendicular direction
• Direction determined by right-hand rule

c = ab sin φ , Equation (3.3.5)

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