SCIENCE

TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS VIII

 ISBN 978-81-7450-812-6
First Edition
January 2008 Magha 1929 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Reprint Edition q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
December 2008 Pausa 1930 system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior
January 2010 Magha 1931 permission of the publisher.
November 2010 Kartika 1932 q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of
January 2012 Magha 1933 trade, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the
publisher’s consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in
November 2012 Kartika 1934 which it is published.
October 2013 Asvina 1935 q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page,

December 2014 Pausa 1936 Any revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any
other means is incorrect and should be unacceptable.

PD 660T MJ

© National Council of Educational OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION

DIVISION,, NCERT
Research and Training, 2008
NCERT Campus
Sri Aurobindo Marg
New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708

108, 100 Feet Road

Hosdakere Halli Extension
Banashankari III Stage
Bangaluru 560 085 Phone : 080-26725740

Navjivan Trust Building

P.O.Navjivan
Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 079-27541446

CWC Campus
Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop
Panihati
Kolkata 700 114 Phone : 033-25530454

CWC Complex
Maligaon
Guwahati 781 021 Phone : 0361-2674869

` 50.00

Publication Team
Head, Publication : N. K. Gupta
Division
Chief Production : Kalyan Banerjee
Officer
Chief Editor : Shveta Uppal
Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT Chief Business : Gautam Ganguly
watermark Manager
Published at the Publication Division, Editor : Bijnan Sutar
by the Secretary, National Council of
Production Assistant : Sunil Kumar
Educational Research and Training, Sri
Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016 and
printed at Jagan Nath Printers, C-146 Cover, Layout and Illustrations
(Back Side), Naraina Industrial Area, Ashwani Tyagi
Phase-I, New Delhi 110 028
 Foreword
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s life
at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a
departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system
and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and
textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic
idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp
boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us
significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined
in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to
pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space,
time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the
information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the
sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites
of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we
perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed
body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in
implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching days
are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation
will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at
school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus
designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring
and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child
psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance
this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for
contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups and activities requiring
hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates
the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this
book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in science and
mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisor for this book,
Professor V.B. Bhatia for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers
contributed to the development of this textbook. We are grateful to their principals
for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations
which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and
personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring
Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education,
 iv

Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of

Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time
and contribution.
As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous
improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments
and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and
refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
30 November 2007 Research and Training
 Preface
This book is the outcome of the efforts of the textbook development committee
appointed by the NCERT. The committee met a few times to interact with one
another to improve the draft. Then there was a review meeting in which many
experts and practicing school teachers were invited to review the draft and suggest
improvements.
By and large we have stuck to the format of the Class VII book. By now famous
characters, Boojho and Paheli, have been used to make the text interactive. Attempt
has been made to recall children’s own experiences and build concepts around
them. This is designed to connect science that they study in the school with their
everyday life.
Many activities have been suggested to clarify concepts. Some of these activities
are so simple that children can perform them on their own. The requirement of the
apparatus required for the activities is minimal. We performed all the activities
ourselves to ensure that there was no difficulty in performing them in the school
situation. The activities should also help children in developing skills such as
presentation of data in tabular and graphical forms, reasoning and drawing inference
from the given data.
The language of the book has been kept as simple as possible. A large number of
photographs, illustrations, cartoons, etc. have been included to make the book
attractive. To help teachers evaluate children effectively, a large number of exercises
have been given at the end of each chapter. The teachers are encouraged to frame
additional exercises to test children’s understanding. Some challenging exercises
have also been devised for those children who would like to appear for the National
Talent Search Examination conducted by the NCERT.
We are conscious of the fact that there is a paucity of additional reading material
for children. We have tried to address this problem by providing non-evaluative
boxes. These boxes, in light orange, contain additional information, anecdotes,
stories, strange facts and other such interesting materials.
We all know that children are mischievous and playful by nature. Therefore, in
order to prevent any untoward incident during the performance of the activities in
the school or outside, necessary cautions, in magenta, have been inserted at various
places in the book.
To prepare children to assume their roles as responsible citizens of tomorrow,
attempt has been made to sensitise them to the issues concerning gender, religion,
environment, health and hygiene, water scarcity and energy conservation. We have
sought to weave into the text the value of cooperation and the importance of peer
learning.
An important feature of the book is what we call Extended Learning. These are
totally non-evaluative, and purely voluntary activities and projects. Some of the
projects in this section have been designed to enhance children’s interaction with
the experts, teachers, even parents, and society at large. The children are required
to collect information of various kinds and draw conclusions of their own.
My request to teachers and parents is to use the book in the spirit in which it
has been written. Encourage children to perform activities and learn by doing, rather
than by rote. You can supplement, or even replace, the activities given here. If you
 vi

feel that you have better alternatives, especially with your local/regional flavour,
please write to us so that these activities could be used in the future editions of
the book.
We have been able to include only a small subset of children’s experiences. You
have a better knowledge of their experiences because you are in touch with them.
Use them to illustrate the concepts being taught. Above all, please do not stifle
children’s natural curiosity. Encourage them to ask questions, even if sometimes
you feel uncomfortable. If you do not know the answer to a question on the spot, do
not feel embarrassed. You can promise them to find the answer and deal with it
later. Make a genuine attempt to get the answer from whatever resources are within
your reach, such as senior school or college teachers, experts, libraries, internet
etc. If, inspite of your efforts, you cannot get the answer to some question, you could
write to NCERT.
I must thank the NCERT for enabling us to talk to children through the medium
of this book. Every member of the NCERT has been courteous and helpful to us.
In the end, I must express my gratitude to the members of the Editing Team,
who worked tirelessly to help me bring the book to the present form. If you and your
students find this book useful and enjoy teaching/learning science through this
book, the Editing Team and I shall consider ourselves well-rewarded.

V.B. BHATIA
Chief Advisor
Textbook Development Committee
Textbook Development Committee
CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY GROUP FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Inter University Centre for Astronomy and
Astrophysics (IUCCA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune
CHIEF ADVISOR
V.B. Bhatia, Professor (Retd.) (Physics), Delhi University, Delhi
MEMBERS
Bharati Sarkar, Reader (Retd.) (Zoology), Maitreyi College, Delhi University, Delhi
C. V. Shimray, Lecturer, Department of Education in Science and Mathematics,
(DESM), NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Gagandeep Bajaj, Lecturer, Department of Education, SPM College, Delhi
University, Delhi
H.C. Jain, Principal, (Retd.) Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer
Harsh Kumari, Headmistress, CIE Experimental Basic School, Department of
Education, Delhi University, Delhi
J. S. Gill, Professor (Retd.), DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Kanhiya Lal, Principal (Retd.), Directorate of Education, Delhi
Lalita S. Kumar, Reader (Chemistry), School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi National
Open University (IGNOU), Maidan Garhi, New Delhi
P.C. Agarwal, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer
P.S. Yadava, Professor, Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Imphal
Puranchand, Professor and Joint Director (Retd.), Central Institute of Educational
Technology (CIET), NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
R. Joshi, Lecturer (SG), DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Rachna Garg, Lecturer, Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET),
NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Rashmi Sharma, Lecturer, North-East Regional Institute of Education, Shillong
R.K. Parashar, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Bhubaneshwar
Ruchi Verma, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Shashi Prabha, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Sunila Masih, Teacher, Mitra GHS School, Suhagpur, P.O. Hoshangabad,
Madhya Pradesh

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
R. S. Sindhu, Professor, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
 Acknowledgements
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
acknowledges the valuable contribution of the individuals and
organisations involved in the development of this book. The Council
acknowledges the valuable contribution of the following academics for
reviewing and refining the manuscript of this book: K.C. Sharma, Reader
(Physics), Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer; Charu Verma, Lecturer
(Science), DIET, Pitampura, Delhi; Geeta Bajaj, TGT (Science), K.V. No. 3,
Delhi Cantt., New Delhi; K.D. Sharma, TGT (Science), R.P.V.V. Civil Lines,
Delhi; Manohar Lal Patel, Teacher, Govt. R.N.A. Higher Secondary School,
Pipariya, Madhya Pradesh; Reeta Sharma, Reader (Botany), Regional
Institute of Education, Bhopal; Kamal Deep Peter, OEI, Oracle India,
Bangalore; Puneeta Sharma, TGT (Science), L.D. Jain Girls Senior
Secondary School, Sadar Bazar, Delhi; M.C. Das, Teacher (Science), Govt.
Secondary School, Zoom, West Sikkim; Deepti Kohli, P.D. Public School,
Shalimar Bagh, Delhi; Sulekha Chandra, Reader (Chemistry), Zakir
Husain College, Delhi University, Delhi; R.S. Tomar, TGT (Science), J.N.V.
Mothuka, Faridabad (Haryana); Anjali Khirwadkar, Lecturer, Department
of Education, M.S. University, Baroda (Gujrat); Suresh Chand, TGT
(Science), J.N.V. Ghaziabad Uttar Pradesh; Satheesh H.L., TGT (Science),
Demonstration School, Regional Institute of Education, Mysore;
Simminder Kaur Thukral, NIIT, Kalkaji, New Delhi; M.M. Kapoor,
Professor (Retd.) (Chemistry), Delhi University, Delhi; Sarita Kumar,
Reader (Zoology), Acharya Narendra Dev College, Delhi University, Delhi.
The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable suggestions received
from the National Monitoring Committee in the development of the
manuscript of this textbook.
The dynamic leadership of Professor Hukum Singh, Head, DESM, for
providing guidance at different stages of development of the textbook and
extending infrastructure facilities is highly acknowledged. Special thanks
are due to Shveta Uppal, Chief Editor and Shashi Chadha, Assistant
Editor for going through the manuscript and suggesting relevant changes.
The Council also acknowledges the efforts of Deepak Kapoor,
Incharge Computer Station, Inder Kumar, DTP Operator; K.T. Chitralekha,
Copy Editor and Ritu Jha, Proof Reader.
The contributions of APC-office, administration of DESM, Publication
Department and Secretariat of NCERT is also acknowledged.
 A Note for the Students
The team of Paheli and Boojho will be with you as you journey through this
textbook. They love to ask questions. All kinds of questions come to their
minds and they collect them in their sacks. Sometimes, they may share some
of the questions with you, as you read through the chapters.
Paheli and Boojho are also on the lookout for answers to many
questions — sometimes the questions seem answered after they discuss them
with each other, sometimes through discussions with other classmates, teachers
or their parents. Answers to some questions do not seem available even after
all these. They might need to experiment on their own, read books in the library,
send questions to scientists. Just dig and dig and dig into all possibilities and
see if the questions can be answered. Perhaps, they would carry some of the
unanswered questions in their sacks to higher classes.
What will really thrill them would be your adding questions to their sacks
or answers to their questions. Sometimes, activities are suggested in the
textbook, results or findings of these by different groups of students would be
of interest to other students and teachers. You can complete the suggested
activities and send your results or findings to Paheli and Boojho. Do keep in
mind that activities that involve using blades, scissors or fire need to be done
strictly under the care of your teachers. Stick to the precautions given and
then enjoy doing all the suggested activities. Mind, the book will not be able to
help you much, if the activities are not completed!
We would like to advise you that you must make observations yourself
and record whatever results you get. Keen and true observations are necessary
for exploring any subject of study. For some reason your results may turn out
to be different from those of your classmates. Do not worry. Try to find out the
reason for these results instead of disregarding them. Do not ever copy results
from your classmate.
You can send your feedback for Paheli and Boojho at:

To
The Head
Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics,
NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg,
New Delhi 110016
 THE CONSTITUTION OF
INDIA
PREAMBLE
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having
solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
1
[SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC] and to secure
to all its citizens :
JUSTICE, social, economic and
political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief,
faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of
the individual and the 2[unity and
integrity of the Nation];
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949 do
HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO
OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
1. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976, Sec.2,
for "Sovereign Democratic Republic" (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)
2. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976, Sec.2,
for "Unity of the Nation" (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)
CONTENTS FOREWORD
PREFACE

Chapter 1
iii
v

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 1

Chapter 2
MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 17

Chapter 3
SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS 32

Chapter 4
MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS 44

Chapter 5
COAL AND PETROLEUM 56

Chapter 6
COMBUSTION AND FLAME 64

Chapter 7
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 77

Chapter 8
CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 90

Chapter 9
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 100

Chapter 10
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 113
 xii

CONTENTS Chapter 11
FORCE AND PRESSURE

Chapter 12
127

FRICTION 146

Chapter 13
SOUND 157

Chapter 14
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 172

Chapter 15
SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA 184

Chapter 16
LIGHT 199

Chapter 17
STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 215

Chapter 18
POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 239

INDEX 253
 ISBN 978-81-7450-812-6
First Edition
January 2008 Magha 1929 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Reprint Edition q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
December 2008 Pausa 1930 system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior
January 2010 Magha 1931 permission of the publisher.
November 2010 Kartika 1932 q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of
January 2012 Magha 1933 trade, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the
publisher’s consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in
November 2012 Kartika 1934 which it is published.
October 2013 Asvina 1935 q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page,

December 2014 Pausa 1936 Any revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any
other means is incorrect and should be unacceptable.

PD 660T MJ

© National Council of Educational OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION

DIVISION,, NCERT
Research and Training, 2008
NCERT Campus
Sri Aurobindo Marg
New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708

108, 100 Feet Road

Hosdakere Halli Extension
Banashankari III Stage
Bangaluru 560 085 Phone : 080-26725740

Navjivan Trust Building

P.O.Navjivan
Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 079-27541446

CWC Campus
Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop
Panihati
Kolkata 700 114 Phone : 033-25530454

CWC Complex
Maligaon
Guwahati 781 021 Phone : 0361-2674869

` 50.00

Publication Team
Head, Publication : N. K. Gupta
Division
Chief Production : Kalyan Banerjee
Officer
Chief Editor : Shveta Uppal
Chief Business : Gautam Ganguly
Manager
Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT
watermark Editor : Bijnan Sutar
Published at the Publication Division, Production Assistant : Sunil Kumar
by the Secretary, National Council of
Educational Research and Training, Sri Cover, Layout and Illustrations
Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016 and Ashwani Tyagi
printed at Sam Industrial Enterprises (P)
Ltd., A 17-18, Sector – 60, Noida 201 301
(UP)
 ISBN 978-81-7450-812-6
First Edition
January 2008 Magha 1929 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Reprint Edition q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
December 2008 Pausa 1930 system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior
January 2010 Magha 1931 permission of the publisher.
November 2010 Kartika 1932 q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of
January 2012 Magha 1933 trade, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the
publisher’s consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in
November 2012 Kartika 1934 which it is published.
October 2013 Asvina 1935 q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page,

December 2014 Pausa 1936 Any revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any
other means is incorrect and should be unacceptable.

PD 660T MJ

© National Council of Educational OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION

DIVISION,, NCERT
Research and Training, 2008
NCERT Campus
Sri Aurobindo Marg
New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708

108, 100 Feet Road

Hosdakere Halli Extension
Banashankari III Stage
Bangaluru 560 085 Phone : 080-26725740

Navjivan Trust Building

P.O.Navjivan
Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 079-27541446

CWC Campus
Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop
Panihati
Kolkata 700 114 Phone : 033-25530454

CWC Complex
Maligaon
Guwahati 781 021 Phone : 0361-2674869

` 50.00

Publication Team
Head, Publication : N. K. Gupta
Division
Chief Production : Kalyan Banerjee
Officer
Chief Editor : Shveta Uppal
Chief Business : Gautam Ganguly
Manager
Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT
watermark Editor : Bijnan Sutar
Published at the Publication Division, Production Assistant : Sunil Kumar
by the Secretary, National Council of
Educational Research and Training, Sri Cover, Layout and Illustrations
Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016 and Ashwani Tyagi
printed at Supreme Offset Press, 133,
Udyog Kendra-I, Greater Noida
 CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

P
aheli and Boojho went to their
uncle’s house during the summer
vacation. Their uncle is a farmer.
One day they saw some tools like khurpi, Food has to be
produced on a large
sickle, shovel, plough, etc., in the field.
scale.

In order to provide food for a large

population— regular production, proper
I want to know management and distribution of food is
where and how we necessary.
use these tools.
1.1 Agricultural Practices
You have lear nt that all living
organisms require food. Plants can make
Till 10,000 B.C. people were nomadic.
their food themselves. Can you recall
They were wandering in groups from
how green plants synthesise their own place to place in search of food and
food? Animals including humans can shelter. They ate raw fruits and
not make their own food. So, where do vegetables and started hunting for
animals get their food from? animals for food. Later, they could
But, first of all why do we have to eat cultivate land and produce rice, wheat
food? and other food crops. Thus, was born
You already know that the energy ‘Agriculture’.
from food is utilised by organisms for
carrying out their various body When plants of the same kind are grown
functions, such as digestion, respiration and cultivated at one place on a large
and excretion. We get our food from scale, it is called a crop. For example,
plants, or animals, or both. crop of wheat means that all the plants
grown in a field are that of wheat.
You already know that crops are of
different types like cereals, vegetables
and fruits. These can be classified on the
Since we all need food, basis of the season in which they grow.
how can we provide India is a vast country. The climatic
food to a large number
conditions like temperature, humidity
of people in our
and rainfall vary from one region to
country?
another. Accordingly, there is a rich
variety of crops grown in different parts to as agricultural practices. These
of the country. Despite this diversity, activities are listed below.
two broad cropping patterns can be
(i) Preparation of soil
identified. These are:
(ii) Sowing
(i) Kharif Crops : The crops which are (iii) Adding manure and fertilisers
sown in the rainy season are called (iv) Irrigation
kharif crops. The rainy season in India (v) Protecting from weeds
is generally from June to September. (vi) Harvesting
Paddy, maize, soyabean, groundnut,
(vii) Storage
cotton, etc., are kharif crops.
(ii) Rabi Crops : The crops grown in the
1.3 Preparation of Soil
winter season are called rabi crops.
Their time period is generally from The preparation of soil is the first step
October to March. Examples of rabi before growing a crop. One of the most
crops are wheat, gram, pea, mustard important tasks in agriculture is to turn
and linseed. the soil and loosen it. This allows the
Besides these, pulses and vegetables roots to penetrate deep into the soil. The
are grown during summer at many loose soil allows the roots to breathe
places. easily even when they go deep into the
soil. Why does the loosening of soil allow
1.2 Basic Practices of Crop the roots to breathe easily?
Production The loosened soil helps in the growth
of earthworms and microbes present in
the soil. These organisms are friends of
the farmer since they further turn and
loosen the soil and add humus to it.
Why can paddy not be
grown in the winter season?
But why does the soil need to be turned
and loosened?
You have learnt in the previous
classes that soil contains minerals,
water, air and some living organisms.
Paddy requires a lot of In addition, dead plants and animals
water. Therefore, it is grown get decomposed by soil organisms. In
only in the rainy season. this way, various nutrients held in the
dead organisms are released back into
Cultivation of crops involves several the soil. These nutrients are again
activities undertaken by farmers over a absorbed by plants.
period of time. You may find that these Since only a few centimetres of the
activities are similar to those carried out top layer of soil supports plant growth,
by a gardener or even by you when you turning and loosening of soil brings the
grow ornamental plants in your house. nutrient-rich soil to the top so that
These activities or tasks are referred plants can use these nutrients. Thus,
2 SCIENCE
turning and loosening of soil is very Plough : This is being used since
important for cultivation of crops. ancient times for tilling the soil, adding
The process of loosening and turning fertilisers to the crop, removing the
of the soil is called tilling or ploughing. weeds, scraping of soil, etc. This
This is done by using a plough. Ploughs implement is made of wood and is drawn
are made of wood or iron. If the soil is by a pair of bulls or other animals
very dry, it may need watering before (horses, camels, etc.). It contains a
ploughing. The ploughed field may have strong triangular iron strip called
big pieces of soil called crumbs. It is ploughshare. The main part of the
necessary to break these crumbs with a plough is a long log of wood which is
plank. The field is levelled for sowing as called a ploughshaft. There is a handle
well as for irrigation purposes. The at one end of the shaft. The other end is
levelling of soil is done with the help of attached to a beam which is placed on
a leveller. the bulls’ necks. One pair of bulls and a
Sometimes, manure is added to the man can easily operate the plough
soil before tilling. This helps in proper
[Fig. 1.1 (a)].
mixing of manure with soil. The soil is
The indigenous wooden plough is
watered before sowing.
increasingly being replaced by iron
Agricultural Implements ploughs nowadays.
Before sowing the seeds, it is necessary to Hoe : It is a simple tool which is used
break soil to the size of grains to get better for removing weeds and for loosening
yield. This is done with the help of the soil. It has a long rod of wood or
various tools. The main tools used for this iron. A strong, broad and bent plate of
purpose are the plough, hoe and cultivator. iron is fixed to one of its ends and

beam

ploughshaft

ploughshare

Fig. 1.1 (a) : The plough

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 3
works like a blade. It is pulled by Activity 1.1
animals [Fig. 1.1 (b)].
Take a beaker and fill half of it
grip beam with water. Put a handful of wheat
handle
seeds and stir well. Wait for some
time.
bent plate
Are there seeds which float on
rod
Fig. 1.1 (b) : A hoe water? Would those be lighter or
heavier than those which sink? Why
Cultivator : Nowadays ploughing is would they be lighter? Damaged seeds
done by tractor-driven cultivator. The become hollow and are thus lighter.
use of cultivator saves labour and time. Therefore, they float on water.
[Fig. 1.1 (c)]. This is a good method for
separating good, healthy seeds from
the damaged ones.
Before sowing, one of the important
tasks is to know about the tools used
for sowing seeds [Fig. 1.2 (a), (b)].
Traditional tool : The tool used
traditionally for sowing seeds is
shaped like a funnel [Fig. 1.2 (a)]. The
Fig. 1.1 (c) : Cultivator driven by a tractor seeds are filled into the funnel,
passed down through two or three
1.4 Sowing pipes having sharp ends. These
Sowing is the most important part of ends pierce into the soil and place
crop production. Before sowing, good seeds there.
quality seeds are selected. Good quality
seeds are clean and healthy seeds of a
good variety. Farmers prefer to use seeds
which give a high yield.

Selection of Seeds

One day I saw my mother put

some gram seeds in a vessel
and pour some water on
them. After a few minutes
some seeds started to float
on top. I wonder why some
seeds float on water!
Fig. 1.2 (a) : Traditional method of sowing
4 SCIENCE
 sufficient sunlight, nutrients and water
from the soil. Sometimes a few plants
have to be removed to prevent
overcrowding.

1.5 Adding Manure and

Fertilisers
The substances which are added to the
soil in the form of nutrients for the
healthy growth of plants are called
manure and fertilisers.
Fig. 1.2 (b) : A seed drill
Seed drill : Nowadays the seed drill [Fig. I saw a healthy crop growing
1.2 (b)] is used for sowing with the help in a farm. In the neighbouring
of tractors. This tool sows the seeds farm, the plants were weak.
uniformly at proper distances and Why do some plants grow
depths. It ensures that seeds get covered better than others?
by the soil after sowing. This prevents
damage caused by birds. Sowing by Soil supplies mineral nutrients to the
using a seed drill saves time and labour. crop. These nutrients are essential for
the growth of plants. In certain areas,
farmers grow crop after crop in the same
There is a nursery near my field. The field is never left uncultivated
school. I found that little or fallow. Imagine what happens to the
plants were kept in small nutrients?
bags. Why are they Continuous growing of crops makes
kept like this? the soil poorer in certain nutrients.
Therefore, farmers have to add manure
to the fields to replenish the soil with
nutrients. This process is called
Seeds of a few plants
such as paddy are first
manuring. Improper or insufficient
grown in a nursery. When manuring results in weak plants.
they grow into plantlets, Manure is an organic substance
they are transplanted in obtained from the decomposition of
the field manually. Some plant or animal wastes. Farmers dump
forest plants and flowering plant and animal waste in pits at open
plants are also grown in places and allow it to decompose. The
the nursery. decomposition is caused by some
microorganisms. The decomposed
An appropriate distance between the matter is used as organic manure.
seeds is important to avoid overcrowding You have alr eady learnt about
of plants. This allows plants to get vermicomposting in Class VI.
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 5
Activity 1.2 showed better growth of plants? In
which glass was the growth fastest?
Take moong or gram seeds and Fertilisers are chemical substances
germinate them. Select three equal
which are rich in a particular
sized seedlings out of these. Now
take three empty glasses or similar nutrient. How are these different from
vessels. Mark them A, B and C. To manure? Fertilisers are produced in
glass A add little amount of soil factories. Some examples of fertilisers
mixed with a little cow dung manure. are— urea, ammonium sulphate,
In glass B put the same amount of super phosphate, potash, NPK
soil mixed with a little urea. Take (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium).
the same amount of soil in glass C The use of fertilisers has helped
without adding anything [Fig.
farmers to get better yield of crops
1.3(a)]. Now pour the same amount
of water in each glass and plant the such as wheat, paddy and maize. But
seedlings in them. Keep them in a excessive use of fertilisers has made
safe place and water them daily. After the soil less fertile. Fertilisers have also
7 to 10 days observe their growth become a source of water pollution.
[Fig. 1.3(b)]. Therefore, in order to maintain the
fertility of the soil, we have to
substitute fertilisers by organic
manure or leave the field uncultivated
(fallow) in between two crops.
The use of manure improves soil
texture as well as its water retaining
capacity. It replenishes the soil with
all the nutrients.
Another method of replenishing
Fig. 1.3 (a) : Preparation of the experiment
the soil with nutrients is through crop
rotation. This can be done by growing
different crops alternately. Earlier,
farmers in northern India used to
grow legumes as fodder in one season
and wheat in the next season. This
helped in the replenishment of the soil
with nitrogen. Farmers are being
encouraged to adopt this practice.
In the previous classes, you have
Fig. 1.3 (b) : Growing seedlings with manure learnt about Rhizobium bacteria.
and fertiliser
These are present in the nodules of
Did all the plants in all the glasses the roots of leguminous plants. They
grow at the same pace? Which glass fix atmospheric nitrogen.
6 SCIENCE
 Table 1.1 : Differences between Fertiliser and Manure

S. No. Fertiliser Manure

1. A fertiliser is an inorganic Manure is a natural substance obtained

salt. by the decomposition of cattle dung,
human waste and plant residues.

2. A fertiliser is prepared in Manure can be prepared in the fields.

factories.

3. A fertiliser does not provide Manure provides a lot of humus to the soil.
any humus to the soil.

4. Fertilisers are very rich in Manure is relatively less rich in plant

plant nutrients like nitrogen, nutrients.
phosphorus and potassium.

Table 1.1 gives the differences each part of the plant. Water also
between a fertiliser and manure. protects the crop from both frost and
hot air currents. To maintain the
Advantages of Manure : The organic
moisture of the soil for healthy crop
manure is considered better than
growth, fields have to be watered
fertilisers. This is because
regularly.
l it enhances the water holding The supply of water to crops at
capacity of the soil. different intervals is called irrigation.
l it makes the soil porous due to which The time and frequency of irrigation
exchange of gases becomes easy. varies from crop to crop, soil to soil and
l it increases the number of friendly season to season. In summer, the
microbes. frequency of watering is higher. Why is
l it improves the texture of the soil. it so? Could it be due to the increased
rate of evaporation of water from the soil
1.6 Irrigation
and the leaves?
All living beings need water to live.
Water is important for proper growth
and development of flowers, fruits and I am very careful this
seeds of plants. Water is absorbed by year about watering
the plant roots. Along with water, the plants. Last
minerals and fertilisers are also summer my plants
absorbed. Plants contain nearly 90% dried up and died.
water. Water is essential because
germination of seeds does not take place Sources of irrigation : The sources of
under dry conditions. Nutrients irrigation are— wells, tubewells, ponds,
dissolved in water get transported to lakes, rivers, dams and canals.
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 7
 Traditional Methods of
Irrigation
The water available in wells,
lakes and canals is lifted up
by different methods in
different regions, for taking it
to the fields.
Cattle or human labour is
used in these methods. So
these methods are cheaper,
but less efficient. The various
traditional ways are:
(i) moat (pulley -system)
(ii) chain pump

Fig. 1.4 (a) : Moat

Fig. 1.4 (b) : Chain pump Fig. 1.4 (c) : Dhekli

(iii) dhekli, and

(iv) rahat (Lever system)
[Figs. 1.4 (a)- (d)].
Pumps are commonly
used for lifting water. Diesel,
biogas, electricity and
solar energy is used to run
these pumps.

Fig. 1.4 (d) : Rahat

8 SCIENCE
Modern Methods of
Irrigation
Modern methods of irrigation
help us to use water
economically. The main
methods used are as follows:
(i) Sprinkler System: This
system is more useful on the
uneven land where sufficient
water is not available. The
perpendicular pipes, having
rotating nozzles on top, are
joined to the main pipeline
at regular intervals. When
Fig. 1.5 (a) : Sprinkler system
water is allowed to flow
through the main pipe under
pressure with the help of a pump, it position of the roots. So it is called drip
escapes from the rotating nozzles. It gets system. It is the best technique for
sprinkled on the crop as if it is raining. watering fruit plants, gardens and trees.
Sprinkler is very useful for sandy soil The system provides water to plants drop
[Fig. 1.5 (a)]. by drop [Fig. 1.5(b)]. Water is not wasted
(ii) Drip system : In this system, the at all. It is a boon in regions where
water falls drop by drop just at the availability of water is poor.

Fig. 1.5 (b) : Drip System

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 9
1.7 Protection from Weeds
Boojho and Paheli went to a nearby
wheat field and saw that there were some
other plants in the field.

Have these other

plants been planted
purposely?

In a field many other undesirable

plants may grow naturally along with Fig. 1.6 : Spraying weedicide
the crop. These undesirable plants are
called weeds.
The removal of weeds is called
weeding. Weeding is necessary since Do weedicides have any
weeds compete with the crop plants for effect on the person handling
the weedicide sprayer?
water, nutrients, space and light. Thus,
they affect the growth of the crop. Some
As already mentioned, the weedicides
weeds interfere even in harvesting and
are sprayed during the vegetative growth
may be poisonous for animals and
of weeds before flowering and seed
human beings.
formation. Spraying of weedicides may
Farmers adopt many ways to remove
affect the health of farmers. So they
weeds and control their growth. Tilling
should use these chemicals very carefully.
before sowing of crops helps in
They should cover their nose and mouth
uprooting and killing of weeds, which
with a piece of cloth during spraying of
may then dry up and get mixed with
these chemicals.
the soil. The best time for the removal
of weeds is before they produce flowers
1.8 Harvesting
and seeds. The manual removal includes
physical removal of weeds by uprooting Harvesting of a crop is an important
or cutting them close to the ground, task. The cutting of crop after it is
from time to time. This is done with the mature is called harvesting. In
help of a khurpi. A seed drill [Fig. 1.2(b)] harvesting, crops are pulled out or cut
is also used to uproot weeds. close to the ground. It usually takes 3
Weeds are also controlled by using to 4 months for a cereal crop to mature.
certain chemicals, called weedicides, Harvesting in our
like 2,4-D. These are sprayed in the country is either done
fields to kill the weeds. They do not manually by sickle
damage the crops. The weedicides are (Fig. 1.7) or by a machine
diluted with water to the extent required called harvester. In the
and sprayed in the fields with a sprayer. harvested crop, the grain Fig. 1.7 :
(Fig. 1.6). seeds need to be separated Sickle

10 SCIENCE
from the chaff. This process is called Harvest Festivals
threshing. This is carried out with the
help of a machine called ‘combine’ which After three or four months of hard
work there comes the day of the
is in fact a combined harvester and
harvest. The sight of golden fields
thresher (Fig. 1.8). of standing crop, laden with grain,
fills the hearts of farmers with joy
a n d a s e n s e o f w e l l -b e i n g . T h e
efforts of the past season have
borne fruit and it is time to relax
and enjoy a little. The period of
harvest is, thus, of great joy and
happiness in all parts of India.
Men and women celebrate it with
great enthusiasm. Special
festivals associated with the
h a r v e s t s e a s o n are P o n g a l ,
Baisakhi, Holi, Diwali, Nabanya
Fig. 1.8 : Combine and Bihu.

1.9 Storage
After harvesting, sometimes
Storage of produce is an important task.
stubs are left in the field, which
are burnt by farmers. Paheli is If the crop grains are to be kept for
worried. She knows that it longer time, they should be safe from
causes pollution. It may also moisture, insects, rats and
catch fire and damage the crops microorganisms. The fresh crop has
lying in the fields. more moisture. If freshly harvested
grains (seeds) are stored without drying,
Farmers with small holdings of land
they may get spoilt or attacked by
do the separation of grain and chaff by
organisms, losing their germination
winnowing (Fig. 1.9). You have already
studied this in Class VI. capacity. Hence, before storing them,
the grains are properly dried in the sun
to reduce the moisture in them. This
prevents the attack by insect pests,
bacteria and fungi. Farmers store

I saw my mother putting

some dried neem leaves
in an iron drum
containing wheat.
I wonder why?
Fig. 1.9 : Winnowing machine
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 11
 Fig. 1.10 (a) : Silos for storage of grains 1.10 Food from Animals
Activity 1.3
Make the following Table in your
note book and complete it.
S.No. Food Sources

1. Milk Cow, Buffalo, She-

goat, She-camel . . .
2.
3.
4.
After completing this Table, you
must have seen that, like plants,
animals also provide us with different
kinds of food. Many people living in the
coastal areas consume fish as a major
part of their diet. In the previous classes
Fig. 1.10 (b) : Storage of grains in granaries you have learnt about the food that we
obtain from plants. We have just seen
grains in jute bags or metallic bins. that the process of crop production
However, large scale storage of grains involves a number of steps like selection
is done in silos and granaries to protect of seeds, sowing, etc. Similarly, animals
them from pests like rats and insects reared at home or in farms, have to be
[Fig. 1.10 (a) and (b)]. provided with proper food, shelter and
Dried neem leaves are used for care. When this is done on a large scale,
storing food grains at home. For storing it is called animal husbandry.
large quantities of grains in big
godowns, specific chemical treatments Fish is good for health.
are required to protect them from pests We get cod liver oil from fish
and microorganisms. which is rich in vitamin D.

12 SCIENCE
KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
AGRICULTURAL Ü In order to provide food to our growing
PRACTICES population, we need to adopt certain
agricultural practices.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Ü Same kind of plants grown and cultivated at
CROP a place constitute a crop.
Ü In India, crops can be broadly categorised into
FERTILISER
two types based on seasons - rabi and kharif
GRANARIES crops.
Ü It is necessary to prepare soil by tilling and
HARVESTING levelling. Ploughs and levellers are used for
this purpose.
IRRIGATION
Ü Sowing of seeds at appropriate depths and
KHARIF distances gives good yield. Good variety of
seeds are sown after selection of healthy seeds.
MANURE Sowing is done by seed drills.
Ü Soil needs replenishment and enrichment
PLOUGH
through the use of organic manure and
RABI fertilisers. Use of chemical fertilisers has
increased tremendously with the introduction
SEEDS of new crop varieties.
Ü Supply of water to crops at appropriate
SILO
intervals is called irrigation.
SOWING Ü Weeding involves removal of unwanted and
uncultivated plants called weeds.
STORAGE Ü Harvesting is the cutting of the mature crop
manually or by machines.
THRESHING
Ü Separation of the grains from the chaff is called
WEEDS threshing.
Ü Proper storage of grains is necessary to protect
WEEDICIDE them from pests and microorganisms.
Ü Food is also obtained from animals for which
WINNOWING
animals are reared. This is called animal
husbandry.

Exercises
1. Select the correct word from the following list and fill in the blanks.
float, water, crop, nutrients, preparation
(a) The same kind of plants grown and cultivated on a large scale at a
place is called _____________.
(b) The first step before growing crops is _____________ of the soil.

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 13

 (c) Damaged seeds would _____________ on top of water.

EXERCISES
(d) For growing a crop, sufficient sunlight and _____________ and
_____________ from the soil are essential.
2. Match items in column A with those in column B.
A B

(i) Kharif crops (a) Food for cattle

(ii) Rabi crops (b) Urea and super phosphate
(iii) Chemical fertilisers (c) Animal excreta, cow dung
urine and plant waste
(iv) Organic manure (d) Wheat, gram, pea
(e) Paddy and maize

3. Give two examples of each.

(a) Kharif crop
(b) Rabi crop

4. Write a paragraph in your own words on each of the following.

(a) Preparation of soil (b) Sowing
(c) Weeding (d) Threshing

5. Explain how fertilisers are different from manure.

6. What is irrigation? Describe two methods of irrigation which conserve water.

7. If wheat is sown in the kharif season, what would happen? Discuss.

8. Explain how soil gets affected by the continuous plantation of crops in

a field.

9. What are weeds? How can we control them?

10. Arrange the following boxes in proper order to make a flow chart of
sugarcane crop production.

Sending crop to
Irrigation Harvesting Sowing
sugar factory
1 2 3 4

Preparation of Ploughing the

Manuring
soil field

5 6 7

14 SCIENCE
 11. Complete the following word puzzle with the help of clues given below.
EXERCISES Down
1. Providing water to the crops.
2. Keeping crop grains for a long time under proper conditions.
5. Certain plants of the same kind grown on a large scale.

Across
3. A machine used for cutting the matured crop.
4. A rabi crop that is also one of the pulses.
6. A process of separating the grain from chaff.

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Sow some seeds in the soil and arrange to water them by drip
irrigation. Observe daily.
(i) Do you think it can save water?
(ii) Note the changes in the seed.
2. Collect different types of seeds and put them in small bags. Attach
these bags in a herbarium file and label them.
3. Collect new agricultural machine pictures and paste in a file with
their names and uses.
4. Project Work
Visit a farm, nursery or a garden nearby. Gather information about
(i) importance of seed selection.
(ii) method of irrigation.

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 15

 (iii) effect of extreme cold and extreme hot weather on the plants.
(iv) effect of continuous rain on the plants.
(v) fertilisers/manure used.

An Example for Field Trip Work

Himanshu and his friends were very anxious and curious to go to Thikri village.
They went to Shri Jiwan Patel’s farmhouse. They had taken bags to collect some
seeds and other things.
Himanshu : Sir namaskar, I am Himanshu. Here are my friends Mohan, David
and Sabiha. We want some information about crops. Please guide
us.
Shri Patel : Namaskar and welcome all of you. What are your queries?
Sabiha : When did you start this work and what are the main crops that
you grow?
Shri Patel : About 75 years ago, my grandfather started this work. The main
crops that we grow are wheat, gram, soyabean and moong.
David : Sir, can you tell us the difference between traditional and modern
agricultural practices?
Shri Patel : Earlier we used traditional tools like sickle, bullock plough, trowel,
etc., and depended on rain water for irrigation. But now we use
modern methods of irrigation. We use implements like tractors,
cultivators, seed drill and harvester. We get good quality seeds.
We carry out soil testing and use manure and fertilisers. New
information about agriculture is obtained through radio, T.V. and
other sources. As a result we are able to get good crops on a large
scale. This year we got 9 to 11 quintals of gram crop/acre and 20
to 25 quintals of wheat/acre. In my opinion awareness of new
technology is important for better crop yield.
Mohan : Sabiha, come here and see some earthworms. Are they helpful to
the farmers?
Sabiha : Oh Mohan! we learnt about it in Class VI.
Shri Patel : Earthworms turn the soil and loosen it for proper aeration, so
they help the farmer.
David : Can we have some seeds of the crops you grow here?
[They put some seeds, fertilisers and soil sample in the bags.]
Himanshu : Sir, we are thankful to you for making this visit pleasant and for
providing useful information.

16 SCIENCE
 MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE

Y
ou have seen several kinds of These observations show that water
plants and animals. However, and soil are full of tiny organisms,
there are other living organisms though not all of them fall into the
around us which we normally cannot category of microbes. These
see. These are called microorganisms microorganisms or microbes are so
or microbes. For example, you might small in size that they cannot be seen
have observed that during the rainy with the unaided eye. Some of these,
season moist bread gets spoilt and its such as the fungus that grows on bread,
surface gets covered with greyish white can be seen with a magnifying glass.
patches. Observe these patches through Others cannot be seen without the help
a magnifying glass. You will see tiny, of a microscope. That is why these are
black rounded structures. Do you know called microorganisms or microbes.
what these structures are and where do Microorganisms are classified into
these come from? four major groups. These groups are
bacteria, fungi, protozoa and some
2.1 Microorganisms algae. Some of these common
microorganisms are shown in
Activity 2.1 Figs. 2.1 - 2.4.
Viruses are also microscopic. They,
Collect some moist soil from the however, reproduce only inside the cells
field in a beaker and add water to of the host organism, which may be a
it. After the soil particles have bacterium, plant or animal. Some of the
settled down, observe a drop of viruses are shown in Fig. 2.5. Common
water from the beaker under a ailments like cold, influenza (flu) and
microscope. What do you see ? most coughs are caused by viruses.
Serious diseases like polio and chicken
Activity 2.2 pox are also caused by viruses.
Diseases like dysentery and malaria
Take a few drops of water from a are caused by protozoa(protozoans)
pond. Spread on a glass slide and whereas typhoid and tuberculosis (TB)
observe through a microscope. are bacterial diseases.
You have lear nt about some of
Do you find tiny organisms moving these microorganisms in Classes VI
around? and VII.
 Spiral bacteria Rod-shaped bacteria

Fig. 2.1: Bacteria

Amoeba

Chlamydomonas Spirogyra Paramecium

Fig. 2.2 : Algae Fig. 2.3 : Protozoa

Bread mould Penicillium Aspergillus

Fig. 2.4 : Fungi

18 SCIENCE
 harmful and cause diseases. Let us
study about them in detail.

Friendly Microorganisms
Microorganisms are used for various
purposes. They are used in the
preparation of curd, bread and cake.

Microorganisms have been used for

the production of alcohol since ages.

They are also used in cleaning up

of the environment. For example, the
organic wastes (vegetable peels, remains
of animals, faeces, etc.) are broken
down into harmless and usable
substances by bacteria. Recall that
bacteria are also used in the
preparation of medicines. In agriculture
Fig. 2.5 : Viruses
they are used to increase soil fertility
by fixing nitrogen.
2.2 Where do Microorganisms Making of Curd and Bread
Live?
You have learnt in Class VII that milk is
Microorganisms may be single-celled turned into curd by bacteria.
like bacteria, some algae and protozoa,
or multicellular, such as algae and fungi.
They can survive under all types of
environment, ranging from ice cold I saw that my mother
climate to hot springs and deserts to added a little curd to warm
marshy lands. They are also found milk to set curd for the
inside the bodies of animals including next day. I wonder why?
humans. Some microorganisms grow on
other organisms while others exist
Curd contains several micro-
freely. Microorganisms like amoeba can
organisms. Of these, the bacterium,
live alone, while fungi and bacteria may
Lactobacillus promotes the formation
live in colonies.
of curd. It multiplies in milk and converts
it into curd. Bacteria are also involved
2.3 Microorganisms and Us
in the making of cheese, pickles and
Microorganisms play an important role many other food items. An important
in our lives. Some of them are beneficial ingredient of rava (sooji ) idlis and
in many ways whereas some others are bhaturas is curd. Can you guess why?
MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 19
Activity 2.3 spoon of yeast powder to the sugar
solution. Keep it covered in a warm
Take ½ kg flour (atta or maida), place for 4-5 hours. Now smell the
add some sugar and mix with solution. Can you get a smell?
warm water. Add a small amount
of yeast powder and knead to This is the smell of alcohol as sugar
make a soft dough. What do you has been converted into alcohol by yeast.
observe after two hours? Did you This process of conversion of sugar into
find the dough rising? alcohol is known as fermentation.

Louis Pasteur
discovered
Maida with yeast powder fermentation
in 1857.

Medicinal Use of Microorganisms

Whenever you fall ill the doctor may
Raised maida
give you some antibiotic tablets,
Fig. 2.6 capsules or injections such as of
Yeast r eproduces rapidly and penicillin. The source of these
produces carbon dioxide during medicines is microorganisms. These
respiration. Bubbles of the gas fill the medicines kill or stop the growth of the
dough and increase its volume (Fig. 2.6). disease-causing microorganisms.
This is the basis of the use of yeast in Such medicines are called antibiotics.
the baking industry for making breads, These days a number of antibiotics are
pastries and cakes. being produced from bacteria and
fungi. Streptomycin, tetracycline and
Commercial Use of Microorganisms erythromycin are some of the
Microorganisms are used for the large scale
production of alcohol, wine and acetic acid
(vinegar). Yeast is used for commercial In 1929, Alexander
production of alcohol and wine. For this Fleming was working
purpose yeast is grown on natural sugars on a culture of disease-
present in grains like barley, wheat, rice, causing bacteria.
crushed fruit juices, etc. Suddenly he found the
spores of a little green mould in one of
Activity 2.4 his culture plates. He observed that
the presence of mould prevented the
Take a 500 mL beaker filled upto growth of bacteria. In fact, it also killed
¾ with water. Dissolve 2-3 many of these bacteria. From this the
mould penicillin was prepared.
teaspoons of sugar in it. Add half a
20 SCIENCE
commonly known antibiotics which are disease-causing microbes. This is how
made from fungi and bacteria. The a vaccine works. Several diseases,
antibiotics are manufactured by including cholera, tuberculosis,
growing specific microorganisms and smallpox and hepatitis can be prevented
are used to cure a variety of diseases. by vaccination.
Antibiotics are even mixed with the
feed of livestock and poultry to check
microbial infection in animals. They are Edward Jenner
also used to control many plant discovered the
vaccine for small-
diseases.
pox in 1798.
It is important to remember that
antibiotics should be taken only on
the advice of a qualified doctor. Also In your childhood, you must have
you must complete the course been given injections to protect yourself
prescribed by the doctor. If you take against several diseases. Can you
antibiotics when not needed or in prepare a list of these diseases? You
wrong doses, it may make the drug may take help from your parents.
less effective when you might need
It is essential to protect all children
it in future. Also antibiotics taken
unnecessarily may kill the beneficial against these diseases. Necessary
bacteria in the body. Antibiotics, vaccines are available in the nearby
however, are not effective against hospitals. You might have seen the
cold and flu as these are caused by advertisement on T.V. and newspapers
viruses. regarding protection of children against
polio under the Pulse Polio Programme.
Vaccine Polio drops given to children are
actually a vaccine.
A worldwide campaign against
smallpox has finally led to its eradication
Why are children/infants from most parts of the world.
given vaccination? These days vaccines are made on a
large scale from microorganisms to
When a disease-carrying microbe enters protect humans and other animals from
our body, the body produces antibodies several diseases.
to fight the invader. The body also
remembers how to fight the microbe if Increasing Soil Fertility
it enters again. So, if dead or weakened Some bacteria and blue green algae
microbes are introduced in a healthy (Fig. 2.7) are able to fix nitrogen from
body, the body fights and kills the atmosphere to enrich soil with
them by producing suitable antibodies. nitrogen and increase its fertility. These
The antibodies remain in the body microbes are commonly called
and we are protected from the biological nitrogen fixers.
MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 21
 Fig. 2.7 : The Nitrogen fixing blue green algae

Cleaning the Environment released in the process can be used by

Boojho and Paheli had observed the the plants again.
school gardener making manure. Along Did you notice that in pot B, the
with their friends, they collected wastes polythene bags, empty glasses, bottles
of plants, vegetables and fruits from and broken toy parts did not undergo
nearby houses and gardens. They put any such change? The microbes could
them in a pit meant for waste disposal. not ‘act’ on them and convert them into
After some time, it decomposed and got manure.
converted to manure. Boojho and You often see large amounts of
Paheli wanted to know how this had dead organic matter in the form of
happened. decaying plants and sometimes dead
animals on the ground. You find
Activity 2.5 that they disappear after some time.
This is because the microorganisms
Take two pots and fill each pot half
decompose dead organic waste of plants
with soil. Mark them A and B. Put
plant waste in pot A and things like and animals converting them into
polythene bags, empty glass bottles simple substances. These substances
and broken plastic toys in pot B. are again used by other plants and
Put the pots aside. Observe them animals. Thus, microorganisms can
after 3-4 weeks. be used to degrade the harmful and
smelly substances and thereby clean
Do you find any difference in the up the environment.
contents of the two pots? If so, what is
the difference? You will find that plant 2.4 Harmful Microorganisms
waste in pot A, has been decomposed. Microorganisms are harmful in many
How did this happen? The plant waste ways. Some of the microorganisms
has been converted into manure by the cause diseases in human beings, plants
action of microbes. The nutrients and animals. Such disease-causing

22 SCIENCE
microorganisms are called pathogens. There are some insects and animals
Some microorganisms spoil food, which act as carriers of disease-
clothing and leather. Let us study more causing microbes. Housefly is one such
about their harmful activities. carrier. The flies sit on the garbage and
animal excreta. Pathogens stick to their
Disease causing Microorganisms bodies. When these flies sit on uncovered
in Humans food they may transfer the pathogens.
Pathogens enter our body through the Whoever eats the contaminated food is
air we breathe, the water we drink or likely to get sick. So, it is advisable to
the food we eat. They can also get always keep food covered. Avoid
transmitted by direct contact with an consuming uncovered items of food.
infected person or carried through an Another example of a carrier is the
animal. Microbial diseases that can female Anopheles mosquito (Fig. 2.8),
spread from an infected person to a which carries the parasite of malaria.
healthy person through air, water, food Female Aedes mosquito acts as carrier
or physical contact are called of dengue virus. How can we control the
communicable diseases. Examples of spread of malaria or dengue?
such diseases include cholera, common
cold, chicken pox and tuberculosis.
When a person suffering from
common cold sneezes, fine droplets of
moisture carrying thousands of viruses
are spread in the air. The virus may enter
the body of a healthy person while
breathing. Fig. 2.8 : Female Anopheles mosquito

Then how do you

prevent the spread of Why does the teacher
communicable keep telling us not
diseases? to let water collect
anywhere in the
neighbourhood?

All mosquitoes breed in water. Hence,

one should not let water collect
We should keep a anywhere, in coolers, tyres, flower pot,
handkerchief on the etc. By keeping the surroundings clean
nose and mouth while and dry we can prevent mosquitoes from
sneezing. It is better to
breeding. Try to make a list of measures
keep a distance from
which help to avoid the spread of
infected persons.
malaria.
MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 23
 Table 2.1: Some Common Human Diseases caused by Microorganisms
Human Disease Causative Mode of Preventive Measures
Microorganism Transmission (General)

Tuberculosis Bacteria Air Keep the patient in complete

isolation. Keep the personal
Measles Virus Air
belongings of the patient away
from those of the others.
Chicken Pox Virus Air/Contact
Vaccination to be given at
Polio Virus Air/Water suitable age.

Cholera Bacteria Water/Food Maintain personal hygiene

and good sanitary habits.
Typhoid Bacteria Water Consume properly cooked food
and boiled drinking water.
Vaccination.

Hepatitis A Virus Water Drink boiled drinking water.

Vaccination.

Use mosquito net and

Malaria Protozoa Mosquito
repellents. Spray insecticides
and control breeding of
mosquitoes by not allowing
water to collect in the
surroundings.

Some of the common diseases in other animals. For example, anthrax

affecting humans, their mode of is a dangerous human and cattle
transmission and few general methods disease caused by a bacterium. Foot
of prevention are shown in Table 2.1. and mouth disease of cattle is caused
by a virus.
Disease causing Microorganisms
in Animals Disease causing Microorganisms
Several microorganisms not only cause in Plants
diseases in humans and plants, but also Several microorganisms cause
diseases in plants like wheat, rice, potato,
Robert Köch (1876) sugarcane, orange, apple and others.
discovered the bacterium The diseases reduce the yield of crops.
(Bacillus anthracis) which See Table 2.2 for some such plant
causes anthrax disease.
diseases. They can be controlled by the
24 SCIENCE
 Table 2.2: Some Common Plant Diseases caused by Microorganisms

Plant Micro- Mode of Figures

Diseases organism Transmission

Citrus Bacteria Air

canker

Rust of Fungi Air,

wheat seeds

Yellow vein Virus Insect

mosaic of
bhindi (Okra)

use of certain chemicals which kill the make the food poisonous causing
microbes. serious illness and even death. So, it
is very important that we preserve
Food Poisoning food to prevent it from being spoilt.
Boojho was invited by his friend to a
party and he ate a variety of foodstuff. 2.5 Food Preservation
On reaching home he started vomiting In Chapter 1, we have learnt about the
and had to be taken to a hospital. The methods used to preserve and store food
doctor said that this condition could be grains. How do we preserve cooked food
due to food poisoning. at home? You know that bread left
unused under moist conditions is
attacked by fungus. Microorganisms
spoil our food. Spoiled food emits bad
Paheli wonders how smell and has a bad taste and colour
food can become a change. Is spoiling of food a chemical
‘poison’. reaction?
Paheli bought some mangoes but she
Food poisoning could be due to the could not eat them for a few days. Later
consumption of food spoilt by some she found that they were spoilt and
microorganisms. Microorganisms rotten. But she knows that the mango
that grow on our food sometimes pickle her grandmother makes does not
produce toxic substances. These spoil for a long time. She is confused.
MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 25
 Let us study the common methods Similarly, we keep our food in the
of preserving food in our homes. We refrigerator. Low temperature inhibits
have to save it from the attack of the growth of microbes.
microorganisms.

Chemical Method
Salts and edible oils are the common Why does the milk that
chemicals generally used to check the comes in packets not spoil?
growth of microorganisms. Therefore My mother told me that the
they are called preservatives. We add milk is ‘pasteurised’. What
salt or acid preservatives to pickles to is pasteurisation?
prevent the attack of microbes. Sodium
benzoate and sodium metabisulphite are Pasteurised milk can be consumed
common preservatives. These are also without boiling as it is free from harmful
used in the jams and squashes to check microbes. The milk is heated to about
their spoilage. 700C for 15 to 30 seconds and then
suddenly chilled and stored. By doing
Preservation by Common Salt so, it prevents the growth of microbes.
Common salt has been used to preserve This process was discovered by Louis
meat and fish for ages. Meat and fish Pasteur. It is called pasteurisation.
are covered with dry salt to check
the growth of bacteria. Salting is also Storage and Packing
used to preserve amla, raw mangoes, These days dry fruits and even
tamarind, etc. vegetables are sold in sealed air tight
packets to prevent the attack of
Preservation by Sugar microbes.
Jams, jellies and squashes are preserved
by sugar. Sugar reduces the moisture 2.6 Nitrogen Fixation
content which inhibits the growth of You have learnt about the bacterium
bacteria which spoil food. Rhizobium in Classes VI and VII. It is
involved in the fixation of nitrogen in
Preservation by Oil and Vinegar
leguminous plants (pulses). Recall that
Use of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage Rhizobium lives in the root nodules of
of pickles because bacteria cannot live leguminous plants (Fig. 2.9), such as
in such an environment. Vegetables, beans and peas, with which it has a
fruits, fish and meat are often preserved symbiotic relationship. Sometimes
by this method. nitrogen gets fixed through the action
of lightning. But you know that the
Heat and Cold Treatments
amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere
You must have observed your mother remains constant. You may wonder
boiling milk before it is stored or used. how? Let us understand this in the next
Boiling kills many microorganisms. section.
26 SCIENCE
 nitrogen cannot be taken directly by
plants and animals. Certain bacteria and
blue green algae present in the soil fix
nitrogen from the atmosphere and
convert it into compounds of nitrogen.
Once nitrogen is converted into these
usable compounds, it can be utilised by
plants from the soil through their root
system. Nitrogen is then used for the
synthesis of plant proteins and other
compounds. Animals feeding on plants
get these proteins and other nitrogen
compounds (Fig. 2.10).
When plants and animals die,
Fig. 2.9 : Roots of a leguminous plant with root bacteria and fungi present in the soil
nodules convert the nitrogenous wastes into
nitrogenous compounds to be used by
2.7 Nitrogen cycle plants again. Certain other bacteria
Our atmosphere has 78% nitrogen gas. convert some part of them to nitrogen
Nitrogen is one of the essential gas which goes back into the
constituents of all living organisms as atmosphere. As a result, the percentage
part of proteins, chlorophyll, nucleic of nitrogen in the atmosphere remains
acids and vitamins. The atmospheric more or less constant.

Fig. 2.10 : Nitrogen cycle

MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 27
KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ALGAE Ü Microorganisms are too small and are not
ANTIBIOTICS visible to the unaided eye.
Ü They can live in all kinds of environment,
ANTIBODIES ranging from ice cold climate to hot springs

BACTERIA and deserts to marshy lands.

Ü Microorganisms are found in air, water and
CARRIER in the bodies of plants and animals.
Ü They may be unicellular or multicellular.
COMMUNICABLE
Ü Microorganisms include bacteria, fungi,
DISEASES
protozoa and some algae. Viruses, though
FERMENTATION different from the above mentioned living
organisms, are considered microbes.
FUNGI
Ü Viruses are quite different from other
LACTOBACILLUS microorganisms. They reproduce only inside
the host organism: bacterium, plant or ani-
MICROORGANISM
mal cell.
NITROGEN CYCLE Ü Some microorganisms are useful for
commercial production of medicines and
NITROGEN FIXATION
alcohol.

PASTEURISATION Ü Some microorganisms decompose the organic

waste and dead plants and animals into simple
PATHOGEN substances and clean up the environment.
Ü Protozoans cause serious diseases like
PRESERVATION
dysentery and malaria.
PROTOZOA Ü Some of the microorganisms grow on our food
and cause food poisoning.
RHIZOBIUM
Ü Some microorganisms reside in the root
VACCINE nodules of leguminous plants. They can fix
nitrogen from air into soil and increase the
VIRUS
soil fertility.
YEAST Ü Some bacteria and blue green algae present
in the soil fix nitrogen from the atmosphere
and convert into nitrogenous compounds.
Ü Certain bacteria convert compounds of
nitrogen present in the soil into nitrogen gas
which is released to the atmosphere.

28 SCIENCE
 Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Microorganisms can be seen with the help of a ____________.

(b) Blue green algae fix __________ directly from air to enhance fertility
of soil.
(c) Alcohol is produced with the help of __________.

(d) Cholera is caused by __________.

2. Tick the correct answer.
(a) Yeast is used in the production of

(i) sugar (ii) alcohol (iii) hydrochloric acid (iv) oxygen

(b) The following is an antibiotic
(i) Sodium bicarbonate (ii) Streptomycin (iii) Alcohol (iv) Yeast

(c) Carrier of malaria-causing protozoan is

(i) female Anopheles mosquito (ii) cockroach
(iii) housefly (iv) butterfly

(d) The most common carrier of communicable diseases is

(i) ant (ii) housefly (iii) dragonfly (iv) spider
(e) The bread or idli dough rises because of

(i) heat (ii) grinding (iii) growth of yeast cells (iv) kneading
(f) The process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is called
(i) nitrogen fixation (ii) moulding (iii) fermentation (iv) infection

3. Match the organisms in Column A with their action in

Column B.
A B
(i) Bacteria (a) Fixing nitrogen
(ii) Rhizobium (b) Setting of curd
(iii) Lactobacillus (c) Baking of bread
(iv) Yeast (d) Causing malaria
(v) A protozoan (e) Causing cholera
(vi) A virus (f) Causing AIDS
(g) Producing antibodies
4. Can microorganisms be seen with the naked eye? If not, how can they be
seen?
MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 29
 5. What are the major groups of microorganisms?
EXERCISES 6. Name the microorganisms which can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.
7. Write 10 lines on the usefulness of microorganisms in our lives.
8. Write a short paragraph on the harms caused by microorganisms.

9. What are antibiotics? What precautions must be taken while taking

antibiotics?

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Pull out a gram or bean plant from the field. Observe its roots. You
will find round structures called root nodules on the roots. Draw a
diagram of the root and show the root nodules.
2. Collect the labels from the bottles of jams and jellies. Write down
the list of contents printed on the labels.
3. Visit a doctor. Find out why antibiotics should not be overused.
Prepare a short report.
4. Project : Requirements – 2 test tubes, marker pen, sugar, yeast
powder, 2 balloons and lime water.
Take two test tubes and mark them A and B. Clamp these tubes in
a stand and fill them with water leaving some space at the top. Put
two spoonfuls of sugar in each
of the test tubes. Add a spoonful
of yeast in test tube B. Inflate the
two balloons incompletely. Now
tie the balloons on the mouths
of each test tube. Keep them in
a warm place, away from
sunlight. Watch the setup every
day for next 3-4 days. Record A B
your observations and think of
an explanation.
Now take another test tube
filled 1/4 with lime water.
Remove the balloon from test
tube B in such a manner that
gas inside the balloon does not
escape. Fit the balloon on the
test tube and shake well.
Observe and explain.

30 SCIENCE
 Did You Know?
Bacteria have lived on the earth for much longer than human beings.
They are such hardy organisms that they can live under extreme conditions.
They have been found living in boiling mudpots and extremly cold icy waters.
They have been found in lakes of caustic soda and in pools of concentrated
sulphuric acid. They can survive at depths of several kilometres. They
probably can survive in space, too. A kind of bacterium was recovered
from a camera which stood on the moon for two years.There is probably no
environment in which bacteria cannot survive.

MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 31

 SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS

T
he clothes which we wear are 3.1 What are Synthetic
made of fabrics. Fabrics Fibres?
are made from fibres obtained
from natural or artificial sources. Can Try to recall the uniform pattern found
you name some natural fibres? Fibres in a necklace of beads joined with the
are also used for making a large variety help of a thread [Fig. 3.1(a)]. Or, try to
of household articles. Make a list of some join a number of paper clips together to
common articles made from fibres. Try make a long chain, as in Fig. 3.1 (b). Is
to separate them into those made from there any similarity between the two?
natural fibres and those made from
artificial fibres. Make entries in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 : Natural and Artificial

Fibres

S. No. Name of Type of Fibre

Article (Natural/
artificial)

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.1 : (a) Beads and (b) Paper clips

joined to form long chains

Why did you label some fibres as A synthetic fibre is also a chain of
artificial? small units joined together. Each small
You have read in your previous unit is actually a chemical substance.
classes that natural fibres like cotton, Many such small units combine to form
wool, silk, etc., are obtained from plants a large single unit called a polymer. The
or animals. The synthetic fibres, on the word ‘polymer’ comes from two Greek
other hand, are made by human beings. words; poly meaning many and mer
That is why these are called synthetic meaning part/unit. So, a polymer is made
or man-made fibres. of many repeating units.
 Polymers occur in nature also. Cotton, Nylon
for example, is a polymer called Nylon is another man-made fibre. In
cellulose. Cellulose is made up of a 1931, it was made without using any
large number of glucose units. natural raw material (from plant or
animal). It was prepared from coal, water
3.2 Types of Synthetic Fibres and air. It was the first fully synthetic
Rayon fibre.
Nylon fibre was strong, elastic and
You have read in Class VII that silk fibre light. It was lustrous and easy to wash.
obtained from silkworm was discovered So, it became very popular for making
in China and was kept as a closely clothes.
guarded secret for a long time. Fabric We use many articles made from
obtained from silk fibre was very costly. nylon, such as socks, ropes, tents,
But its beautiful texture fascinated toothbrushes, car seat belts, sleeping
everybody. Attempts were made to make bags, curtains, etc. (Fig. 3.3). Nylon is
silk artificially. Towards the end of the
nineteenth century, scientists were
successful in obtaining a fibre having
properties similar to that of silk. Such a
fibre was obtained by chemical
treatment of wood pulp. This fibre was
called rayon or artificial silk. Although
rayon is obtained from a natural source,
wood pulp, yet it is a man-made fibre. It
is cheaper than silk and can be woven
like silk fibres. It can also be dyed in a
wide variety of colours. Rayon is mixed
with cotton to make bed sheets or mixed
with wool to make carpets. (Fig. 3.2.)

Fig. 3.3: Various articles made from nylon

Is nylon fibre
really so strong
that we can make
nylon parachutes
and ropes for rock
climbing?
Fig. 3.2 : Articles made of rayon
SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS 33
 a pan so that weight can be placed
in it. Add weight one by one till the
thread breaks. Note down the total
weight required to break the thread.
This weight indicates the strength
of the fibre. Repeat the same activity
with threads of wool, polyester, silk
and nylon. Tabulate the data as
shown in Table 3.2. Arrange the
threads in order of their increasing
strength.

Fig. 3.4: Use of nylon Fibres

also used for making parachutes and Observation Table 3.2
ropes for rock climbing (Fig. 3.4). A S. No. Type of Total Weight required
nylon thread is actually stronger than Thread/Fibre to break the Thread
a steel wire. 1. Cotton
Let us find out. 2. Wool
3. Silk
Activity 3.1 4. Nylon
Take an iron stand with a clamp.
Take a cotton thread of about 60 You may use a hook or a nail on
cm length. Tie it to the clamp so the wall for hanging the fibres and
that it hangs freely from it as shown a polythene bag at the other end.
in Fig. 3.5. At the free end suspend In place of weights you may
use marbles (or pebbles) of
similar size.

(Precaution : Note that all threads

should be of the same length and
almost of the same thickness.)

Polyester and Acrylic

Polyester is another synthetic fibre.
Fabric made from this fibre does not get
wrinkled easily. It remains crisp and is
easy to wash. So, it is quite suitable for
making dress material. You must have
seen people wearing polyester shirts and
other dresses. Terylene is a popular
Fig. 3.5: An iron stand with a thread hanging
from the clamp
polyester. It can be drawn into very fine

34 SCIENCE
fibres that can be woven like any You have already perfor med an
other yarn. a ctivity of bur ning na tur a l an d
synthetic fibres (Activity 3.6 of Class
VII). What did you observe? When you
My mother always burn synthetic fibres you find that
buys PET bottles and their behaviour is different from
PET jars for storing that of the natural fibres. You must
rice and sugar. I have noticed that synthetic fibres
wonder what PET is ! melt on heating. This is actually a
disadvantage of synthetic fibres. If the
clothes catch fire, it can be disastrous.
PET is a very familiar form of The fabric melts and sticks to the body
polyester. It is used for making bottles,
of the person wearing it. We should,
utensils, films, wires and many other
useful products. therefore, not wear synthetic clothes
while working in in the kitchen or in
Look around and make a list of a laboratory.
things made of polyester.

Polyester (Poly+ester) is actually made

up of the repeating units of a chemical Oh! Now I understand why
called an ester. Esters are the my mother never wears
chemicals which give fruits their smell. polyester clothes while
Fabrics are sold by names like polycot, working in the kitchen.
polywool, terrycot, etc. As the name
suggests, these are made by mixing two
types of fibres. Polycot is a mixture of
polyester and cotton. Polywool is a All the synthetic fibres are prepared
mixture of polyester and wool. by a number of processes using raw
materials of petroleum origin, called
We wear sweaters and use shawls petrochemicals.
or blankets in the winter. Many of these
are actually not made from natural
wool, though they appear to resemble 3.3 Characteristics of
wool. These are prepared from another Synthetic Fibres
type of synthetic fibre called acrylic. Imagine that it is a rainy day. What kind
T h e w o ol ob tai n ed from na tur a l of umbrella would you use and why?
sources is quite expensive, whereas Synthetic fibres possess unique
clothes made from acrylic are relatively characteristics which make them
cheap. They are available in a variety popular dress materials. They dry up
o f c o l o u rs. S y n th eti c fi bres a r e quickly, are durable, less expensive,
more durable and affordable which readily available and easy to maintain.
m a k e s th em more popul a r tha n Perform the following activity and learn
natural fibres. for yourself.
SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS 35
 Plastic is also a polymer like the
Activity 3.2 synthetic fibre. All plastics do not
Take two cloth pieces of the same have the same type of arrangement of
size, roughly half a metre square units. In some it is linear, whereas in
each. One of these should be from others it is cross-linked. (Fig. 3.6).
natural fibre. The other could be a Plastic articles are available in all
synthetic fibre. You can take help possible shapes and sizes as you can
of your parents in selecting these see in Fig. 3.7. Have you ever
pieces. Soak the pieces in different wondered how this is possible? The
mugs each containing the same fact is that plastic is easily mouldable
amount of water. Take the pieces i.e. can be shaped in any form. Plastic
out of the containers after five can be recycled, reused, coloured,
minutes and spread them in the sun melted, rolled into sheets or made into
for a few minutes. Compare the wires. That is why it finds such a
volume of the water remaining in variety of uses.
each container.

Do synthetic fabrics soak less/more

water than the natural fabrics? Do they
take less/more time to dry?
What does this activity tell you about
the characteristics of the synthetic fabrics?
Find out from your parents about the
durability, cost and maintenance of these
fabrics, compared to the natural fabrics.

3.4 Plastics
You must be familiar with many plastic
articles used everyday. Make a list of
such items and their uses.
Fig. 3.7 : Various articles made of plastics

(a) Polythene (Poly+ethene) is an example

of a plastic. It is used for making
commonly used polythene bags.

Now, try to bend a piece of plastic

yourself. Can all the plastic articles be
bent easily?
(b)
You will observe that some plastic
Fig. 3.6 : (a) Linear (b) Cross-linked articles can bend easily while some
arrangements break when forced to bend. When we
36 SCIENCE
add hot water to a plastic bottle, it gets 3.5 Plastics as Materials of
deformed. Such plastic which Choice
gets deformed easily on heating and
can be bent easily are known as Today if we think of storing a food
thermoplastics. Polythene and PVC are item, water, milk, pickles, dry food
some of the examples of thermoplastics. etc., plastic containers seem most
These are used for manufacturing toys, convenient. This is because of their
combs and various types of containers. light weight, lower price, good strength
On the other hand, there are some and easy handling. Being lighter as
plastics which when moulded once, can compared to metals, plastics are used
not be softened by heating. These are in cars, aircrafts and spacecrafts, too.
called thermosetting plastics. Two The list is endless if we start counting
examples are bakelite and melamine. articles like slippers, furniture,
Bakelite is a poor conductor of heat and decoration pieces, etc.
electricity. It is used for making
Now, let us discuss the characteristic
electrical switches, handles of various
properties of plastics.
utensils, etc. Melamine is a versatile
material. It resists fire and can tolerate Plastic is Non-reactive
heat better than other plastics. It is used
for making floor tiles, kitchenware and You know that metals like iron get
fabrics which resist fire. Fig. 3.8 shows rusted when left exposed to moisture
the various uses of thermoplastics and and air. But plastics do not react with
thermosetting plastics. water and air. They are not corroded
easily. That is why they are used to store
various kinds of material, including
many chemicals.

Plastic is Light, Strong and Durable

Talk to your parents or grandparents
about the types of buckets that were
used in the past. What is the material
of the buckets or mugs you are using
today? What are the advantages of using
Articles made of thermosetting plastics
a plastic container? Since plastic is very
light, strong, durable and can be
moulded into different shapes and sizes,
it is used for various purposes. Plastics
are generally cheaper than metals. They
are widely used in industry and for
household articles. Make a list of
Articles made of thermoplastics different kinds of plastic containers that
Fig. 3.8 : Some articles made of plastic you use in daily life.
SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS 37
Plastics are Poor Conductors
Ü Fire-proof plastics: Although
You have learnt above that plastics are synthetic fibre catches fire easily,
poor conductors of heat and electricity. it is interesting to know that the
That is why electrical wires have plastic uniforms of firemen have coating
covering, and handles of screw drivers of melamine plastic to make them
are made of plastic. As mentioned above, flame resistant.
handles of frying pans are also made
of plastic. 3.6 Plastics and the
Environment
Did You Know? When we go to the market, we usually
Ü Plastics find extensive use in the
get things wrapped in plastic or packed
healthcare industry. Some
examples of their use are the in polythene bags. That is one reason
packaging of tablets, threads used why plastic waste keeps getting
for stitching wounds, syringes, accumulated in our homes. Ultimately,
doctors’ gloves and a number of plastic finds its way to the garbage.
medical instruments. Disposal of plastic is a major problem.
Ü Special plastic cookware is used
Why?
in microwave ovens for cooking
food. In microwave ovens, the heat A material which gets decomposed
cooks the food but does not affect through natural processes, such
the plastic vessel. as action by bacteria, is called
Ü Teflon is a special plastic on which biodegradable. A material which is not
oil and water do not stick. It is easily decomposed by natural processes
used for non-stick coating on
is termed non-biodegradable.
cookwares.
Look at Table 3.3.
Table 3.3

Type of Waste Approximate Time Nature of Material

taken to Degenerate
Peels of vegetable and fruits, 1 to 2 weeks Biodegradable
leftover foodstuff, etc.
Paper 10 to 30 days Biodegradable
Cotton cloth 2 to 5 months Biodegradable
Wood 10 to15 years Biodegradable
Woollen clothes About a year Biodegradable
Tin, aluminium, and other 100 to 500 years Non-biodegradable
metal cans
Plastic bags Several years Non-biodegradable
l Source: http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/solwaste/types.htm

38 SCIENCE
 Since plastic takes several years to Avoid the use of plastics as far as
decompose, it is not environment possible. Make use of bags made of
friendly. It causes environmental cotton or jute when you go for shopping.
pollution. Besides, the burning process The biodegradable and non-
in the synthetic material is quite slow biodegradable wastes should be
and it does not get completely burnt collected separately and disposed off
easily. In the process it releases lots of separately. Practise this in your homes.
poisonous fumes into the atmosphere Can you suggest some other ways in
causing air pollution. How can this which you can contribute towards
problem be solved? reducing the use of plastic materials?
It is better to recycle plastic waste.
Have you ever seen a garbage dump
where animals, especially cows, are Most of the thermoplastics can be
eating garbage? In the process of recycled. Make a list of items that can
eating the food waste they swallow be recycled. However, during recycling
materials like polythene bags and certain colouring agents are added.
wrappers of food. Can you imagine the This limits its usage especially for
consequences? The plastic material storage of food.
chokes the respiratory system of these As a responsible citizen remember
animals, or forms a lining in their the 4 R principle. Reduce, Reuse,
stomachs and can be the cause of
Recycle and Recover. Develop habits
their death.
which are environment friendly.
The polybags carelessly thrown here
and there are responsible for clogging Fibre-wise
the drains, too. Sometimes we are very
careless and throw the wrappers of Ü Do not throw plastic bags in the
chips, biscuits and other eatables on water bodies or on the road.
the road or in parks or picnic places. Ü Take a cotton carry bag or a jute
Should we not think twice before doing bag while going for shopping.
so ? As a responsible citizen what Ü Try to minimise the use of plastic
measures do you suggest to keep public materials e.g., use a steel lunch
places clean and free of plastic? box instead of a plastic one.

SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS 39

KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ACRYLIC Ü Synthetic fibres and plastics, like natural fi-
bres, are made of very large units called poly-
ARTIFICIAL SILK
mers. Polymers are made up of many smaller
NYLON units.
Ü While natural fibres are obtained from plants
PLASTIC
and animals, synthetic fibres are obtained by
POLYESTER chemical processing of petrochemicals. Like
natural fibres, these fibres can also be woven
POLYMER into fabrics.
POLYTHENE Ü Synthetic fibres find uses ranging from
many household articles like ropes,
RAYON buckets, furniture, containers, etc., to highly
specialised uses in aircrafts, ships, space-
SYNTHETIC FIBRES
crafts, healthcare, etc.
TERYLENE Ü Depending upon the types of chemicals used
for manufacturing synthetic fibres, they are
THERMOPLASTICS
called Rayon, Nylon, Polyester and Acrylic.
THERMOSETTING Ü The different types of fibres differ from one
PLASTICS another in their strength, water absorbing
capacity, nature of burning, cost, durability
etc.
Ü Today, life without plastics cannot be imagined.
Be it home, or outside, plastic is everywhere.
Ü The waste created by plastics is not
environment friendly. On burning, plastics
release poisonous gases. On dumping in the
ground they may take years to degenerate.
This is because of their non-biodegradable
nature.
Ü We need to use synthetic fibres and plastics
in such a manner that we can enjoy their good
qualities and at the same time minimise the
environmental hazards for the living
communities.

40 SCIENCE
 Exercises

1. Explain why some fibres are called synthetic.

2. Mark (ü ) the correct answer.

Rayon is different from synthetic fibres because

(a) it has a silk-like appearance.

(b) it is obtained from wood pulp.

(c) its fibres can also be woven like those of natural fibres.

3. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.

(a) Synthetic fibres are also called __________ or __________ fibres.

(b) Synthetic fibres are synthesised from raw material called __________ .

(c) Like synthetic fibres, plastic is also a __________ .

4. Give examples which indicate that nylon fibres are very strong.

5. Explain why plastic containers are favoured for storing food.

6. Explain the difference between thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics.

7. Explain why the following are made of thermosetting plastics.

(a) Saucepan handles

(b) Electric plugs/switches/plug boards

8. Categorise the materials of the following products into ‘can be recycled’

and ‘cannot be recycled’.

Telephone instruments, plastic toys, cooker handles, carry bags, ball point
pens, plastic bowls, plastic covering on electrical wires, plastic chairs,
electrical switches.

9. Rana wants to buy shirts for summer. Should he buy cotton shirts or
shirts made from synthetic material? Advise Rana, giving your reason.

10. Give examples to show that plastics are noncorrosive in nature.

11. Should the handle and bristles of a tooth brush be made of the same
material? Explain your answer.

12. ‘Avoid plastics as far as possible’. Comment on this advice.

SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS 41

 13. Match the terms of column A correctly with the phrases given in

EXERCISES
column B.

A B
(i) Polyester (a) Prepared by using wood pulp
(ii) Teflon (b) Used for making parachutes and stockings
(iii) Rayon (c) Used to make non-stick cookwares
(iv) Nylon (d) Fabrics do not wrinkle easily
14. ‘Manufacturing synthetic fibres is actually helping conservation of forests’.
Comment.
15. Describe an activity to show that thermoplastic is a poor conductor of
electricity.

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Have you heard of the campaign : ‘‘Say No To Plastics”. Coin a few

more slogans of this kind. There are certain governmental and non-
governmental organisations who educate the general public on how
to make wise use of plastics and develop environment friendly
habits. Find out organisations in your area which are carrying out
awareness programmes. If there is none, form one.
2. Organise a debate in the school. Children may be given an option
to role play as manufacturers of synthetic fabrics or those of fab-
rics from natural sources. They can then debate on the topic ‘My
Fabric is Superior’.
3. Visit five families in your neighbourhood and enquire about the
kind of clothes they use, the reason for their choice and advantages
of using them in terms of cost, durability and maintenance. Make a
short report and submit it to your teacher.
4. Devise an activity to show that organic waste is biodegradable while
plastic is not.
5. If you wish to know more about fibres and plastics and the products
made from them, you may explore the following web sites:
l http://www.pslc.ws/macrog/index.htm

42 SCIENCE
 Did You Know?
Nylon appears like silk. It is strong and flexible. These endearing qualities of
nylon created a public sensation, or nylon mania, when it was introduced in
1939. Women’s stockings made from this new fibre were in great demand. But,
unfortunately, most of the nylon production had to be diverted to making
parachutes during the Second World War (1939-1945). After the war, when
production of stockings resumed, supply did not match the demand. There was
a huge black market for this product. Women had to wait for hours in queues to
get a pair. Often there were nylon riots.

SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS 43

 MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS

Y
ou are familiar with a number of a similar change if we try to beat a
materials like iron, aluminium, wood log ?
copper, etc. Some materials have Let us find out.
been given in Table 4.1.
Activity 4.1
Table 4.1 : Appearance and
Hardness of Materials Take a small iron nail, a coal piece,
a piece of thick aluminium wire and
Object/ Appearance Hardness
a pencil lead. Beat the iron nail with
Material (Shiny/Dull) (Very hard/
a hammer (Fig. 4.1). (But take care
Not very
hard) that you don’t hurt yourself in the
process.) Try to hit hard. Hit hard
Iron
Coal
Sulphur
Aluminium
Copper
----- Fig. 4.1 : Beating an iron nail with hammer
the aluminium wire also. Then
Can you name the materials which repeat the same kind of treatment
are metals? The rest of the materials in on the coal piece and pencil
Table 4.1 are non-metals. Metals can be lead. Record your observations in
distinguished from non-metals on the Table 4.2.
basis of their physical and chemical
properties. Recall that lustre and Table 4.2 : Malleability of Materials
hardness are physical properties. Object/ Change in Shape
Material (Flattens/Breaks
4.1 Physical Properties of into pieces)
Metals and Non-metals Iron nail
Have you ever seen a blacksmith beating Coal piece
an iron piece or an article made up of Aluminium wire
iron, like a spade, a shovel, an axe ? Do
you find a change in the shape of these Pencil lead
articles on beating ? Would you expect
 You saw that the shape of the iron nail
and the aluminium wire changed on the activity with various objects in
beating. If they were beaten harder these Class VI. Now, repeat the activity
could be changed into sheets. You might with the materials mentioned in
be familiar with silver foil used for Table 4.3. Observe and group these
decorating sweets. You must also be materials into good conductors and
familiar with the aluminium foil used for poor conductors.
wrapping food. The property of metals by Table 4.3 : Electrical Conductivity
which they can be beaten into thin sheets of Materials
is called malleability. This is a
characteristic property of metals. As you S.No. Materials Good Conductor /
Poor Conductor
must have noticed, materials like coal and
pencil lead do not show this property. Can 1. Iron rod/nail
we call these metals?
2. Sulphur
Can you hold a hot metallic pan which
is without a plastic or a wooden handle 3. Coal piece
and not get hurt? Perhaps not! Why? Try 4. Copper wire
to list some other experiences in which a
wooden or plastic handle protects you You observe that iron rod, nail and
from being hurt while handling hot copper wire are good conductors while
things. On the basis of these experiences rolled sulphur piece and coal piece are
what can you say about the conduction poor conductors.
of heat by wood and plastic?
You must have seen an electrician
using his screw driver. What kind of
handle does it have? Why? Oh! The meaning of recalling
Let us find out. our experiences and then of
this activity was to show that
Activity 4.2 metals are good conductors of
heat and electricity. We learnt
Recall how to make an electric this in Class VI.
circuit to test whether electricity can
pass through an object or not
Where do you find the use of
(Fig. 4.2). You might have performed
aluminium and copper wires? Have you
seen wires of coal? Definitely not!
The property of metal by which it can
be drawn into wires is called ductility.
Have you ever noticed the difference
in sound on dropping an iron sheet/
plate, a metal coin, and a piece of coal
on the floor? If not, you can try it now.
Do you note any difference in the sound
Fig. 4.2 : Electric tester produced?
MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS 45
 Have you seen wooden bells in which rust is formed. You had also
temples? Can you give a reason? performed in Class VII an activity of
The things made of metals produce burning a magnesium ribbon in air. You
a ringing sound when struck hard. had learnt that in both the processes
Suppose you have two boxes similar in oxide formation takes place. Complete
appearance, one made of wood and the the following reactions of iron and
other of metal. Can you tell which box magnesium with oxygen.
is made of metal by striking both the Iron (Fe) + Oxygen (O2) + Water (H2O) → ?
boxes?
Magnesium (Mg) + Oxygen (O2) → ?
Since metals produce ringing
sounds, they are said to be sonorous. Activity 4.3
The materials other than metals are not
sonorous. Let us check the nature of rust
After performing the above activities, formed as a result of the reaction
we can say that some materials are hard, between iron, oxygen and water.
lustrous, malleable, ductile, sonorous Collect a spoonful of rust and
and good conductors of heat and dissolve it in a very little amount of
electricity. The materials which water. You will find that the rust
generally possess these properties are remains suspended in water. Shake
called metals. The examples of metals the suspension well. Test the
are iron, copper, aluminium, calcium, solution with red and blue litmus
magnesium, etc. In contrast, materials papers (Fig. 4.3). What do you
like coal and sulphur are soft and dull observe? Is the solution acidic or
in appearance. They break down into a basic?
powdery mass on tapping with a
hammer. They are not sonorous and are
poor conductors of heat and electricity. Rust
These materials are called non-metals. suspension
The examples of non-metals are sulphur,
carbon, oxygen, phosphorus, etc.
Red litmus
paper
Metals like sodium and potassium are
soft and can be cut with a knife.
Mercury is the only metal which is
found in liquid state at room
temperature. These are exceptions.

4.2 Chemical Properties of

Metals and Non-metals
Rust
Reaction with Oxygen
You are familiar with the phenomenon
Fig. 4.3 : Testing the nature of rust
of rusting of iron. Recall the reaction by
46 SCIENCE
 As soon as sulphur starts burning,
Does copper also get
rusted? I have seen
introduce the spoon into a gas jar/
a greenish deposit glass tumbler [Fig. 4.4 (a)]. Cover the
on the surface of tumbler with a lid to ensure that
copper vessels. the gas produced does not escape.
Remove the spoon after some time.
Add a small quantity of water into
When a copper vessel is exposed to the tumbler and quickly replace the
moist air for long, it acquires a dull lid. Shake the tumbler well. Check
green coating. The green material is
the solution with red and blue
a mixture of copper hydroxide
(Cu(OH) 2 ) and copper carbonate
litmus papers [Fig. 4.4 (b)].
(CuCO3). The following is the reaction
2Cu+H2O+CO2+O2→Cu (OH)2 + CuCO3
moist air
Improvised
deflagrating
Now recall the activity of burning spoon
magnesium ribbon. The ash obtained
on burning magnesium ribbon is
dissolved in water and tested for its
acidic/basic nature.
Is the solution acidic or basic? How
do you ascertain this?
You must have observed that the red
litmus turns blue. So, oxide of magnesium Fig. 4.4 (a) : Burning of sulphur powder
is also basic in nature. In general, metallic
oxides are basic in nature.
Let us now observe the reaction of
non-metals with oxygen.
Activity 4.4
(To be demonstrated by the teacher
in the class)
Take a small amount of powdered
sulphur in a deflagrating spoon and
heat it. If deflagrating spoon is not
available, you may take a metallic cap
of any bottle and wrap a metallic wire
around it and give it the shape
shown in Fig. 4.4 (a). Fig. 4.4 (b) : Testing of solution with litmus
papers

MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS 47

 Table 4.4 : Metals and Non-metals in Acids and Bases

S.No. Name of the Base Metal Name of the Acid Non-metal

1. Calcium hydroxide Calcium Sulphuric acid Sulphur

2.

3.

4.

5.

The name of the product formed in Activity 4.5

the reaction of sulphur and oxygen is
(To be demonstrated by the teacher.
sulphur dioxide gas. When sulphur
During demonstration special care
dioxide is dissolved in water sulphurous should be taken that the size of the
acid is formed. The reaction can be given sodium metal piece is roughly the size
as follows: of a wheat grain. It should be held
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) + Water (H2O) → with a pair of tongs.)
Sulphurous acid (H2SO3) Take a 250 mL beaker/glass tumbler.
Fill half of it with water. Now
The sulphurous acid turns blue carefully cut a small piece of sodium
litmus paper red. Generally, oxides of metal. Dry it using filter paper and
non-metals are acidic in nature. wrap it in a small piece of cotton.
Recall the name of some of the Put the sodium piece wrapped in
laboratory acids and bases you have read cotton into the beaker. Observe
in Class VII. Note down their names in carefully. (During observation keep
Table 4.4. Identify the metal or non- away from the beaker). When
reaction stops touch the beaker.
metal present in them which forms
What do you feel? Has the beaker
oxides with oxygen.
become hot? Test the solution with
red and blue litmus papers. Is the
Reaction with Water solution acidic or basic?
Let us see how metals and non-metals
react with water.

Sodium metal is very reactive. It

reacts vigorously with oxygen and
water. A lot of heat is generated in
the reaction. It is, therefore, stored
in kerosene. Fig. 4.5 : Reaction of sodium with water

48 SCIENCE
 You observed that sodium reacts phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal.
vigorously with water. Some other metals It catches fire if exposed to air. To prevent
do not do so. For example, iron reacts the contact of phosphorus with
with water slowly. atmospheric oxygen, it is stored in water.
Generally, non-metals do not react
with water though they may be very Reactions with Acids
reactive in air. Such non-metals are Let us see how metals and non-metals
stored in water. For example, behave with acids.

Activity 4.6
(Warning : Keep the mouth of the test tube away from your face. Use test tube
holder to hold the test tube.)
Take samples of metals and non-metals listed in Table 4.5 in separate test
tubes and label them as A, B, C, D, E, and F. With the help of a dropper add 5
mL of dilute hydrochloric acid to each test tube one by one. Observe the
reactions carefully. If no reaction occurs in the cold solution, warm the test
tube gently. Bring a burning matchstick near the mouth of each test tube.
Repeat the same activity using dilute sulphuric acid instead of the dilute
hydrochloric acid. Record your observations in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5 : Reaction of Metals and Non-metals with Acids

Test Metal/ Reaction with Dilute Reaction with Dilute

tube Non-metal Hydrochloric Acid Sulphuric Acid
Label Room Warm Room Warm
Temperature Temperature
A Magnesium
(ribbon)

B Aluminium (foil)

C Iron (filings)

D Copper (peeled
flexible wire)

E Charcoal (powder)

F Sulphur (powder)

MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS 49

 Is there a difference in the way metals performed in Class VII. Let us observe
and non-metals react with acids? What some more reactions of that kind.
could the ‘pop’ sound in some cases be
due to when a burning match stick is Activity 4.8
brought near the mouth of the test tubes?
Take five 100 mL beakers and label
You must have found that non-
them A, B, C, D and E. Take about
metals generally do not react with acids
50 mL of water in each beaker.
but metals react with acids and produce
Dissolve in each beaker a
hydrogen gas that burns with a ‘pop’
teaspoonful of each substance as
sound. You must have noticed that
indicated in Fig. 4.6 (a).
copper does not react with dilute
Ü Keep the beakers undisturbed for
hydrochloric acid even on heating but
some time.
it reacts with sulphuric acid.
Ü Record your observations in your
Reactions with Bases note book.

Activity 4.7
(To be demonstrated by the teacher.
During the preparation of sodium
A B C D E
hydroxide solution, care should be
taken that pellets of sodium hydroxide
are handled with a plastic spatula). (a)

Prepare a fresh solution of sodium ZnSO4 FeSO4

hydroxide in a test tube by
dissolving 3-4 pellets of it in 5 mL
of water. Drop a piece of aluminium
foil into it. Bring a burning match
stick near the mouth of the test A B C D E
tube. Observe carefully.
Cu Cu
What does the ‘pop’ sound indicate? No Change
As before, the ‘pop’ sound indicates the (b)
presence of hydrogen gas.
Beaker A : Copper sulphate (CuSO4) + Zinc granule (Zn)
Metals react with sodium hydroxide
to produce hydrogen gas. Beaker B : Copper sulphate (CuSO4) + Iron nail (Fe)
Reactions of non-metals with bases
Beaker C : Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) + Copper turnings (Cu)
are complex.
Beaker D : Iron sulphate (FeSO4) + Copper turnings (Cu)
Displacement Reactions
Beaker E : Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) + Iron nail (Fe)
Recall the activity of the reaction between
copper sulphate and iron that you Fig. 4.6 (a) and (b) : Displacement reactions

50 SCIENCE
 What changes do you observe in the arbitrary. It follows definite rules
various beakers? You have read that one based on facts. And the rule here is
metal displaces another metal from its that zinc is more reactive than copper
compound in aqueous solution. In and iron. A more reactive metal can
beaker ‘A’ zinc (Zn) replaces copper (Cu) replace a less reactive metal, but a less
from copper sulphate (CuSO4). That is reactive one cannot replace a more
why the blue colour of copper sulphate reactive metal. Now you can
disappears and a powdery red mass of understand why there are no
displacement reactions in beakers D
copper is deposited at the bottom of the
and E also. Can you guess the
beaker. The reaction can be represented
sequence of metals from more reactive
as follows:
to less reactive among zinc, iron and
Copper Sulphate (CuSO4) + Zinc (Zn) copper?
(Blue)
4.3 Uses of Metals and
→ Zinc Sulphate (ZnSO4) + Copper (Cu)
(Colourless) (Red)
Non-metals
You should be able to guess why metals
You can write down the reaction are used in making machinery,
taking place in beaker ‘B’ in a similar automobiles, aeroplanes, trains,
manner. satellites, industrial gadgets, cooking
utensils, water boilers, etc. You are also
familiar with the uses of some non-
metals. Here are some interesting ones.
We are sure that you will guess them
I have understood the reactions right:
taking place in beakers ‘A’ and
‘B’. But I am still confused why l Non-metal is essential for our life
there is no change in beakers which all living beings inhale during
‘C’, ‘D’ and ‘E’? breathing,
l Non-metals used in fertilisers to
enhance the growth of plants,
There could have been displacement
of zinc by copper in beaker ‘C’ and by l Non-metal used in water purification
iron in beaker ‘E’. Similarly iron could process,
be displaced by copper in beaker ‘D’. l Non-metal used in the purple
Since we do not see any change in coloured solution which is applied
beaker C, we can infer that copper is on wounds as an antiseptic,
not able to replace zinc from zinc
sulphate. But why? When zinc can l Non-metals used in crackers.
replace copper in beaker ‘A’ why You may add some more uses of
cannot copper replace zinc in beaker metals and non-metals from your
‘C’? Remember that science is not experiences.

MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS 51

 I heard that magnesium is The doctor reported iron
found in plants. In what deficiency in my body.
form is it found in them? Where is iron in my body?

In Class VII, you have learnt that in a chemical reaction, new substances are
formed. These substances are different from those which underwent the reaction.
Now, if a substance cannot be broken down further by chemical reactions, by
cooling, heating, or by electrolysis, it is called ‘element’. Sulphur is an element.
So is iron. Carbon, too, is an element. The smallest unit of an element is atom. A
sample of an element contains only one kind of atom. The atom of an element
remains unaffected by physical changes in the element. For example, an atom of
liquid sulphur would be exactly the same as the atom of solid or vapour sulphur.
Although we have an infinite variety of substances in the universe, the number
of elements forming these substances is limited. There are no more than 94
naturally occurring elements. An important classification of elements is in terms
of metals and non-metals. Most of the elements are metals. Less than 20 are
non-metals. A few are metalloids which possess characters of both metals and
non-metals.

52 SCIENCE
KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ATOM Ü Metals are lustrous whereas non-metals have
no lustre.
CONDUCTOR
Ü Generally, metals are malleable and ductile.
DISPLACEMENT Non-metals do not have these properties.
REACTION Ü Generally, metals are good conductors of heat
and electricity but non-metals are poor
DUCTILITY
conductors.
ELEMENTS Ü On burning, metals react with oxygen to
produce metal oxides which are basic in
HARDNESS
nature. Non-metals react with oxygen to
MALLEABILITY produce non- metallic oxides which are acidic
in nature.
METALS
Ü Some metals react with water to produce metal
METALLOIDS hydroxides and hydrogen gas. Generally, non-
metals do not react with water.
NON-METALS
Ü Metals react with acids and produce metal
SONOROUS salts and hydrogen gas. Generally, non-metals
do not react with acids.
Ü Some metals react with bases to produce
hydrogen gas.
Ü More reactive metals displace less reactive
metals from their compounds in aqueous
solutions.
Ü Metals and non-metals are used widely in
every day life.

Exercises

1. Which of the following can be beaten into thin sheets?

(a) Zinc (b) Phosphorus (c) Sulphur (d) Oxygen
2. Which of the following statements is correct?

(a) All metals are ductile.

(b) All non-metals are ductile.
(c) Generally, metals are ductile.

(d) Some non-metals are ductile.

MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS 53
 3. Fill in the blanks.

EXERCISES (a) Phosphorus is a very non-metal.

(b) Metals are conductors of heat and .
(c) Iron is reactive than copper.
(d) Metals react with acids to produce gas.
4. Mark ‘T’ if the statement is true and ‘F’ if it is false.
(a) Generally, non-metals react with acids. ( )
(b) Sodium is a very reactive metal. ( )
(c) Copper displaces zinc from zinc sulphate solution. ( )
(d) Coal can be drawn into wires. ( )
5. Some properties are listed in the following Table. Distinguish between
metals and non-metals on the basis of these properties.

Properties Metals Non-metals

1. Appearance
2. Hardness
3. Malleability
4. Ductility
5. Heat Conduction
6. Conduction of Electricity

6. Give reasons for the following.

(a) Aluminium foils are used to wrap food items.
(b) Immersion rods for heating liquids are made up of metallic substances.
(c) Copper cannot displace zinc from its salt solution.
(d) Sodium and potassium are stored in kerosene.
7. Can you store lemon pickle in an aluminium utensil? Explain.

8. Match the substances given in Column A with their uses given in

Column B.

A B
(i) Gold (a) Thermometers
(ii) Iron (b) Electric wire
(iii) Aluminium (c) Wrapping food
(iv) Carbon (d) Jewellery
(v) Copper (e) Machinery
(vi) Mercury (f) Fuel

54 SCIENCE
 9. What happens when
EXERCISES (a) Dilute sulphuric acid is poured on a copper plate?
(b) Iron nails are placed in copper sulphate solution?
Write word equations of the reactions involved.
10. Saloni took a piece of burning charcoal and collected the gas evolved in a
test tube.
(a) How will she find the nature of the gas ?
(b) Write down word equations of all the reactions taking place in this
process.
11. One day Reeta went to a jeweller’s shop with her mother. Her mother gave
an old gold jewellery to the goldsmith to polish. Next day when they brought
the jewellery back, they found that there was a slight loss in its weight.
Can you suggest a reason for the loss in weight?

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Prepare Index Cards for any four metals and four non-metals. The
card should have information like name of metal/non-metal; its
physical properties, chemical properties and its uses.
2. Visit a blacksmith and observe how metals are moulded.

3. Suggest an experiment to compare the conductivity of electricity by

iron, copper, aluminium and zinc. Perform the experiment and
prepare a short report on the results.

4. Find out the locations of the deposits of iron, aluminium and zinc
in India. Mark these in an outline map of India. In which form are
the deposits found? Discuss in the class.

5. Discuss with your parents/neighbours/goldsmiths why gold is

preferred for making jewellery.
6. Visit the following websites and enjoy the quiz on metals and
non-metals:
l chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/bl050303a.htm
l chemistry.about.com/od/testsquizzes/Chemistry_Tests_
Quizzes.htm
l www.gcsescience.com/q/qusemet.html
l www.corrosionsource.com/handbook/periodic/metals.htm

MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS 55

 COAL AND PETROLEUM

W
e use various materials for our Can air, water and soil be exhausted
basic needs. Some of them are by human activities? You have already
found in nature and some studied about water in Class VII. Is water
have been made by human efforts. a limitless resource?
In the light of the availability of
Activity 5.1 various resources in nature, natural
resources can be broadly classified
Make a list of various materials used
into two kinds:
by us in daily life and classify them
as natural and man-made. (i) Inexhaustible Natural Resources:
These resources are present in unlimited
Natural Man-made
quantity in nature and are not likely to
be exhausted by human activities.
Examples are: sunlight, air.
(ii) Exhaustible Natural Resources: The
amount of these resources in nature is
limited. They can be exhausted by
human activities. Examples of these
resources are forests, wildlife, minerals,
coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.

Activity 5.2

(It is a group activity)

Does this list include air, water, soil
and minerals? Since all these are Take some containers. Fill them
obtained from nature, they are called with popcorn/peanuts/roasted
natural resources. gram/toffees. Divide students into
groups of seven each. Further divide
each group into three subgroups
containing 1, 2 and 4 students.
Can we use all our Label them as first, second
natural resources and third generation respectively.
forever ?
 These sub-groups represent the 5.1 Coal
consumers. As population is You may have seen coal or heard about
growing, second and third it (Fig. 5.1). It is as hard as stone and is
generations have larger number of black in colour.
consumers.
Put one full container for each
group on a table. Ask consumers of
the first generation from each group
to consume eatables from the
container of their group. Now, ask
the second generation consumers
from each group to do the same. Ask
students to observe carefully the Fig. 5.1: Coal
availability of eatables in each
Coal is one of the fuels used to cook
container. If some thing is left in the
food. Earlier, it was used in railway
containers, ask third generation
engines to produce steam to run the
from each group to consume it. Now,
engine. It is also used in thermal power
finally observe whether all the
plants to produce electricity. Coal is also
consumers of the third generation
used as a fuel in various industries.
got the eatables or not. Also observe
if anything is still left in any of the Story of Coal
containers.

Assume that the eatables in the Where do we get

coal from and how
container represent the total
is it formed?
availability of an exhausible natural
resource like coal, petroleum or About 300 million years ago the
natural gas. Each group may have a earth had dense forests in low lying
different consumption pattern. Are wetland areas. Due to natural processes,
the earlier generations of any group like flooding, these forests got buried
too greedy? It may be that the earlier under the soil. As more soil deposited
generations in some groups were over them, they were compressed. The
concerned about the coming temperature also rose as they sank
generation(s) and left something for deeper and deeper. Under high pressure
them. and high temperature, dead plants got
In this chapter we will learn about slowly converted to coal. As coal
some exhaustible natural resources contains mainly carbon, the slow
like coal, petroleum and natural gas. process of conversion of dead vegetation
These were formed from the dead into coal is called carbonisation. Since
remains of living organisms (fossils). it was formed from the remains of
So, these are all known as fossil vegetation, coal is also called a fossil fuel.
fuels. A coal mine is shown in Fig. 5.2.
COAL AND PETROLEUM 57
 Fig. 5.2: A coal mine

When heated in air, coal burns and about 200 substances. Products
produces mainly carbon dioxide gas. obtained from coal tar are used as
Coal is processed in industry to get starting materials for manufacturing
some useful products such as coke, coal various substances used in everyday
tar and coal gas. life and in industry, like synthetic
dyes, drugs, explosives, per fumes,
Coke plastics, paints, photographic materials,
It is a tough, porous and black roofing materials, etc. Interestingly,
substance. It is an almost pure form of naphthalene balls used to repel moths
carbon. Coke is used in the manufacture and other insects are also obtained from
of steel and in the extraction of many coal tar.
metals.
These days, bitumen, a petroleum
Coal Tar product, is used in place of coal-tar
for metalling the roads.
It is a black, thick liquid (Fig. 5.3) with
an unpleasant smell. It is a mixture of Coal Gas
Coal gas is obtained during the
processing of coal to get coke. It is used

Coal gas was used for street lighting

for the first time in London in 1810
and in New York around 1820. Now a
days, it is used as a source of heat
Fig. 5.3: Coal tar rather than light.

58 SCIENCE
as a fuel in many industries situated Look at Fig. 5.4. It shows the deposits
near the coal processing plants. of petroleum and natural gas. You see
that the layer containing petroleum oil
5.2 Petroleum and gas is above that of water. Why is it
so? Recall that oil and gas are lighter
You know that petrol is used as a fuel in than water and do not mix with it.
light automobiles such as motor cycles/
scooters and cars. Heavy motor vehicles The world’s first oil well was drilled
like trucks and tractors run on diesel. in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1859. Eight
Petrol and diesel are obtained from a years later, in 1867, oil was struck
natural resource called petroleum. at Makum in Assam. In India, oil is
Do you know how petroleum is found in Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai
formed? High and in the river basins of
Petroleum was formed from Godavari and Krishna.
organisms living in the sea. As these
organisms died, their bodies settled at
Refining of Petroleum
the bottom of the sea and got covered
with layers of sand and clay. Over Petroleum is a dark oily liquid. It has
millions of years, absence of air, high an unpleasant odour. It is a mixture of
temperature and high pressure various constituents such as petroleum
transformed the dead organisms into gas, petrol, diesel, lubricating oil,
petroleum and natural gas. paraffin wax, etc. The process of

Wells

Impervious Gas
rock
Oil

Reservoir rock
Water

Fig. 5.4 : Petroleum and natural gas deposits

COAL AND PETROLEUM 59
 Various constituents of petroleum
and their uses are given in Table 5.1.

Many useful substances are obtained

from petroleum and natural gas.
These are termed as ‘Petrochemicals’.
These are used in the manufacture
of detergents, fibres (polyester, nylon,
acrylic etc.), polythene and other
man-made plastics. Hydrogen gas
obtained from natural gas, is used in
the production of fertilisers (urea).
Due to its great commercial
importance, petroleum is also called
‘black gold’.

5.3 Natural Gas

Fig. 5.5: A petroleum refinery Natural gas is a very important fossil
fuel because it is easy to transport
separating the various constituents/ through pipes. Natural gas is stored
fractions of petroleum is known as under high pressure as compressed
refining. It is carried out in a petroleum natural gas (CNG). CNG is used for
refinery (Fig. 5.5). power generation. It is now being used

Table 5.1 Various Constituents of Petroleum and their Uses

S.No. Constituents of Petroleum Uses
1. Petroleum Gas in Liquid form Fuel for home and industry
(LPG)

2. Petrol Motor fuel, aviation fuel, solvent for

dry cleaning

3. Kerosene Fuel for stoves, lamps and for jet aircrafts

4. Diesel Fuel for heavy motor vehicles, electric

generators

5. Lubricating oil Lubrication

6. Paraffin wax Ointments, candles, vaseline etc.

7. Bitumen Paints, road surfacing

60 SCIENCE
as a fuel for transport vehicles because 5.4 Some Natural Resources
it is less polluting. It is a cleaner fuel. are Limited
The great advantage of CNG is that
it can be used directly for burning in You have studied in the beginning of
homes and factories where it can be the chapter that some natural resources
supplied through pipes. Such a network are exhaustible like fossil fuels, forests,
of pipelines exists in Vadodara (Gujarat), minerals etc.
some parts of Delhi and other places. You know that coal and petroleum
Natural gas is also used as a starting are fossil fuels. It required the dead
organisms millions of years to get
material for the manufacture of a number
converted into these fuels. On the
of chemicals and fertilisers. India has vast
other hand, the known reserves of
reserves of natural gas. In our country,
these will last only a few hundred
natural gas has been found in Tripura,
years. Moreover, burning of these
Rajasthan, Maharashtra and in the
fuels is a major cause of air pollution.
Krishna Godavari delta. Their use is also linked to global
warming. It is therefore necessary that
we use these fuels only when
absolutely necessary. This will result
Can coal, petroleum
in better environment, smaller risk of
and natural gas be
global warming and their availability
prepared in the
laboratory from dead
for a longer period of time.
organisms? In India, the Petroleum Conservation
Research Association (PCRA) advises
people how to save petrol/diesel while
driving. Their tips are
l drive at a constant and moderate
speed as far as possible,
No. Their
formation is a very l switch off the engine at traffic lights
slow process and or at a place where you have to wait,
conditions for
l ensure correct tyre pressure.
their formation
cannot be created l ensure regular maintenance of the
in the laboratory. vehicle.

COAL AND PETROLEUM 61

KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
COAL Ü Coal, petroleum and natural gas are fossil
COAL GAS fuels.
Ü Fossil fuels were formed from the dead remains
COAL TAR of living organisms millions of years ago.
COKE Ü Fossil fuels are exhaustible resources.
Ü Coke, coal tar and coal gas are the products
FOSSIL FUEL of coal.
NATURAL GAS Ü Petroleum gas, petrol, diesel, kerosene,
paraffin wax, lubricating oil are obtained by
PETROLEUM
refining petroleum.
PETROLEUM Ü Coal and petroleum resources are limited. We
REFINERY should use them judiciously.

Exercises

1. What are the advantages of using CNG and LPG as fuels?

2. Name the petroleum product used for surfacing of roads.
3. Describe how coal is formed from dead vegetation. What is this process
called?
4. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Fossil fuels are , and .

(b) Process of separation of different constituents from petroleum is

called .
(c) Least polluting fuel for vehicle is .

5. Tick True/False against the following statements.

(a) Fossil fuels can be made in the laboratory. (T/F)
(b) CNG is more polluting fuel than petrol. (T/F)

(c) Coke is almost pure form of carbon. (T/F)

(d) Coal tar is a mixture of various substances. (T/F)
(e) Kerosene is not a fossil fuel. (T/F)

6. Explain why fossil fuels are exhaustible natural resources.

62 SCIENCE
 7. Describe characteristics and uses of coke.
EXERCISES 8. Explain the process of formation of petroleum.

9. The following Table shows the total power shortage in India from
1991–1997. Show the data in the form of a graph. Plot shortage percentage
for the years on the Y-axis and the year on the X-axis.

S. No. Year Shortage (%)

1 1991 7.9

2 1992 7.8

3 1993 8.3

4 1994 7.4

5 1995 7.1

6 1996 9.2

7 1997 11.5

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Get an outline map of India. Mark the places in the map where
coal, petroleum and natural gas are found. Show the places where
petroleum refineries are situated.
2. Choose any five families of your neighbourhood. Enquire whether
their energy consumption (coal, gas, electricity, petrol, kerosene)
has increased or decreased in the last five years. Enquire also about
the measures they adopt to conserve energy.
3. Find out the location of major thermal power plants in India. What
could be the reasons for their being located at those places?
For more information, visit:
l www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter08.html
l en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-renewable_resources

COAL AND PETROLEUM 63

 COMBUSTION AND FLAME

W
e use different kinds of fuel for
various purposes at home, in
industry and for running
automobiles. Can you name a few fuels
used in our homes? Name a few fuels
used in trade and industry. What fuels
are used for running automobiles? Your
list will contain fuels like cowdung,
wood, coal, charcoal, petrol, diesel,
compressed natural gas (CNG), etc.
You are familiar with the burning of a
candle. What is the difference between the
burning of a candle and the burning of a
fuel like coal? May be you were able to
guess right: candle burns with a flame
whereas coal does not. Similarly, you will
find many other materials burning
Fig. 6.1 : Burning of magnesium
without a flame. Let us study the chemical
process of burning and the types of flame A chemical process in which a
produced during this process. substance reacts with oxygen to give
off heat is called combustion. The
6.1 What is Combustion? substance that undergoes combustion
Recall the activity of burning of is said to be combustible. It is also called
magnesium ribbon per for med in a fuel. The fuel may be solid, liquid or
Class VII. We learnt that magnesium gas. Sometimes, light is also given off
burns to form magnesium oxide and during combustion, either as a flame or
produces heat and light (Fig. 6.1). as a glow.
We can perform a similar activity with In the reactions mentioned
a piece of charcoal. Hold the piece with above magnesium and charcoal are
a pair of tongs and bring it near the combustible substances.
flame of a candle or a Bunsen burner.
What do you observe?
We find that charcoal burns in air.
We know that coal, too, burns in air We were told that
food is a fuel for
producing carbon dioxide, heat and
our body.
light.
 Activity 6.2
(Caution : Be careful while handling
Rightly so. In our body burning candle).
food is broken down by
Fix a lighted candle on a table. Put
reaction with oxygen and
a glass chimney over the candle and
heat is produced. We
learnt that in Class VII. rest it on a few wooden blocks in
such a way that air can enter the
Activity 6.1
Collect some materials like straw,
matchsticks, kerosene oil, paper,
iron nails, stone pieces, glass etc.
Under the supervision of your
teacher try to burn each of these
materials one by one. If combustion
takes place mark the material
(a) (b) (c)
combustible, otherwise mark it
Fig. 6.2: Experiment to show that air is
non-combustible (Table 6.1). essential for burning
Table 6.1 : Combustible and Non- chimney [Fig. 6.2(a)]. Observe what
combustible Substances
happens to the flame. Now remove
Material Combustible Non-
the blocks and let the chimney rest
combustible on the table [Fig. 6.2(b)]. Again
observe the flame. Finally, put a
Wood glass plate over the chimney [Fig.
Paper 6.2(c)]. Watch the flame again. What
happens in the three cases? Does
Iron nails
the flame flicker off? Does it flicker
Kerosene oil and give smoke? Does it burn
Stone piece
unaffected? Can you infer anything
at all about the role played by air in
Straw the process of burning?
Charcoal
We find that for combustion, air is
Matchsticks necessary. The candle burns freely in
Glass case (a) when air can enter the
chimney from below. In case (b), when
Can you name some more air does not enter the chimney from
substances which are combustible? You below, the flame flickers and produces
can add those to Table 6.1. smoke. In case (c), the flame finally
Let us investigate conditions under goes off because the air is not
which combustion takes place. available.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME 65
 is covered with a blanket to extinguish
fire (Fig. 6.3). Can you guess why?
We have read that the sun
produces its own heat and
light. Is it also some kind of
combustion?

In the sun, heat and light are

produced by nuclear reactions. You
will learn about this process in higher
classes.
Fig. 6.3 : Blanket wrapped around a person
whose clothes caught fire
Activity 6.3 Now recall some of your experiences.
Place a piece of burning wood or Does a matchstick burn by itself?
charcoal on an iron plate or Tawa. How does it burn?
Cover it with a glass jar or a You must have had an experience of
tumbler, or a transparent plastic jar. burning a piece of paper. Does it burn
Observe what happens. Does when a burning matchstick is brought
charcoal stop burning after near it?
sometime? Can you think of the Can you burn a piece of wood by
reason why it stops burning? bringing a lighted matchstick near it?
Why do you have to use paper or
You might have heard that when the kerosene oil to start fire in wood or coal?
clothes of a person catch fire, the person Have you heard of forest fires?

During extreme heat

of summer, at some
places dry grass
catches fire. From
the grass, it spreads
to trees, and very
soon the whole forest
is on fire (Fig. 6.4). It
is very difficult to
control such fires.

Fig. 6.4 : Forest fire

66 SCIENCE
 Do these experiences tell you that We find that a combustible substance
different substances catch fire at cannot catch fire or burn as long as its
different temperatures? temperature is lower than its ignition
The lowest temperature at which a temperature. Have you ever seen
substance catches fire is called its cooking oil catching fire when a frying
ignition temperature. pan is kept for long on a burning stove?
Can you tell now why a matchstick Kerosene oil and wood do not catch fire
does not catch fire on its own at room on their own at room temperature. But,
temperature? Why does the matchstick if kerosene oil is heated a little, it will
start burning on rubbing it on the side catch fire. But if wood is heated a little,
of the matchbox? it would still not catch fire. Does it mean
that ignition temperature of kerosene oil
The history of the matchstick is very is lower than that of wood? Does it mean
old. More than five thousand years that we need to take special care in
ago small pieces of pinewood dipped storing kerosene oil? The following
in sulphur were used as matches in
activity shows that it is essential for a
ancient Egypt. The modern safety
substance to reach ignition temperature
match was developed only about two
hundred years ago.
to burn.
A mixture of antimony trisulphide,
potassium chlorate and white Activity 6.4
phosphorus with some glue and
starch was applied on the head of a (Caution : Be careful while handling
match made of suitable wood. When burning candle).
struck against a rough surface, white
phosphorus got ignited due to the heat Make two paper cups by folding a
of friction. This started the sheet of paper. Pour about 50 mL of
combustion of the match. However, water in one of the cups. Heat both
white phosphorus proved to be the cups separately with a candle
dangerous both for the workers (Fig. 6.5). What do you observe?
involved in the manufacturing of
matches and for the users.
These days the head of the safety
match contains only antimony
trisulphide and potassium chlorate. water
The rubbing surface has powdered
paper
glass and a little red phosphorus
cups
(which is much less dangerous).
When the match is struck against
the rubbing surface, some red
phosphorus gets converted into white Fig. 6.5 : Heating water in a paper cup
phosphorus. This immediately reacts
with potassium chlorate in the What happens to the empty paper
matchstick head to produce enough cup? What happens to the paper cup
heat to ignite antimony trisulphide with water? Does water in this cup
and start the combustion.
become hot?
COMBUSTION AND FLAME 67
 If we continue heating
the cup, we can even boil
water in the paper cup.
Can you think of an
explanation for this
phenomenon?
The heat supplied to
the paper cup is
transferred to water by
conduction. So, in the
presence of water, the
ignition temperature of
paper is not reached.
Hence, it does not burn.
The substances which
have very low ignition
temperature and can
easily catch fire with Fig. 6.6: Firemen extinguish the fire by throwing water under pressure
a flame are called
inflammable substances. Examples of Does your city/town have a fire
inflammable substances are petrol, brigade station?
alcohol, Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) When a fire brigade arrives, what
etc. Can you list some more inflammable does it do? It pours water on the fire
substances? (Fig. 6.6). Water cools the combustible
material so that its temperature is
6.2 How Do We Control Fire? br ought below its ig n it ion
temperature. This prevents the fire
You must have seen or heard of fire from spreading. Water vapours also
breaking out in homes, shops and surround the combustible material,
factories. If you have seen such an helping in cutting off the supply of air.
accident, write a short description in So, the fire is extinguished.
your note book. Also, share the You have learnt that there are three
experience with your classmates. essential requirements for producing
fire. Can you list these requirements?
Find out the telephone number of the
These are: fuel, air (to supply
fire service in your area. If a fire
breaks out in your house or in your oxygen) a nd hea t (to r a is e t h e
neighbourhood, the first thing to do temperature of the fuel beyond the
is to call the fire service. ignition temperature). Fire can be
controlled by removing one or more of
these requirements. The job of a fire
It is important that all of us extinguisher is to cut off the supply of
know the telephone numbers
air, or to bring down the temperature
of the fire service.
of the fuel, or both. Notice that the fuel
68 SCIENCE
 The most common fire
extinguisher is water. But
wa t e r works on ly wh en
things like wood and paper
are on fire. If electrical
equipment is on fire, water
may conduct electricity
and harm those trying to
douse the fire. Water is
also not suitable for fires
involving oil and petrol. Do
you recall that water is
heavier than oil? So, it Fig. 6.7 : Fire extinguisher
sinks below the oil, and oil
keeps burning on the top.
For fires involving electrical equipment and inflammable materials like
petrol, carbon dioxide (CO2) is the best extinguisher. CO 2, being heavier than
oxygen, covers the fire like a blanket. Since the contact between the fuel and
oxygen is cut off, the fire is controlled. The added advantage of CO2 is that in
most cases it does not harm the electrical equipment.
How do we get the supply of carbon dioxide? It can be stored at high pressure
as a liquid in cylinders. In what form is the LPG stored in cylinders? When
released from the cylinder, CO2 expands enormously in volume and cools down.
So, it not only forms a blanket around the fire, it also brings down the
temperature of the fuel. That is why it is an excellent fire extinguisher. Another
way to get CO 2 is to release a lot of dry powder of chemicals like sodium
bicarbonate (baking soda) or potassium bicarbonate. Near the fire, these
chemicals give off CO 2.

in most cases cannot be eliminated. We find that the gas burns rapidly
If, for instance, a building catches fire, and produces heat and light. Such
the whole building is the fuel. combustion is known as rapid
6.3 Types of Combustion combustion.
There are substances like
Bring a burning matchstick or a gas
phosphorus which burn in air at room
lighter near a gas stove in the kitchen.
temperature.
Turn on the knob of the gas stove. What
The type of combustion in which
do you observe?
a material suddenly bursts into
CAUTION : Do not handle the gas flames, without the application of any
stove yourself. Ask your parents apparent cause is called spontaneous
to help. combustion.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME 69
 Spontaneous combustion of coal dust
has resulted in many disastrous fires
in coal mines. Spontaneous forest
fires are sometimes due to the heat
of the sun or due to lightning strike.
However, most forest fires are due to
the carelessness of human beings. It
is important to remember that the Fig. 6.8: Colours of a candle flame and the
campfires must be completely flame of a kitchen stove
extinguished before leaving a forest
after a picnic, or a visit.

We generally have fireworks on

festival days. When a cracker is ignited,
a sudden reaction takes place with the
evolution of heat, light and sound. A
large amount of gas formed in the
reaction is liberated. Such a reaction is
called explosion. Explosion can also take
place if pressure is applied on the
cracker.

6.4 Flame
Observe an LPG flame. Can you tell the
colour of the flame. What is the colour
of a candle flame?
Fig. 6.9 : Flames of kerosene lamp, candle and
Recall your experience of burning a Bunsen burner
magnesium ribbon in Class VII. If you
do not have experience of burning the Record your observations and
remaining items in Table 6.2 you can mention whether on burning the
do that now. material forms a flame or not.

Table 6.2 Materials forming Flame on Burning

S.No. Material Forms flame Does not form flame
1. Candle
2. Magnesium
3. Camphor
4. Kerosene Stove
5. Charcoal

70 SCIENCE
6.5 Structure of a Flame
Activity 6.5
Light a candle (Caution : Be careful).
Hold a glass tube with a pair of
tongs and introduce its one end in
the dark zone of a non-flickering
candle flame (Fig. 6.10). Bring a Fig. 6.11
lighted matchstick near the other
end of the glass tube. Do you see a When the candle flame is steady,
flame? If so, what is it that produces introduce a clean glass plate/slide into
a flame? Notice that the wax near the luminous zone of the flame
the heated wick melts quickly.
(Fig. 6.11). Hold it there with a pair of
tongs for about 10 seconds. Then
remove it. What do you observe?

Fig. 6.12

Fig. 6.10 A circular blackish ring is formed on

the glass plate/slide. It indicates the
The substances which vapourise deposition of unburnt carbon particles
during burning, give flames. For present in the luminous zone of the
example, kerosene oil and molten wax flame.
rise through the wick and are vapourised Hold a thin long copper wire just
during burning and form flames. inside the flame for about 30 seconds
Charcoal, on the other hand, does not (Fig. 6.12).
vapourise and so does not produce a Notice that the portion of the copper
flame. In Activity 6.5, could the vapours wire just outside the flame gets red hot.
of wax coming out of the glass tube be Does it indicate that the non-luminous
the cause of the flame produced? zone of the flame has a high
COMBUSTION AND FLAME 71
temperature? In fact, this part of the 6.6 What is a Fuel?
flame is the hottest part (Fig. 6.13).
Recall that the sources of heat energy
outer zone of for domestic and industrial purposes
hottest complete are mainly wood, charcoal, petrol,
part combustion (blue) kerosene etc. These substances are
moderately called fuels. A good fuel is one which is
hot middle zone of readily available. It is cheap. It burns
partial combustion easily in air at a moderate rate. It
least (yellow) produces a large amount of heat. It does
hot
not leave behind any undersirable
innermost zone of
substances.
wax candle unburnt wax
vapours (black) There is probably no fuel that could
be considered as an ideal fuel. We
Fig. 6.13 : Different zones of candle flame should look for a fuel which fulfils most
of the requirements for a particular use.
Goldsmiths blow the outermost zone Fuels differ in their cost. Some fuels
of a flame with a metallic blow-pipe for are cheaper than others.
melting gold and silver (Fig. 6.14). Why Make a list of fuels familiar to you.
do they use the outermost zone of the Group them as solid, liquid and gaseous
flame? fuels as in Table 6.3.

6.7 Fuel Efficiency

Suppose you were asked to boil a given
quantity of water using cow dung, coal
and LPG as fuel. Which fuel would you
prefer? Give your reason. You may take
the help of your parents. Do these three
fuels produce the same amount of heat?
The amount of heat energy produced on
complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is
Fig. 6.14 : Goldsmith blowing through a called its calorific value. The calorific
metallic pipe value of a fuel is expressed in a unit

Table 6.3 : Types of Fuels

S. No. Solid Fuels Liquid Fuels Gaseous Fuels

1. Coal Kerosene oil Natural gas

2.
3.

72 SCIENCE
called kilojoule per kg (kJ/kg). particles. These fine particles are
Calorific values of some fuels are given dangerous pollutants causing
in Table 6.4. respiratory diseases, such as asthma.
2. Incomplete combustion of these
Table 6.4 : Calorific Values of different fuels gives carbon monoxide gas. It is a
Fuels
very poisonous gas. It is dangerous to
Fuel Calorific Value burn coal in a closed room. The carbon
(kJ/kg)
monoxide gas produced can kill persons
sleeping in that room.
Cow dung cake 6000-8000
Wood 17000-22000 Oh! So, that is why we are
Coal 25000-33000 advised never to sleep in a
Petrol 45000 room with burning or
smouldering coal fire in it.
Kerosene 45000
Diesel 45000 3. Combustion of most fuels releases
Methane 50000 carbon dioxide in the environment.
CNG 50000 Increased concentration of carbon
LPG 55000 dioxide in the air is believed to cause
Biogas 35000-40000 global warming.
Hydrogen 150000 Global warming is the rise in
temperature of the atmosphere of the
Burning of Fuels Leads to Harmful earth. This results, among other things,
Products in the melting of polar glaciers, which
leads to a rise in the sea level, causing
The increasing fuel consumption has floods in the coastal areas. Low lying
harmful effects on the environment. coastal areas may even be permanently
1. Carbon fuels like wood, coal, submerged under water.
petroleum release unburnt carbon
4. Burning of coal and diesel releases
For centuries, wood was used as
sulphur dioxide gas. It is an extremely
domestic and industrial fuel. But now
it has been replaced by coal and other suffocating and corrosive gas. Moreover,
fuels like LPG. In many rural parts of petrol engines give off gaseous oxides of
our country, people still use wood as a nitrogen. Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen
fuel because of its easy availability and dissolve in rain water and form acids.
low cost. However, burning of wood gives Such rain is called acid rain. It is very
a lot of smoke which is very harmful for
harmful for crops, buildings and soil. You
human beings. It causes respiratory
problem. Also, trees provide us with have already learnt about it in Class VII.
useful substances which are lost when The use of diesel and petrol as fuels
wood is used as fuel. Moreover cutting in automobiles is being replaced by
of trees leads to deforestation which is CNG (Compressed Natural Gas), because
quite harmful to the environment, as CNG produces the harmful products in
you learnt in Class VII.
very small amounts. CNG is a cleaner fuel.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME 73
KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ACID RAIN Ü The substances which burn in air are called
combustible.
CALORIFIC VALUE
Ü Oxygen (in air) is essential for combustion.
COMBUSTION Ü During the process of combustion, heat and
light are given out.
DEFORESTATION Ü Ignition temperature is the lowest temperature
at which a combustible substance catches
EXPLOSION fire.
Ü Inflammable substances have very low
FLAME
ignition temperature.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER Ü Fire can be controlled by removing one or more
requirements essential for producing fire.
FUEL Ü Water is commonly used to control fires.
Ü Water cannot be used to control fires involving
FUEL EFFICIENCY
electrical equipment or oils.
GLOBAL WARMING Ü There are various types of combustions such
as rapid combustion, spontaneous
IDEAL FUEL combustion, explosion, etc.
Ü There are three different zones of a flame -
IGNITION
dark zone, luminous zone and non-luminous
TEMPERATURE
zone.
INFLAMMABLE Ü An ideal fuel is cheap, readily available, readily
SUBSTANCES combustible and easy to transport. It has high
calorific value. It does not produce gases or
residues that pollute the environment.
Ü Fuels differ in their efficiency and cost.
Ü Fuel efficiency is expressed in terms of its
calorific value which is expressed in units of
kilojoule per kg.
Ü Unburnt carbon particles in air are dangerous
pollutants causing respiratory problems.
Ü Incomplete combustion of a fuel gives
poisonous carbon monoxide gas.
Ü Increased percentage of carbon dioxide in air
has been linked to global warming.
Ü Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen produced by
the burning of coal, diesel and petrol cause
acid rain which is harmful for crops, buildings
and soil.

74 SCIENCE
 Exercises

1. List conditions under which combustion can take place.

2. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Burning of wood and coal causes of air.
(b) A liquid fuel, used in homes is .
(c) Fuel must be heated to its before it starts
burning.
(d) Fire produced by oil cannot be controlled by .
3. Explain how the use of CNG in automobiles has reduced pollution in
our cities.
4. Compare LPG and wood as fuels.
5. Give reasons.
(a) Water is not used to control fires involving electrical equipment.
(b) LPG is a better domestic fuel than wood.
(c) Paper by itself catches fire easily whereas a piece of paper wrapped
around an aluminium pipe does not.
6. Make a labelled diagram of a candle flame.
7. Name the unit in which the calorific value of a fuel is expressed.
8. Explain how CO2 is able to control fires.
9. It is difficult to burn a heap of green leaves but dry leaves catch fire easily.
Explain.
10. Which zone of a flame does a goldsmith use for melting gold and silver
and why?
11. In an experiment 4.5 kg of a fuel was completely burnt. The heat produced
was measured to be 180,000 kJ. Calculate the calorific value of the fuel.
12. Can the process of rusting be called combustion? Discuss.
13. Abida and Ramesh were doing an experiment in which water was to be
heated in a beaker. Abida kept the beaker near the wick in the yellow part
of the candle flame. Ramesh kept the beaker in the outermost part of the
flame. Whose water will get heated in a shorter time?

COMBUSTION AND FLAME 75

 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects
1. Survey the availability of various fuels in your locality. Find out
their cost per kg and prepare a tabular chart showing how many
kJ of various fuels you can get for every rupee.
2. Find out the number, type and location of fire extinguishers available
in your school, nearby shops and factories. Write a brief report about
the preparedness of these establishments to fight fire.
3. Survey 100 houses in your area. Find the percentage of households
using LPG, kerosene, wood and cattle dung as fuel.
4. Talk to people who use LPG at home. Find out what precautions
they take in using LPG.
5. Make a model of a fire extinguisher. Place a short candle and a
slightly taller candle in a small dish filled with baking soda. Place
the dish at the bottom of a large bowl. Light both the candles. Then
pour vinegar into the dish of baking soda. Take care. Do not pour
vinegar on the candles. Observe the foaming reaction. What happens
to the candles? Why? In what order?

baking soda +
vinegar

Fig. 6.15

For more information, visit:

l www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem03/chem03767.htm
l http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/combustion
l http://wwwchem.csustan.edu/consumer/fuels/heats%20.htm

76 SCIENCE
 CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

W
e saw in Class VII that Some natural causes of deforestation
Paheli and Boojho had visited are forest fires and severe droughts.
the forest along with Professor
Ahmad and Tibu. They were eager to Activity 7.1
share their experiences with their
Add more causes of deforestation to
classmates. Other children in the class
your list and classify them into
were also eager to share their experiences
natural and man-made.
as some of them had visited Bharatpur
Sanctuary. Some others had heard
about Kaziranga National Park, 7.2 Consequences of
Lockchao Wildlife Sanctuary, Great Deforestation
Nicobar Biosphere Reserve and Tiger Paheli and Boojho recalled the
Reserve, etc. consequences of deforestation. They
remembered that deforestation increases
the temperature and pollution level on
What is the purpose of the earth. It increases the level of carbon
making national parks, dioxide in the atmosphere. Ground water
wildlife sanctuaries and level also gets lowered. They know that
biosphere reserves? deforestation disturbs the balance in
nature. They were told by Professor
7.1 Deforestation and Its Ahmad that if cutting of trees continues,
Causes rainfall and the fertility of the soil will
A great variety of plants and animals
exist on earth. They are essential for the
well-being and survival of mankind. How does deforestation reduce
Today, a major threat to survival of these rainfall on the one hand and
organisms is deforestation. We know lead to floods on the other?
that deforestation means clearing of
forests and using that land for other decr ease. Moreover, there will be
purposes. Trees in the forest are cut for increased chances of natural calamities
some of the purposes mentioned below: such as floods and droughts.
l Procuring land for cultivation. Recall that plants need carbon
l Building houses and factories. dioxide for photosynthesis. Fewer trees
l Making furniture or using wood as would mean that less carbon dioxide will
fuel. be used up resulting in its increased
amount in the atmosphere. This will lead Biosphere is that part of the earth in
to global warming as carbon dioxide which living organisms exist or which
traps the heat rays reflected by the earth. supports life. Biological diversity or
The increase in temperature on the earth biodiversity, refers to the variety of
disturbs the water cycle and may reduce organisms existing on the earth, their
rainfall. This could cause droughts. interrelationships and their
Deforestation is a major cause which relationship with the environment.
leads to the change in soil properties.
Physical properties of the soil get affected Professor Ahmad organises a visit to
by plantation and vegetation. Recall from a biosphere reserve for Paheli, Boojho and
Class VII how trees prevent soil erosion. their classmates. He selects a place
Fewer trees result in more soil erosion. named Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve. He
Removal of the top layer of the soil exposes knows that the plants and animals found
the lower, hard and rocky layers. This soil here are similar to those of the upper
has less humus and is less fertile. Himalayan peaks and to those belonging
Gradually the fertile land gets converted to the lower western ghats. Professor
into deserts. It is called desertification. Ahmad believes that the biodiversity
Deforestation also leads to a decrease found here is unique. He requests
in the water holding capacity of the soil. Madhavji, a forest employee, to guide the
The movement of water from the soil children inside the biosphere reserve. He
explains that preserving areas of such
surface into the ground (infiltration rate)
biological importance make them a part
is reduced. So, there are floods. The
of our national heritage.
other properties of the soil like nutrient
Madhavji explains to the children
content, texture etc., also change
that apart from our personal efforts and
because of deforestation.
efforts of the society, government
We have studied in Class VII that we
get many products from forests. List these To protect our flora and fauna and
products. Will we face shortage of these their habitats, protected areas
products if we continue cutting trees? called sanctuaries, national parks and
biosphere reserves have been
Activity 7.2 earmarked. Plantation, cultivation,
grazing, felling trees, hunting and
Animal life is also affected by poaching are prohibited there.
deforestation. How? List the points Sanctuary : Areas where animals are
and discuss them in your class. protected from any disturbance to
them and their habitat.
National Park : Areas reserved for
7.3 Conservation of Forest
wild life where they can freely use the
and Wildlife habitats and natural resources.
Having become aware of the effects of Biosphere Reserve : Large areas of
deforestation, Paheli and Boojho are protected land for conservation of wild
worried. They go to Professor Ahmad life, plant and animal resources and
traditional life of the tribals living in
and ask him how forests and wildlife
the area.
can be saved.
78 SCIENCE
agencies also take care of the forests and 7.4 Biosphere Reserve
animals. The government lays down
rules, methods and policies to protect Children along with Professor Ahmad
and conserve them. Wildlife sanctuaries, and Madhavji enter the biosphere
national parks, biosphere reserves etc., reserve area. Madhavji explains that
are protected areas for conservation biosphere reserves are the areas meant
of plants and animals present in for conservation of biodiversity. As you
that area. are aware that biodiversity is the variety
of plants, animals and microorganisms
Activity 7.3 generally found in an area. The
biosphere reserves help to maintain the
Find out the number of national biodiversity and culture of that area. A
parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserve may also contain
biosphere reserves in your district, other protected areas in it. The
state and country. Record in Table Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve consists
of one national park named Satpura and
7.1. Show these areas in an outline
two wildlife sanctuaries named Bori and
map of your state and India.
Pachmarhi (Fig. 7.1).

Table 7.1 : Protected Areas for Conservation

Protected Areas — National Park Wildlife Sanctuary Biosphere Reserve

In my district

In my state

In my country

↑N PACHMARHI SANCTUARY
TAWA
TO PIPARIYA
RESERVIOR
NEEMGHAN
PANARPANI GATE
SATPURA NATIONAL PARK
CHURNA PACHMARHI
DHAIN BORI
BORI SANCTUARY

Fig. 7.1 : Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve

CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 79
Activity 7.4 green wealth of the forest. They are
very happy to see tall teak trees and
List the factors disturbing the animals inside the forest. Suddenly,
biodiversity of your area. Some of Paheli finds a rabbit and wants to
these factors and human activities catch it. She starts running after it.
may disturb the biodiversity P r o f e s s o r A h m a d s t o p s h e r. H e
unknowingly. List these human
explains that animals are comfortable
activities. How can these be checked?
and happy in their own habitat. We
Discuss in your class and write a
should not disturb them. Madhavji
brief report in your notebook.
explains that some animals and plants
typically belong to a particular area.
7.5 Flora and Fauna The plants and animals found in a
As the children walk around the particular area are termed flora and
biosphere reserve they appreciate the fauna of that area.

Sal, teak, mango, jamun, silver ferns, arjun, etc., are the flora and chinkara, blue-
bull, barking deer, cheetal, leopard, wild dog, wolf, etc. are examples of the fauna
of the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve (Fig. 7.2).

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 7.2 : (a) Wild dog (b) Cheetal (c) Wolf (d) Leopard (e) Fern (f) Jamun tree

80 SCIENCE
Activity 7.5
Try to identify the flora and fauna
of your area and list them.
I have heard that some of the
endemic species may vanish.
7.6 Endemic Species Is it true?
Soon the group quietly enters the deep
endemic flora of the Pachmarhi
forest. Children are surprised to see a
very big squirrel. This squirrel has a big Biosphere Reserve. Bison, Indian giant
fluffy tail. They are very curious to know squirrel [Fig. 7.3 (b)] and flying squirrel
about it. Madhavji tells them that this are endemic fauna of this area. Professor
is known as the giant squirrel and is Ahmad explains that the destruction of
endemic to this area. their habitat, increasing population and
Endemic species are those species introduction of new species may affect
of plants and animals which are found the natural habitat of endemic species
exclusively in a particular area. They are and endanger their existence.
not naturally found anywhere else. A
particular type of animal or plant may
be endemic to a zone, a state or a country.
Madhavji shows sal and wild mango
(Fig. 7.3 (a)] as two examples of the

Fig. 7.3 (b) : Giant squirrel

Species is a group of population

which are capable of interbreeding.
This means that the members of a
species can reproduce fertile offspring
only with the members of their own
species and not with members of
other species. Members of a species
have common characteristics.

Activity 7.6
Find out the endemic plants and
animals of the region where you live.
Fig. 7.3 (a) : Wild Mango
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 81
7.7 Wildlife Sanctuary instead of their natural habitat? In
Soon Paheli sees a board with ‘Pachmarhi your opinion, will the animals be
Wildlife Sanctuary’ written on it. comfortable in a zoo or in their
Professor Ahmad explains that, like natural habitat?
reserve forests, wildlife sanctuaries
provide protection and suitable living 7.8 National Park
conditions to wild animals. Madhavji On the roadside there was another
further explains that sanctuaries are board on which was written ‘Satpura
places where killing (poaching) or National Park’.
capturing of animals is strictly Children are now eager to go there.
prohibited. Madhavji tells them that these reserves
are large and diverse enough to protect
Some of the threatened wild animals
whole sets of ecosystems. T h e y
like black buck, white eyed buck,
elephant, golden cat, pink headed preserve flora, fauna, landscape and
duck, gharial, marsh crocodile, historic objects of an area. Satpura
python, rhinoceros, etc., are National Park is the first Reserve Forest
protected and preserved in our wild of India. The finest Indian teak is
life sanctuaries. Indian sanctuaries found in this forest.
have unique landscapes—broad level
forests, mountain forests and bush Rock shelters are also found inside
lands in deltas of big rivers. the Satpura National Park. These are
evidences of prehistoric human life
It is a pity that even protected forests in these jungles. These give us an
are not safe because people living in the idea of the life of primitive people.
neighbourhood encroach upon them Rock paintings are found in these
shelters. A total of 55 rock shelters
and destroy them.
have been identified in Pachmarhi
Children are reminded of their visit
Biosphere Reserve.
to the zoo. They recall that zoos are also Figures of animals and men
places where animals receive protection. fighting, hunting, dancing and
playing musical instruments are
depicted in these paintings. Many
tribals still live in the area.
What is the difference
between a zoo and a As children move ahead, they see a
wildlife sanctuary? board with ‘Satpura Tiger Reserve’
written on it. Madhavji explains that
Activity 7.7 Project Tiger was launched by the
Visit a nearby zoo. Observe the government to protect the tigers in the
conditions provided to the animals. country. The objective of this project
Were they suitable for the animals? was to ensure the survival and
Can animals live in artificial setting maintenance of the tiger population in
the country.

82 SCIENCE
 Are tigers still found in
this forest? I hope I can
see a tiger!

Tiger (Fig. 7.4) is one of the many

species which are slowly disappearing
from our forests. But, the Satpura Tiger
Reserve is unique in the sense that a
significant increase in the population of
Fig. 7.6 : Barasingha
tigers has been seen here. Once upon a
time, animals like lions, elephants, wild reminded of the dinosaurs which became
extinct a long time ago. Survival of some
animals has become difficult because of
disturbances in their natural habitat.

Are only big animals

facing extinction?
Fig. 7.4 : Tiger

buffaloes (Fig. 7.5) and barasingha (Fig.

7.6) were also found in the Satpura Madhavji tells Paheli that small
National Park. Animals whose numbers animals are much more in danger of
are diminishing to a level that they might becoming extinct than the bigger
face extinction are known as the animals. At times, we kill snakes,
endangered animals. Boojho is frogs, lizards, bats and owls ruthlessly
without realising their importance in
the ecosystem. By killing them we are
harming ourselves. They might be
small in size but their role in the
ecosystem cannot be ignored. They
form part of food chains and food
webs, about which you learnt in
Class VII.
An ecosystem is made of all the
plants, animals and microorganisms in
an area along with non-living
components such as climate, soil,
Fig. 7.5 : Wild buffalo river deltas etc.
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 83
 Reservoir to relax for some time. Paheli
observes some of the birds near the
river. Madhavji tells the children that
these are migratory birds. These birds
I wonder if there is
any record of all have flown here from other parts of
endangered species! the world.
Migratory birds fly to far away areas
every year during a particular time
7.9 Red Data Book because of climatic changes. They fly
for laying eggs as the weather in their
Professor Ahmad explains about Red natural habitat becomes very cold and
Data Book to the children. He tells inhospitable. Birds who cover long
them that Red Data Book is the source distances to reach another land are
book which keeps a record of all the known as migratory birds as Paheli
endangered animals and plants. There learnt in Class VII.
are different Red Data Books for plants,
animals and other species. (For further 7.11 Recycling of Paper
details about Red Data Book, you can
Professor Ahmad draws attention of
log on to www.wil.gov.in/envis/
the children to another cause of
primates/page102htm/new/nwdc/
deforestation. He tells them that it
plants.htm).
takes 17 full grown trees to make one
7.10 Migration tonne of paper. Therefore, we should
save paper. Professor Ahmad also tells
The excursion party then enters deeper that paper can be recycled five to seven
into the forest under the guidance of times for use. If each student saves at
Madhavji. They sit near the Tawa least one sheet of paper in a day, we
can save many trees in a year. We
should save, reuse used paper and
recycle it. By this we not only save
trees but also save energy and water
needed for manufacturing paper.
What would happen if we Moreover, the amount of har mful
had no wood? Is there chemicals used in paper making will
any alternative also be reduced.
available to wood?
I know that paper is one
of the important products
we get from forests.
I wonder whether Is there any permanent
there are any alternatives solution to the problem
available for paper! of deforestation?

84 SCIENCE
7.12 Reforestation retain our green wealth for future
generations, plantation of more trees is
Professor Ahmad suggests that the the only option.
answer to deforestation is reforestation. Professor Ahmad told them that in
Reforestation is restocking of the India we have the Forest (Conservation)
destroyed forests by planting new trees. Act. This act is aimed at preservation
The planted trees should generally be and conservation of natural forests and
of the same species which were found meeting the basic needs of the people
in that forest. We should plant at least living in or near the forests.
as many trees as we cut. Reforestation After some rest Madhavji asks the
can take place naturally also. If the children to start heading back because
deforested area is left undisturbed, it re- it is not advisable to stay in the
establishes itself. In natural reforestation jungle after sunset. On getting back,
there is no role of human beings. We Professor Ahmad and the children
have already caused tremendous thank Madhavji for guiding them
damage to our forests. If we have to through this exciting experience.

CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 85

KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
BIODIVERSITY Ü Wildlife sanctuary, national park and bio-
BIOSPHERE RESERVE sphere reserve are names given to the areas
meant for conservation and preservation of
DEFORESTATION
forest and wild animals.
DESERTIFICATION Ü Biodiversity refers to the variety of living
organisms in a specific area.
ECOSYSTEM
Ü Plants and animals of a particular area are
ENDANGERED known as the flora and fauna of that area.
SPECIES Ü Endemic species are found only in a particular
area.
ENDEMIC SPECIES
Ü Endangered species are those which are facing
EXTINCT the danger of extinction.
Ü Red Data Book contains a record of
FAUNA
endangered species.
FLORA Ü Migration is the phenomenon of movement of

MIGRATORY BIRDS a species from its own habitat to some other

habitat for a particular time period every year
NATIONAL PARK for a specific purpose like breeding.

RED DATA BOOK Ü We should save, reuse and recycle paper to

save trees, energy and water.
REFORESTATION Ü Reforestation is the restocking of destroyed
forests by planting new trees.
SANCTUARY

Exercises

1. Fill in the blanks.

(a) A place where animals are protected in their natural habitat is
called .
(b) Species found only in a particular area is known as .
(c) Migratory birds fly to far away places because of changes.
2. Differentiate between the following.
(a) Wildlife sanctuary and biosphere reserve
(b) Zoo and wildlife sanctuary
(c) Endangered and extinct species
(d) Flora and fauna
86 SCIENCE
 3. Discuss the effects of deforestation on the following.
EXERCISES
(a) Wild animals

(b) Environment

(c) Villages (Rural areas)

(d) Cities (Urban areas)

(e) Earth

(f) The next generation

4. What will happen if.

(a) we go on cutting trees.

(b) the habitat of an animal is disturbed.

(c) the top layer of soil is exposed.

5. Answer in brief.

(a) Why should we conserve biodiversity?

(b) Protected forests are also not completely safe for wild animals. Why?

(c) Some tribals depend on the jungle. How?

(d) What are the causes and consequences of deforestation?

(e) What is Red Data Book?

(f) What do you understand by the term migration?

6. In order to meet the ever-increasing demand in factories and for shelter,

trees are being continually cut. Is it justified to cut trees for such projects?
Discuss and prepare a brief report.

7. How can you contribute to the maintenance of green wealth of your locality?
Make a list of actions to be taken by you.

8. Explain how deforestation leads to reduced rainfall.

9. Find out about national parks in your state. Identify and show their location
on the outline map of India.

10. Why should paper be saved? Prepare a list of ways by which you can save
paper.

CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 87

 11. Complete the word puzzle.

EXERCISES
Down
1. Species on the verge of extinction.
2. A book carrying information about endangered species.
5. Consequence of deforestation.
Across
1. Species which have vanished.
3. Species found only in a particular habitat.
4. Variety of plants, animals and microorganisms found in an area.

Extended Learning - Activities and Projects

1. Plant at least five different plants in your locality during this
academic year and ensure their maintenance till they grow.
2. Promise yourself that this year you will gift at least 5 plants to your
friends and relatives on their achievements, or on occasions like
birthdays. Ask your friends to take proper care of these plants and
encourage them to gift plants to their friends on such occasions. At
the end of the year count the plants that have been gifted through
this chain.

88 SCIENCE
 3. Is it justified to prevent tribals from staying in the core area of the
forest? Discuss the matter in your class and note down the points for
and against the motion in your notebook.
4. Study the biodiversity of a park nearby. Prepare a detailed report with
photographs and sketches of the flora and fauna.

5. Make a list of the new information you have gathered from this chapter.
Which information did you find the most interesting and why?
6. Make a list of various uses of papers. Observe currency notes carefully.
Do you find any difference between a currency paper and paper of your
notebook? Find out where currency paper is made.
7. Karnataka Government had launched ‘Project Elephant’ to save Asian
elephants in the state. Find out about this and other such campaigns
launched to protect threatened species.

Did You Know?

1. India has more than half of the world’s wild tigers, 65% of the Asian
elephants, 85% of the great one-horned rhinoceros and 100% of the
Asian lions.
2. India is sixth on a list of 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the world. It
contains two of the 34 biodiversity hotspots of the world – Eastern
Himalayas and the Western Ghats. These areas are very rich in
biodiversity.
3. One of the most important factors that threatens wildlife today is habitat
destruction due to encroachment.
4. India contains 172 species of animals considered globally threatened
or 2.9% of the world’s total number of threatened species. Eastern
Himalayas hotspot has merely 163 globally threatened species
including several animal and plant species. India contains globally
important population of some of Asia’s rarest animals such as the
Bengal fox, Marbled cat, Asiatic lion, Indian elephant, Asiatic wild ass,
Indian rhinoceros, gaur, Wild asiatic water buffalo, etc.
For knowing more, you may contact:
l Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India
Environment, Forest and Wildlife Department
Paryavaran Bhavan, CGO Complex, Block – B,
Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110003,
Website : http:/envfor.nic.in

CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 89

 CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Y
ou have already learnt that things These boxes appeared like a honey-
around us are either living or comb. He also noticed that one box was
non-living. Further, you may separated from the other by a wall or
recall that all living organisms carry out partition. Hooke coined the term ‘cell’
certain basic functions. Can you list for each box. What Hooke observed as
these functions? boxes or cells in the cork were actually
Different sets of organs perform the dead cells.
various functions you have listed. In this Cells of living organisms could be
chapter, you shall learn about the basic observed only after the discovery of
structural unit of an organ, which is the improved microscopes. Very little was
cell. Cells may be compared to bricks. known about the cell for the next 150
Bricks are assembled to make a building. years after Robert Hooke’s observations.
Similarly, cells are assembled to make Today, we know a lot about cell
the body of every organism. structure and its functions because of
improved microscopes having high
8.1 Discovery of the Cell magnification.
Robert Hooke in 1665 observed slices of
cork under a simple magnifying device.
8.2 The Cell
Cork is a part of the bark of a Both, bricks in a building and cells in
tree. He took thin slices of cork and the living organisms, are basic
observed them under a microscope. He structural units [Fig. 8.2(a), (b)]. The
noticed partitioned boxes or buildings, though built of similar bricks,
compartments in the cork slice (Fig. 8.1). have different designs, shapes and sizes.
Similarly, in the living world, organisms
differ from one another but all are made
up of cells. Cells in the living organisms
are complex living structures unlike
non-living bricks.

A hen’s egg can be seen

easily. Is it a cell or a
Fig. 8.1: Cork cells as observed by group of cells?
Robert Hooke
 (a) Brick wall (b) Onion peel
Fig. 8.2 : Brick wall and onion peel
The egg of a hen represents a single Organisms made of more than one
cell and is big enough to be seen by the cell are called multicellular (multi :
unaided eye. many; cellular : cell) organisms. The
number of cells being less in smaller
8.3 Organisms show Variety organisms does not, in any way, affect
in Cell Number, Shape and the functioning of the organisms. You
Size will be surprised to know that an
How do scientists observe and study the organism with billions of cells begins
living cells? They use microscopes which life as a single cell which is the fertilised
magnify objects. Stains (dyes) are used egg. The fertilised egg cell multiplies and
to colour parts of the cell to study the the number of cells increase as
detailed structure. development proceeds.
There are millions of living Look at Fig 8.3 (a) and (b). Both
organisms. They are of different shapes organisms are made up of a single cell.
and sizes. Their organs also vary in The single-celled organisms are called
shape, size and number of cells. Let us unicellular (uni : one; cellular : cell)
study about some of them.
Number of Cells
Can you guess the number of cells in a
tall tree or in a huge animal like the
elephant? The number runs into
billions and trillions. Human body has
trillions of cells which vary in shapes
and sizes. Different groups of cells
perform a variety of functions.
A billion is a thousand million. A (a) (b)
trillion is a thousand billion.
Fig. 8.3 : (a) Amoeba (b) Paramecium
CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 91
organisms. A single-celled organism
performs all the necessary functions The change in shape is due to
that multicellular organisms perform. formation of pseudopodia which
facilitates movement and help
A single-celled organism, like
in capturing food.
amoeba, captures and digests food,
respires, excretes, grows and
reproduces. Similar functions in A white blood cell (WBC) in human
multicellular organisms are carried out blood is another example of a single cell
by groups of specialised cells forming which can change its shape. But while
different tissues. Tissues, in turn, form WBC is a cell, amoeba is a full fledged
organs. organism capable of independent
existence.
Activity 8.1 What shape would you expect in
organisms with millions of cells? Fig.
The teacher may show a permanent 8.4 (a, b, c) shows different cells such
slide of amoeba and paramecium as blood, muscle and nerve of human
under a microscope. Alternatively, beings. The different shapes are related
the teacher can collect pond water to their specific functions.
and show these organisms by Generally, cells are round, spherical
preparing the slides. or elongated [Fig. 8.4(a)]. Some cells are
long and pointed at both ends. They
Shape of Cells exhibit a spindle shape [Fig. 8.4(b)].
Cells sometimes are quite long. Some
Refer to Fig. 8.3 (a). How do you define are branched like the nerve cell or a
the shape of amoeba in the figure? You neuron [Fig. 8.4(c)]. The nerve cell
may say that the shape appears receives and transfers messages, thereby
irregular. Infact, amoeba has no
definite shape, unlike other organisms.
It keeps on changing its shape.
Observe the projections of varying
l e n gt h s protrudi n g out of its
body. These are called pseudopodia
(pseudo : false; podia : feet), as you (a)
learnt in Class VII. These projections
appear and disappear as amoeba
moves or feeds.
(c)
(b)

What advantage does Fig. 8.4 : (a) Spherical red blood cells
amoeba derive by of humans, (b) Spindle
changing shape? shaped muscle cells,
(c) Long branched nerve cell
92 SCIENCE
helping to control and coordinate the the elephant be much bigger than those
working of different parts of the body. in a rat. The size of the cell is related to
Can you guess, which part of the cell its function. For example, nerve cells,
gives it shape? Components of the cell both in the elephant and rat, are long
are enclosed in a membrane. This and branched. They perform the same
membrane provides shape to the cells function, that of transferring messages.
of plants and animals. Cell wall is an
additional covering over the cell 8.4 Cell Structure and
membrane in plant cells. It gives shape Function
and rigidity to these cells (Fig. 8.7).
You have lear nt that each living
Bacterial cell also has a cell wall.
organism has many organs. You have
Size of Cells studied in Class VII about the digestive
The size of cells in living organisms may organs which together constitute the
be as small as a millionth of a metre digestive system. Each organ in the
(micrometre or micron) or may be as large system performs different functions
as a few centimetres. However, most of the such as digestion, assimilation and
cells are microscopic in size and are not absorption. Similarly, different organs
of a plant perform specific/specialised
visible to the unaided eye. They need to
functions. For example, roots help in the
be enlarged or magnified by a microscope.
absorption of water and minerals.
The smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometre
Leaves, as you have learnt in Class VII,
in bacteria. The largest cell measuring
are responsible for synthesis of food.
170 mm ×130 mm, is the egg of an ostrich.
Each organ is further made up of
smaller parts called tissues. A tissue is
Activity 8.2
a group of similar cells performing a
Boil a hen’s egg. Remove the shell. specific function.
What do you observe? A white Paheli realised that an organ is made
material surrounds the yellow part. up of tissues which in turn, are made
White material is albumin which up of cells. The cell in a living organism
solidifies on boiling. The yellow part is the basic structural unit.
is yolk. It is part of the single cell.
You can observe this single cell 8.5 Parts of the Cell
without any magnifying device. Cell Membrane
The basic components of a cell are cell
membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus
(Fig. 8.7). The cytoplasm and nucleus
Are the cells in an are enclosed within the cell membrane,
elephant larger than the
also called the plasma membrane. The
cells in a rat?
membrane separates cells from one
The size of the cells has no relation another and also the cell from the
with the size of the body of the animal or surrounding medium. The plasma
plant. It is not necessary that the cells in membrane is porous and allows the
CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 93
movement of substances or materials between the nucleus and the cell
both inward and outward. membrane is called cytoplasm.

Activity 8.3
In order to observe the basic I want to know why plant
components of the cell, take an cells need cell walls?
onion bulb. Remove the dry pink
coverings (peels). You can easily You have learnt earlier that the cell
separate these from the fleshy white membrane gives shape to the cell. In
layers of the bulb with the help of addition to the cell membrane, there is
forceps or even with your hand. You an outer thick layer in cells of plants
can also break the onion bulb and called cell wall. This additional layer
separate out thin layers. Place a surrounding the cell membrane is
small piece of the thin onion peel required by plants for protection. Plant
in a drop of water on a glass slide. cells need protection against variations
The thin layer can be cut into in temperature, high wind speed,
smaller pieces with the help of a atmospheric moisture etc. They
blade or forceps. Add a drop of are exposed to these variations
methylene blue solution to the layer because they cannot move. Cells can
and place a coverslip on it. While be observed in the leaf peel of
placing the coverslip ensure that Tradescantia, Elodea or Rhoeo. You
there are no air bubbles under the can prepare a slide as in the case
coverslip. Observe the slide under of onion.
the microscope. Draw and label. You Paheli asks Boojho if he can also
may compare it with Fig. 8.5. observe animal cells.

The boundary of the onion cell is the Activity 8.4

cell membrane covered by another thick
covering called the cell wall. The central Take a clean tooth pick, or a
dense round body in the centre is called matchstick with the tip broken.
the nucleus. The jelly-like substance Scrape inside of your cheek without
hurting it. Place it in a drop of water
on a glass slide. Add a drop of iodine
and place a coverslip over it.
nucleus Alternatively, add 1-2 drops of
methylene blue solution. Observe it
under the microscope. You may
notice several cells in the scraped
cytoplasm
material (Fig. 8.6). You can identify
the cell membrane, the cytoplasm
and nucleus. A cell wall is absent
in animal cells.
Fig. 8.5 : Cells observed in an onion peel
94 SCIENCE
 Gene
nuclear cytoplasm
membrane Gene is a unit of inheritance in living
organisms. It controls the transfer of
a hereditary characteristic from
parents to offspring. This means that
your parents pass some of their
characteristics on to you. If your father
nucleus has brown eyes, you may also have
cell
membrane
brown eyes. If your mother has curly
hair, you might also end up having
curly hair. However, the different
Fig. 8.6 : Human cheek cells combination of genes from parents
result in different characteristics.
Cytoplasm
Nucleus, in addition to its role in
It is the jelly-like substance present inheritance, acts as control centre of the
between the cell membrane and the activities of the cell. The entire content
nucleus. Various other components, or of a living cell is known as protoplasm.
organelles, of cells are present in the It includes the cytoplasm and the
cytoplasm. These are mitochondria, golgi nucleus. Protoplasm is called the living
bodies, ribosomes, etc. You will learn substance of the cell.
about them in later classes.

Nucleus
Paheli wants to know if the
It is an important component of the structure of the nucleus is
living cell. It is generally spherical and the same in cells of plants,
located in the centre of the cell. It can animals and bacteria.
be stained and seen easily with the help
of a microscope. Nucleus is separated The nucleus of the bacterial cell is
from the cytoplasm by a membrane not well-organised like the cells of
called the nuclear membrane. This multicellular organisms. There is no
membrane is also porous and allows the nuclear membrane. The cells having
movement of materials between the nuclear material without nuclear
cytoplasm and the inside of the nucleus. membrane are termed prokaryotic
cells. The organisms with these kinds
With a microscope of higher
of cells are called prokaryotes (pro :
magnification, we can see a smaller primitive; karyon : nucleus). Examples
spherical body in the nucleus. It is called are bacteria and blue green algae. The
the nucleolus. In addition, nucleus cells, like onion cells and cheek cells
contains thread-like structures called having well-organised nucleus with
chromosomes. These carry genes and a nuclear membrane are designated
help in inheritance or transfer of as eukaryotic cells. All organisms
characters from the parents to the other than bacteria and blue
green algae are called eukaryotes.
offspring. The chromosomes can be seen
(eu : true; karyon: nucleus).
only when the cell divides.
CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 95
 While observing the onion cells called chloroplasts. They provide green
under the microscope, did you notice colour to the leaves. You may recall that
any blank-looking structures in the chlorophyll in the chloroplasts of leaves,
cytoplasm? It is called vacuole. It could is essential for photosynthesis.
be single and big as in an onion cell.
Cheek cells have smaller vacuoles. Large 8.6 Comparison of Plant and
vacuoles are common in plant cells. Animal Cells
Vacuoles in animal cells are much
smaller. If you recall Activities 8.3 and 8.4, you
You might have noticed several small should be able to compare plant and
coloured bodies in the cytoplasm of the animal cells. Observe the plant and
cells of T radescantia leaf. They are animal cell carefully in Fig. 8.7 (a), (b).
scattered in the cytoplasm of the leaf Let us tabulate the similarities and
cells. These are called plastids. They are disinguishing features of plant and
of different colours. Some of them animal cells. Only a few features are
contain green pigment called mentioned. You may add mor e in
chlorophyll. Green coloured plastids are Table 8.1.

cell membrane
cell wall

vacuole

nucleus

cell membrane

chloroplast
cytoplasm
(b)
(a)
Fig. 8.7 : (a) Plant cell (b) Animal cell
Table 8.1 : Comparison of Plant Cell and Animal Cell

Sl. No. Part Plant Cell Animal Cell

1. Cell membrane Present Present

2. Cell wall Present Absent
3. Nucleus
4. Nuclear membrane
5. Cytoplasm
6. Plastids
7. Vacuole

96 SCIENCE
KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
CELL Ü All organisms are made of smaller parts called
CELL MEMBRANE organs.
Ü Organs are made of still smaller parts. The
CELL WALL smallest living part of an organism is a ‘cell’.
CHLOROPLAST Ü Cells were first observed in cork by Robert
Hooke in 1665.
CHROMOSOME
Ü Cells exhibit a variety of shapes and sizes.
CYTOPLASM Ü Number of cells also varies from organism to
organism.
EUKARYOTES
Ü Some cells are big enough to be seen with the
GENE unaided eye. Hen’s egg is an example.
Ü Some organisms are single-celled, while others
MULTICELLULAR
contain large number of cells.
NUCLEAR MEMBRANE Ü The single cell of unicellular organisms
performs all the basic functions performed by
NUCLEOLUS
a variety of cells in multicellular organisms.
NUCLEUS Ü The cell has three main parts: (i) the cell
membrane, (ii) cytoplasm which contains
ORGAN
smaller components called organelles, and
ORGANELLES (iii) the nucleus.
Ü Nucleus is separated from cytoplasm by a
PLASMA MEMBRANE
nuclear membrane.
PLASTID Ü Cells without well-organised nucleus, i.e.
lacking nuclear membrane, are called
PROKARYOTES
prokaryotic cells.
PSEUDOPODIA Ü Plant cells differ from animal cells in having
an additional layer around the cell membrane
TISSUE
termed cell wall.
UNICELLULAR Ü Coloured bodies called plastids are found in
the plant cells only. Green plastids containing
VACUOLE
chlorophyll are called chloroplasts.
WHITE BLOOD CELL Ü Plant cell has a big central vacuole unlike a
(WBC) number of small vacuoles in animal cells.

CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 97

 Exercises

1. Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
(a) Unicellular organisms have one-celled body. (T/F)
(b) Muscle cells are branched. (T/F)
(c) The basic living unit of an organism is an organ. (T/F)
(d) Amoeba has irregular shape. (T/F)
2. Make a sketch of the human nerve cell. What function do nerve
cells perform?.
3. Write short notes on the following.
(a) Cytoplasm
(b) Nucleus of a cell
4. Which part of the cell contains organelles?
5. Make sketches of animal and plant cells. State three differences
between them.
6. State the difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
7. Where are chromosomes found in a cell? State their function.
8. ‘Cells are the basic structural units of living organisms’. Explain.
9. Explain why chloroplasts are found only in plant cells?
10. Complete the crossword with the help of clues given below.
Across
1 2
1. This is necessary for C O
photosynthesis.
3. Term for component present
in the cytoplasm.
3
6. The living substance in the O
4
cell. M
5
8. Units of inheritance present V
on the chromosomes. 6
P
7
T
Down
1. Green plastids.
2. Formed by collection of
tissues.
4. It separates the contents of
8
the cell from the surrounding G
medium.
5. Empty structure in the cytoplasm.
7. A group of cells.
98 SCIENCE
 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects
1. Visit a laboratory for senior secondary students in your school or
in a neighbouring school. Learn about the functioning of a
microscope in the laboratory. Also observe how a slide is observed
under the microscope.
2. Talk to the senior biology teacher in your school or a neighbouring
school. Find out if there are diseases which are passed on from
parents to the offspring. Find out how these are carried and also if
these diseases can be treated. For this you can also visit a doctor.
3. Visit an agriculture extension centre in your area. Find out about
genetically modified (GM) crops. Prepare a short speech for your
class on this topic.
4. Find out about Bt cotton from an agriculture expert (or from
envfor.nic.in/divisions/csnrv/btcotton/bgnote.pdf). Prepare a short
note on its advantages/disadvantages.

Did You Know?

The cells in the outermost layer of our skin are dead. An average
adult carries around about 2 kg of dead skin. Billions of tiny
fragments of the skin are lost every day. Every time you run your
finger on a dusty table, you shed a lot of old skin.

CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 99

 REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

D
o you recall the processes of Table 9.1
digestion, circulation and
respiration which you have S. No. Animal Young one
studied in your previous classes? These 1. Human Baby
processes are essential for the survival
of every individual. You have also learnt 2. Cat
about the process of reproduction in 3. Dog
plants. Reproduction is essential for the
continuation of a species. Imagine what 4. Butterfly
would have happened if organisms had 5. Hen Chick
not reproduced. You will realise that
reproduction is very important as it 6. Cow
ensures the continuation of similar 7. Frog
kinds of individuals, generation after
generation. Just as in plants, there are two modes
You have already learnt in your by which animals reproduce. These are:
previous class about reproduction in (i) Sexual reproduction, and
plants. In this chapter, we shall learn (ii) Asexual reproduction.
how reproduction takes place in
animals. 9.2 Sexual Reproduction
9.1 Modes of Reproduction Try to recall reproduction in plants
which you studied in Class VII. You will
Have you seen the young ones remember that plants that reproduce
of different animals? Try to name some sexually have male and female
of the young ones by completing reproductive parts. Can you name these
Table 9.1 shown in examples at S. No. parts? In animals also, males and
1 and 5. females have different reproductive parts
You must have seen the young or organs. Like plants, the reproductive
ones of various animals being born. parts in animals also produce gametes
C a n y ou tel l h ow ch i cks a nd that fuse to form a zygote. It is the zygote
caterpillars are born? How are kittens which develops into a new individual.
and puppies born? Do you think that This type of reproduction beginning
these young ones looked the same from the fusion of male and female
before they were born as they do now? gametes is called sexual reproduction.
Let us find out. Let us find out the reproductive parts
in humans and study the process of sperm is a single cell with all the usual
reproduction in them. cell components.

Male Reproductive Organs

Head
The male reproductive organs include a
pair of testes (singular, testis), two sperm
ducts and a penis (Fig. 9.1). The testes Middle piece
produce the male gametes called
sperms. Millions of sperms are produced
by the testes. Look at Fig. 9.2 which
shows the picture of a sperm. Though
sperms are very small in size, each has
Tail
a head, a middle piece and a tail. Does
it appear to be a single cell? Indeed, each
Fig. 9.2 : Human sperm

What purpose does the

tail in a sperm serve?

Sperm
duct Female Reproductive Organs
The female reproductive organs are a pair
of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes) and
the uterus (Fig. 9.3). The ovary produces
Oviduct
Penis

Ovary
Uterus

Testis

Fig. 9.1: Male reproductive Fig. 9.3 : Female reproductive organs in

organs in humans humans
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 101
female gametes called ova (eggs)
(Fig. 9.4). In human beings, a single Sperms
matured egg is released into the oviduct
by one of the ovaries every month.
Uterus is the part where development of
the baby takes place. Like the sperm,
an egg is also a single cell.

Nucleus Ovum

Fig. 9.5 : Fertilisation

you know that the zygote is the

beginning of a new individual?

Fusing
Fig. 9.4 : Human Ovum nuclei

Boojho recalls that the size

of eggs in animals varies.
The egg may be very small
as in humans, much larger
as in hens. Ostrich egg is Fig. 9.6 : Zygote
the largest!
The process of fertilisation is the
meeting of an egg cell from the mother
Fertilisation
and a sperm cell from the father. So,
The first step in the process of the new individual inherits some
reproduction is the fusion of a sperm characteristics from the mother and
and an ovum. When sperms come in some from the father. Look at your
contact with an egg, one of the sperms brother or sister. See if you can recognise
may fuse with the egg. Such fusion of some characters in them similar to those
the egg and the sperm is called of your mother or your father.
fertilisation (Fig. 9.5). During Fertilisation which takes place inside
fertilisation, the nuclei of the sperm and the female body is called internal
the egg fuse to form a single nucleus. fertilisation. Internal fertilisation
This results in the formation of a occurs in many animals including
fertilised egg or zygote (Fig. 9.6). Did humans, cows, dogs and hens.
102 SCIENCE
 Have you heard of female lays hundreds of eggs. Unlike
test tube babies? hen’s egg, frog’s egg is not covered by a
shell and it is comparatively very
Boojho and Paheli’s teacher once told
delicate. A layer of jelly holds the eggs
them in the class that in some women
oviducts are blocked. These women together and provides protection to the
are unable to bear babies because eggs (Fig. 9.7).
sperms cannot reach the egg for
fertilisation. In such cases, doctors
collect freshly released egg and
sperms and keep them together for a
few hours for IVF or in vitro
fertilisation (fertilisation outside the
body). In case fertilisation occurs,
the zygote is allowed to develop for
about a week and then it is placed in
the mother’s uterus. Complete
development takes place in the uterus
and the baby is born like any other
baby. Babies born through this
technique are called test-tube
babies. This term is actually Fig. 9.7 : Eggs of frog
misleading because babies cannot
grow in test tubes. As the eggs are laid, the male
deposits sperms over them. Each
You will be surprised to know that sperm swims randomly in water with
in many animals fertilisation takes the help of its long tail. The sperms
place outside the body of the female. come in contact with the eggs. This
In these animals, fertilisation takes results in fertilisation. This type of
place in water. Let us find out how fertilisation in which the fusion of a
this happens. male and a female gamete takes place
outside the body of the female is called
Activity 9.1 external fertilisation. It is very
Visit some ponds or slow-flowing common in aquatic animals such as
streams during spring or rainy fish, starfish, etc.
season. Look out for clusters of
f r og’s eggs floating in water.
Write down the colour and size of
the eggs.
Why do fish and
During spring or rainy season, frogs frogs lay eggs in
hundreds whereas a
and toads move to ponds and slow-
hen lays only one
flowing streams. When the male and
egg at a time?
female come together in water, the

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 103

 How could a single cell
Though these animals lay become such a big
hundreds of eggs and release individual?
millions of sperms, all the eggs
Development of Embryo
do not get fertilised and develop
into new individuals. Fertilisation results in the formation of
This is because the eggs and zygote which begins to develop into an
sperms get exposed to water embryo [Fig. 9.8(a)]. The zygote divides
movement, wind and rainfall. repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells
Also, there are other animals in [Fig. 9.8(b)]. The cells then begin to form
the pond which may feed groups that develop into different tissues
on eggs. Thus, production and organs of the body. This developing
of large number of eggs and structure is termed an embryo. The
sperms is necessary to embryo gets embedded in the wall of the
ensure fertilisation uterus for further development
of at least [Fig. 9.8(c)].
a few of them. The embryo continues to develop in
the uterus. It gradually develops body

Uterus

Ovary
Zygote

(b)
Embedding
embryo
Uterus
Ovulation wall

(a)

Developing
embryo

(c)
Fig. 9.8 : (a) Zygote formation and development of an embryo from the zygote; (b) Ball of cells
(enlarged); (c) Embedding of the embryo in the uterus (enlarged)
104 SCIENCE
parts such as hands, legs, head, eyes, period? After the chick is completely
ears etc. The stage of the embryo in developed it bursts open the egg shell.
which all the body parts can be In animals which undergo external
identified is called a foetus (Fig. 9.9). fertilisation, development of the embryo
When the development of the foetus is takes place outside the female body. The
complete, the mother gives birth to embryos continue to grow within their
the baby. egg coverings. After the embryos develop,
the eggs hatch. You must have seen
numerous tadpoles swimming in ponds
and streams.
Uterus
Viviparous and Oviparous Animals
We have learnt that some animals give
birth to young ones while some animals
lay eggs which later develop into young
ones. The animals which give birth to
young ones are called viviparous
animals. Those animals which lay eggs
are called oviparous animals. The
following activity will help you
understand better and differentiate
between viviparous and oviparous
Fig. 9.9 : Foetus in the uterus animals.
Internal fertilisation takes place in
Activity 9.2
hens also. But, do hens give birth to
babies like human beings and cows? You Try to collect eggs of the following
know that they do not. Then, how are organisms – frog, lizard, butterfly
chicks born? Let us find out. or moth, hen and crow or any other
Soon after fertilisation, the zygote bird. Were you able to collect eggs
divides repeatedly and travels down the of all of them? Make drawings of the
oviduct. As it travels down, many eggs that you have collected.
protective layers are formed around it.
The eggs of a few animals are easy
The hard shell that you see in a hen’s to collect because their mothers lay
egg is one such protective layer. them outside their bodies. These
After the hard shell is formed around animals from which you have collected
the developing embryo, the hen finally the eggs are examples of oviparous
lays the egg. The embryo takes about 3 animals. But you would not be able to
weeks to develop into a chick. You must collect the eggs of a dog, cow or cat.
have seen the hen sitting on the eggs to This is because they do not lay eggs.
provide sufficient warmth. Did you know The mother gives birth to the young
that development of the chick takes ones. These are examples of viviparous
place inside the egg shell during this animals.
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 105
 Can you now give some more features that are present in the adult are
examples of viviparous and oviparous not found in these young ones. Then what
animals? happens to the tadpoles or caterpillars
thereafter?
Young Ones to Adults You must have seen a beautiful moth
The new individuals which are born or emerging out of the cocoon. In the case of
hatched from the eggs continue to grow tadpoles, they transform into adults
till they become adults. In some capable of jumping and swimming. The
animals, the young ones may look very transformation of the larva into an adult
different from the adults. Recall the life through drastic changes is called
cycle of the silkworm (egg → larva or metamorphosis. What about the changes
caterpillar → pupa → adult) you studied that we observe in our body as we grow?
in Class VII. Frog is another such Do you think we too undergo
example (Fig. 9.10). metamorphosis? In human beings, body
Observe the different stages of frog parts similar to those present in the adults
starting from the egg to the adult stage. are present from the time of birth.
We find that there are three distinct
stages, that is, egg → tadpole (larva) → 9.3 Asexual Reproduction
adult. Don’t the tadpoles look so So far, we have learnt about reproduction
different from the adults? Can you in some familiar animals. But what
imagine that these tadpoles would some about very small animals like hydra and
day become frogs? Similarly, the microscopic organisms like amoeba? Do
caterpillar or the pupa of silkworm looks you know how they reproduce? Let us
very different from the adult moth. The find out.

(b) Early tadpole

(a) Eggs

(c) Late tadpole

(d) Adult frog

Fig. 9.10 : Life cycle of frog

106 SCIENCE
Activity 9.3
Get permanent slides of
hydra. Observe them using
hand lens or a microscope.
Look out for any bulges
from the parent body.
Count the number of
bulges that you see in
different slides. Also, note
the size of the bulges. Draw
the diagram of hydra, as
you see it. Compare it with
Fig. 9.11 : Budding in Hydra
the Fig. 9.11.

In each hydra, there may be one or

more bulges. These bulges are the
developing new individuals and they are
called buds. Recall the presence of buds
in yeast. In hydra too the new individuals
develop as outgrowths from a single (a)
parent. This type of reproduction in
which only a single parent is involved is
called asexual reproduction. Since new
individuals develop from the buds in Dividing nucleus
hydra, this type of asexual reproduction
is called budding. (b)
Another method of asexual
reproduction is observed in the
microscopic organism, amoeba. Let us
see how this happens.
You have already learnt about the
structure of amoeba. You will recall that (c)
amoeba is a single-celled organism
[Fig. 9.12(a)]. It begins the process of
reproduction by the division of its
nucleus into two nuclei [Fig. 9.12(b)]. Daughter amoebae
This is followed by division of its body
into two, each part receiving a nucleus
[Fig. 9.12(c)]. Finally, two amoebae are
produced from one parent amoeba (d)
[Fig. 9.12(d)]. This type of asexual
Fig. 9.12 : Binary fission in Amoeba
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 107
reproduction in which an animal there are other methods by which a
reproduces by dividing into two single parent reproduces young ones.
individuals is called binary fission. You will study about these in your
Apart from budding and binary fission, higher classes.

Story of Dolly, the Clone

Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell, any other living part, or a
complete organism. Cloning of an animal was successfully performed for the first
time by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh,
Scotland. They successfully cloned a sheep named Dolly [Fig. 9.13 (c)]. Dolly was
born on 5th July 1996 and was the first mammal to be cloned.

(a) Finn Dorsett sheep (b) Scottish blackface ewe (c) Dolly

Fig. 9.13
During the process of cloning Dolly, a cell was collected from the mammary gland
of a female Finn Dorsett sheep [Fig. 9.13 (a)]. Simultaneously, an egg was obtained
from a Scottish blackface ewe [Fig. 9.13 (b)]. The nucleus was removed from the
egg. Then, the nucleus of the mammary gland cell from the Finn Dorsett sheep
was inserted into the egg of the Scottish blackface ewe whose nucleus had been
removed. The egg thus produced was implanted into the Scottish blackface ewe.
Development of this egg followed normally and finally Dolly was born. Though
Dolly was given birth by the Scottish blackface ewe, it was found to be absolutely
identical to the Finn Dorsett sheep from which the nucleus was taken. Since the
nucleus from the egg of the Scottish blackface ewe was removed, Dolly did not
show any character of the Scottish blackface ewe. Dolly was a healthy clone of
the Finn Dorsett sheep and produced several offspring of her own through normal
sexual means. Unfortunately, Dolly died on 14th February 2003 due to a certain
lung disease.
Since Dolly, several attempts have been made to produce cloned mammals.
However, many die before birth or die soon after birth. The cloned animals are
many-a-times found to be born with severe abnormalities.

108 SCIENCE
KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ASEXUAL Ü There are two modes by which animals repro-
REPRODUCTION duce. These are: (i) Sexual reproduction, and
(ii) Asexual reproduction.
BINARY FISSION Ü Reproduction resulting from the fusion of male
and female gametes is called sexual
BUDDING reproduction.
Ü The reproductive organs in the female include
EGGS ovaries, oviducts and uterus.
Ü The reproductive organs in male include
EMBRYO testes, sperm ducts and penis.
Ü The ovary produces female gametes called ova
EXTERNAL
and the testes produce male gametes called
FERTILISATION sperms.
Ü The fusion of ovum and sperm is called fertilisation.
FERTILISATION The fertilised egg is called a zygote.
Ü Fertilisation that takes place inside the female
FOETUS
body is called internal fertilisation. This is
observed in human beings and other animals
INTERNAL
such as hens, cows and dogs.
FERTILISATION Ü Fertilisation that takes place outside the
female body is called external fertilisation. This
METAMORPHOSIS is observed in frogs, fish, starfish, etc.
Ü The zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to an
OVIPAROUS ANIMALS
embryo.
Ü The embryo gets embedded in the wall of the
SEXUAL
uterus for further development.
REPRODUCTION Ü The stage of the embryo in which all the body
parts are identifiable is called foetus.
SPERMS
Ü Animals such as human beings, cows and
dogs which give birth to young ones are called
VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS
viviparous animals.
ZYGOTE Ü Animals such as hen, frog, lizard and butterfly
which lay eggs are called oviparous animals.
Ü The transformation of the larva into adult
through drastic changes is called
metamorphosis.
Ü The type of reproduction in which only a single
parent is involved is called asexual
reproduction.
Ü In hydra, new individuals develop from buds.
This method of asexual reproduction is called
budding.
Ü Amoeba reproduces by dividing itself into two.
This type of asexual reproduction is called
binary fission.

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 109

 Exercises

1. Explain the importance of reproduction in organisms.

2. Describe the process of fertilisation in human beings.

3. Choose the most appropriate answer.
(a) Internal fertilisation occurs

(i) in female body.

(ii) outside female body.
(iii) in male body.

(iv) outside male body.

(b) A tadpole develops into an adult frog by the process of
(i) fertilisation (ii) metamorphosis (iii) embedding (iv) budding

(c) The number of nuclei present in a zygote is

(i) none (ii) one (iii) two (iv) four
4. Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).

(a) Oviparous animals give birth to young ones. ( )

(b) Each sperm is a single cell. ( )
(c) External fertilisation takes place in frog. ( )

(d) A new human individual develops from a cell called gamete. ( )

(e) Egg laid after fertilisation is made up of a single cell. ( )
(f) Amoeba reproduces by budding. ( )

(g) Fertilisation is necessary even in asexual reproduction. ( )

(h) Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction. ( )
(i) A zygote is formed as a result of fertilisation. ( )

(j) An embryo is made up of a single cell. ( )

5. Give two differences between a zygote and a foetus.
6. Define asexual reproduction. Describe two methods of asexual reproduction
in animals.
7. In which female reproductive organ does the embryo get embedded?
8. What is metamorphosis? Give examples.

9. Differentiate between internal fertilisation and external fertilisation.

110 SCIENCE
 10. Complete the crossword puzzle using the hints given below.
EXERCISES Across

1. The process of the fusion of the gametes.

6. The type of fertilisation in hen.
7. The term used for bulges observed on the sides of the body of hydra.

8. Eggs are produced here.

Down
2. Sperms are produced in these male reproductive organs.

3. Another term for the fertilised egg.

4. These animals lay eggs.
5. A type of fission in amoeba.

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Visit a poultry farm. Talk to the manager of the farm and try to find
out the answers to the following.
(a) What are layers and broilers in a poultry farm?
(b) Do hens lay unfertilised eggs?
(c) How can you obtain fertilised and unfertilised eggs?
(d) Are the eggs that we get in the stores fertilised or unfertilised?
(e) Can you consume fertilised eggs?
(f) Is there any difference in the nutritional value of fertilised
and unfertilised eggs?

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 111

 2. Observe live hydra yourself and learn how they reproduce by doing
the following activity:
During the summer months collect water weeds from ponds or ditches
along with the pond water and put them in a glass jar. After a day or
so you may see several hydra clinging to the sides of the jar.
Hydra is transparent, jelly-like and with tentacles. It clings to the
jar with the base of its body. If the jar is shaken, the hydra will
contract instantly into a small blob, at the same time drawing its
tentacles in.
Now take out few hydras from the jar and put them on a watch
glass. Using a hand lens or a binocular or dissection microscope,
observe the changes that are taking place in their body. Note down
your observations.
3. The eggs we get from the market are generally the unfertilised ones.
In case you wish to observe a developing chick embryo, get a fertilised
egg from the poultry or hatchery which has been incubated for 36
hours or more. You may then be able to see a white disc-like structure
on the yolk. This is the developing embryo. Sometimes if the heart
and blood vessels have developed you may even see a red spot.
4. Talk to a doctor. Find out how twinning occurs. Look for any twins
in your neighbourhood, or among your friends. Find out if the twins
are identical or non-identical. Also find out why identical twins are
always of the same sex? If you know of any story about twins, write
it in your own words. You could visit the following website for
information on twins: www.keepkidshealthy.com/twins/
expecting_twins.html.
For more information on animal reproduction, you can visit :
l www.saburchill.com/chapters/chap0031.html

Did You Know?

An interesting organisation is observed in a honey bee hive, a colony of several
thousand bees. Only one bee in the colony lays eggs. This bee is called the
queen bee. All other female bees are worker bees. Their main job is to build the
hive, look after the young and feed the queen bee adequately to keep her
healthy so that she can lay eggs. A queen bee lays thousands of eggs. The
fertilised eggs hatch into females, while the unfertilised eggs give rise to males,
called drones. It is the job of the worker bees to maintain the temperature of
the hive at around 35°C to incubate the eggs.

112 SCIENCE
 REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE

I
n the previous chapter, you have no longer a child but are on the way to
learnt how animals reproduce. It is becoming an adult.
only after ‘growing up’ to a certain
age that human beings and many other
animals can reproduce. Why can I wonder how long this
humans reproduce only after a certain period marked by changes
age? in the body will last!
In this chapter, you will learn about
changes that take place in the human
body after which a person becomes
capable of reproduction. It is a strange period of life
In Chapter 9, you have learnt about when you are neither a child nor
human reproductive organs. Here, we an adult. I wonder whether this
shall discuss the role that hormones play period between childhood and
in bringing about changes that make a adulthood had a special name!
child grow into an adult.
Growing up is a natural process. The
10.1 Adolescence and Puberty period of life, when the body undergoes
changes, leading to reproductive
Boojho was celebrating his 12th
maturity, is called adolescence.
birthday. After his friends left, Boojho
Adolescence begins around the age of
and Paheli began chatting with their
11 and lasts upto 18 or 19 years of age.
parents. Paheli studies in an all-girls
Since this period covers the ‘teens’ (13
school. She started laughing. She
to 18 or 19 years of age), adolescents
remarked that many of Boojho’s school are also called ‘teenagers’. In girls,
friends, whom she met after a year, had adolescence may begin a year or two
suddenly shot up in height. Some of earlier than in boys. Also, the period of
them were looking very funny with a adolescence varies from person to person.
hairy line above their lips. Her mother The human body undergoes several
explained that the boys had grown up. changes during adolescence. These
Growth begins from the day one is changes mark the onset of puberty. The
born. But upon crossing the age of 10 most important change which marks
or 11, there is a sudden spurt in growth puberty is that boys and girls become
which becomes noticeable. The changes capable of reproduction. Puberty ends
taking place in the body are part of when an adolescent reaches reproductive
growing up. They indicate that you are maturity.
 the tallest and who might be the
shortest in your class.
Paheli and Boojho
realised that sudden
Age in % of full height
increase in height and
hairy line above the lips Years Boys Girls
in boys were signs of
adolescence. They 8 72% 77%
wanted to know more
about other changes at 9 75% 81%
puberty.
10 78% 84%

11 81% 88%

12 84% 91%
10.2 Changes at Puberty
13 88% 95%
Increase in Height
The most conspicuous change during 14 92% 98%
puberty is the sudden increase in 15 95% 99%
height. At this time the long bones, that
is, the bones of the arms and the legs 16 98% 99.5%
elongate and make a person tall.
17 99% 100%
Activity 10.1
18 100% 100%
The following chart gives the
average rate of growth in height of
boys and girls with age. The figures
in columns 2 and 3, give the Calculation for full height (cm)
percentage of the height a person Present height (cm)
has reached at the age given in × 100
% of full height at this age
column 1. For example, by the age (as given in the chart)
11, a boy has reached 81% of his
probable full height, while a girl Example:
has reached 88% of her full
height. These figures are only A boy is 9 years old and 120 cm
representative and there may be tall. At the end of the growth period
individual variations. he is likely to be
Use the Table for your friends
and work out how tall they are likely 120
× 100 cm = 160 cm tall
to be. Find out who is likely to be 75

114 SCIENCE
Activity 10.2 There is no need for Paheli to worry.
All parts of the body do not grow at the
Use the data given in Activity 10.1 same rate. Sometimes the arms and legs
to draw a graph. Take age on the X-
or hands and feet of adolescents look
axis and per cent growth in height
oversized and out of proportion with the
on the Y-axis. Highlight the point
body. But soon the other parts catch
representing your age on the graph.
up and result in a proportionate body.
Find out the percentage of height
You must have noticed that height
you have already reached. Calculate
the height you might eventually of an individual is more or less similar
reach. Tally your graph with the one to that of some family member. This is
given here (Fig. 10.1). because height depends on the genes
inherited from parents. It is, however,
very important to eat the right kind of
food during these growing years. This
helps the bones, muscles and other
parts of the body get adequate
nourishment for growth. You will find
nutritional needs of adolescents
discussed later in the lesson.

Change in Body Shape

Have you noticed that boys in your class
have broader shoulders and wider chests
than boys in junior classes? This is
Fig. 10.1 : Graph showing percentage of height because they have entered the age of
with age puberty when shoulders generally
broaden as a result of growth. In girls,
Initially, girls grow faster than boys the region below the waist becomes
but by about 18 years of age, both reach wider.
their maximum height. The rate of In boys, the muscles of the body grow
growth in height varies in different more prominently than in the girls.
individuals. Some may grow suddenly
Thus, changes occurring in adolescent
at puberty and then slow down, while
boys and girls are different.
others may grow gradually.
Voice Change
Did you notice that sometimes the voice
of some of the boys in your class cracks?
I am worried. Though I
At puberty, the voice box or the larynx
have become taller, my
begins to grow. Boys develop larger voice
face looks much smaller
compared to my body. boxes. The growing voice box in boys can
be seen as a protruding part of the throat
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 115
called Adam’s apple (Fig. 10.2). In girls, and pimples on the face at this time
the larynx is hardly visible from the because of the increased activity of these
outside because of its small size. glands in the skin.
Generally, girls have a high pitched voice,
whereas boys have a deep voice. In Development of Sex Organs
adolescent boys, sometimes, the muscles Look up Fig. 9.1 and 9.3 of the
of the growing voice box go out of control previous lesson which shows sex
and the voice becomes hoarse. This state organs of humans. At puberty, male
may remain for a few days or weeks after sex organs like the testes and penis
which the voice becomes normal. develop completely. The testes also
begin to produce sperms. In girls, the
ovaries enlarge and eggs begin to
Adam’s mature. Also ovaries start releasing
apple mature eggs.

Reaching Mental, Intellectual and

Emotional Maturity
Adolescence is also a period of change
in a person’s way of thinking.
Adolescents are more independent than
before and are also self conscious.
Intellectual development takes place and
Fig. 10.2 : Adam’s apple in a grown up boy
they tend to spend considerable time
thinking. In fact, it is often the time in
one’s life when the brain has the
greatest capacity for learning.
Many of my classmates Sometimes, however, an adolescent may
have a hoarse voice. Now I feel insecure while trying to adjust to
know why? the changes in the body and mind. But
as adolescent learners, you should know
Increased Activity of Sweat and
that there is no reason to feel insecure.
Sebaceous Glands
These changes are a natural part of
During puberty the secretion of sweat growing up.
glands and sebaceous glands (oil glands)
increases. Many young people get acne 10.3 Secondary Sexual
A few glands such as sweat glands,
Characters
oil glands and salivary glands release You have learnt in Chapter 9, that
their secretions through ducts. testes and ovaries are the reproductive
Endocrine glands release hormones organs. They produce the gametes,
directly into the bloodstream. So, they that is, sperms and ova. In girls,
are also termed ductless glands.
breasts begin to develop at puberty
116 SCIENCE
and boys begin to grow facial hair, that The testes and ovaries secrete sex
is, moustaches and beard. As these hormones. You have just learnt that
features help to distinguish the male these hormones are responsible for the
from the female they are called male and female secondary sexual
secondary sexual characters. Boys characters. Further, the sex hormones
also develop hair on their chest. In are under the control of hormones from
both, boys and girls, hair grows under the pituitary gland (Fig. 10.3). The
the arms and in the region above the pituitary secretes many hormones, one
thighs or the pubic region. of which makes ova mature in the
ovaries and sperms form in the testes.
Both Boojho and Paheli wish to know
what initiates changes at puberty.

The changes which occur at

adolescence are controlled by
hormones. Hormones are chemical
substances. These are secretions from
endocrine glands, or endocrine system.
The male hormone or testosterone
begins to be released by the testes at
the onset of puberty. This causes
changes in boys about which you have
just learnt, for example, the growth of
facial hair. Once puberty is reached in
girls, ovaries begin to produce the female
hormone or estrogen which makes the
breasts develop. Milk secreting glands
or mammary glands develop inside the
breasts. The production of these
hormones is under the control of
another hormone secreted from an
endocrine gland called pituitary gland.
Fig. 10.3 : The onset of puberty is controlled by
10.4 Role of Hormones in hormones
Initiating Reproductive
Function
Paheli and Boojho have now
Endocrine glands release hormones understood that puberty marks the
into the bloodstream to reach a beginning of the reproductive period
particular body part called target site. when one becomes capable of
The target site responds to the reproduction. But they want to know
hormone. There are many endocrine if reproductive life, once begun,
glands or ductless glands in the body. continues, or it ends some time.

REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 117

10.5 Reproductive Phase of Menstrual cycle is controlled by
Life in Humans hormones. The cycle includes the
maturation of the egg, its release,
Adolescents become capable of thickening of uterine wall and its
reproduction when their testes and breakdown if pregnancy does not
ovaries begin to produce gametes. The occur. In case the egg is fertilised it
capacity for maturation and production begins to divide a nd then ge t s
of gametes lasts for a much longer time embedded in the uterus for further
in males than in females. development as you have learnt in
In females, the reproductive phase of Chapter 9 (Fig. 9.8).
life begins at puberty (10 to 12 years of
age) and generally lasts till the age of 10.6 How is the Sex of the
approximately 45 to 50 years. The ova Baby Determined?
begin to mature with the onset of
puberty. One ovum matures and is
released by one of the ovaries once in
about 28 to 30 days. During this I heard my mother and my
period, the wall of the uterus becomes aunt talking about my cousin
thick so as to receive the egg, in case who is going to have a baby.
it is fertilised and begins to develop. They were discussing whether
T h i s res ul ts i n pr eg n an cy. If she would give birth to a boy
fertilisation does not occur, the or a girl. I wonder what makes
released egg, and the thickened lining the fertilised egg develop
either into a boy or a girl!
of the uterus along with its blood
vessels are shed off. This causes
Boy or Girl?
bleeding in women which is called
menstruation. Menstruation occurs Inside the fertilised egg or zygote is the
once in about 28 to 30 days. The first instruction for determining the sex of
menstrual flow begins at puberty and the baby. This instruction is present in
is termed menarche. At 45 to 50 years the thread-like structures, called
of age, the menstrual cycle stops. chromosomes in the fertilised egg.
Stoppage of menstruation is termed Recall from Chapter 8, that
menopause. Initially, menstrual cycle chromosomes are present inside the
may be irregular. It take some time to nucleus of every cell. All human beings
become regular. have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the
nuclei of their cells. Two chromosomes
out of these are the sex chromosomes,
named X and Y. A female has two X
Paheli says that the chromosomes, while a male has one X
reproductive life of a and one Y chromosome. The gametes
woman lasts from (egg and sperm) have only one set of
menarche to menopause. chromosomes. The unfertilised egg
Is she right?
always has one X chromosome. But
118 SCIENCE
sperms are of two kinds. One kind has and ovaries to produce their hormones.
an X chromosome, and the other kind You have already learnt that the
has a Y chromosome. pituitary gland is an endocrine gland.
See Fig. 10.4. When a sperm It is attached to the brain.
containing X chromosome fertilises the Apart from the pituitary, the testes
egg, the zygote would have two X and the ovaries, there are other
chromosomes and develop into a female endocrine glands in the body such as
child. If the sperm contributes a Y thyroid, pancreas and adrenals
chromosome to the egg (ovum) at (Fig. 10.5).
fertilisation, the zygote would develop
into a male child.
pituitary
gland

sperm thyroid gland

adrenal
gland

eggs
pancreas

position of
the ovary in
the female

boy girl testis

Fig. 10.4 : Sex determination in humans

Now you know that the sex

chromosomes of the father determine the Fig. 10.5 : Position of endocrine glands in the
sex of an unborn baby. The belief that human body
the mother is responsible for the sex of
Boojho and Paheli had once visited
her baby is completely wrong and to
their aunt who was a doctor and
blame her for this is totally unjustified.
remembered that a boy named Kaka had
10.7 Hormones other than a very big and bulging throat. Their aunt
had told them that Kaka was suffering
Sex Hormones from ‘goitre’, a disease of the thyroid
Look at Fig. 10.3 again. The hormones gland. Kaka’s thyroid gland was not
secreted by the pituitary stimulate testes producing the hormone thyroxine.
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 119
Their aunt also told them that their This change from larva to adult is
uncle was suffering from ‘diabetes’ called metamorphosis (Fig. 9.10).
because his pancreas was not producing Metamorphosis in insects is controlled
the hormone insulin in sufficient by insect hormones. In a frog, it is
quantities. Boojho and Paheli then controlled by thyroxine, the hormone
asked their aunt about the adrenal produced by thyroid. Thyroxine
glands, which are also shown in the production requires the presence of
chart hung on the wall of her clinic. The iodine in water. If the water in which
aunt told them that adrenal glands the tadpoles are growing does not
secrete hormones which maintain the contain sufficient iodine, the tadpoles
correct salt balance in the blood. cannot become adults.
Adrenals also produce the hormone
adrenalin. It helps the body to adjust
to stress when one is very angry, If people do not have
embarrassed or worried. enough iodine in their diet,
Thyroid and adrenals secrete their will they get goitre caused
hormones when they receive orders from by lack of thyroxine?
the pituitary through its hormones.
Pituitary also secretes growth hormone Activity 10.3
which is necessary for the normal
growth of a person. Collect information from magazines
or from doctors and prepare a note
on the importance of consuming
iodised salt. You can also look for
this information on the internet.
Are there hormones in
other animals also? Have
they any role to play in 10.9 Reproductive Health
reproduction? The physical and mental well being of
an individual is regarded as an
10.8 Role of Hormones in individual’s health. To keep the body
healthy, every human being, at any age,
Completing the Life needs to have a balanced diet. The
History of Insects and person must also observe personal
Frogs hygiene and undertake adequate
You have already learnt about the life physical exercise.
history of the silk moth and the frog. During adolescence, however, these
The caterpillar has to pass through become even more essential as the body
various stages to become an adult moth. is growing.
Recall from Class VII the stages of the
life history of the silk moth. Similarly, Nutritional Needs of the Adolescents
the tadpole passes through certain Adolescence is a stage of rapid growth
stages to become a frog (Chapter 9). and development. Hence the diet for an
120 SCIENCE
adolescent has to be carefully planned. Activity 10.5
You have already learnt what a balanced
Get ideas from the pictures given in
diet is. Recall that a balanced diet means
Fig.10.6. Prepare charts or posters
that the meals include proteins,
and paste them in the class so that
carbohydrates, fats and vitamins in you are aware of the diet for
requisite proportions. Our Indian meal adolescents. You may use your
of roti/rice, dal (pulses) and vegetables creative ideas and present it like an
is a balanced meal. Milk is a balanced advertisement. You may even
food in itself. Fruits also provide organise a competition on this topic.
nourishment. For infants, mother’s milk
provides all the nourishment that they
need.
Iron builds blood and iron-rich food
meat
such as leafy vegetables, jaggery, meat,
vegetables
citrus, Indian gooseberry (amla) are good
for adolescents.
milk and
Check items for lunch and dinner in eggs
your meal. Is the meal balanced and
nutritious? Does it include cereals
which give energy and milk, meat, nuts
and pulses which provide proteins for
growth? Also, does it include fats and
fruits
sugar that give energy? What about
fruits and vegetables which are
protective foods? Chips and packed or
tinned snacks, though very tasty
should never replace regular meals as
they do not have adequate nutritional
value.
grains
Activity 10.4
Fig. 10.6 : Nutritious items of food
Make a group with your friends.
Write down the items of food in your Personal Hygiene
breakfast, lunch and dinner you
Everyone should have a bath at least
had on the previous day. Identify
once everyday. It is more necessary for
the items responsible for proper
teenagers because the increased activity
growth. Also identified the junk
of sweat glands sometimes makes the
food that you consumed the
body smelly. All parts of the body should
previous day.
be washed and cleaned everyday. If

REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 121

cleanliness is not maintained there are Activity 10.6
chances of catching bacterial infection.
Girls should take special care of Collect data on the number of
cleanliness during the time of menstrual children in your class who exercise
flow. They should keep track of their regularly and who do not exercise
menstrual cycle and be prepared for the regularly. Did you notice any
onset of menstruation. difference in their fitness and
health? Prepare a report on the
Physical exercise benefits of regular exercise.
Walking and playing in fresh air keeps
the body fit and healthy. All young boys
Say “NO” to Drugs
and girls should take walks, exercise Adolescence is a period of much
and play outdoor games. activity in the body and mind which
is a normal part of growing up. So do
Myths, Taboos, Do’s and Don’ts
not feel confused or insecure. If
You have lear nt here and from anybody suggests that you will get
Chapter 9 the scientific facts related relief if you take some drugs, just say
to human reproduction. There are ‘No’ unless prescribed by the doctor.
many wrong notions which you should
Drugs are addictive. If you take them
now be able to discard as informed
adolescents. For example, there are once, you feel like taking them again
myths and taboos regarding bodily and again. They harm the body in the
changes that adolescents experience. long run. They ruin health and
Some of these are given below and happiness.
you can now argue why these are You must have heard about AIDS
myths and not facts. which is caused by a dangerous virus,
1. A girl becomes pregnant if HIV. This virus can pass on to a
she looks at boys during
normal person from an infected
menstruation.
2. The mother is responsible for the person by sharing the syringes used
sex of her child. for injecting drugs. It can also be
3. A girl should not be allowed to transmitted to an infant from the
work in the kitchen during infected mother through her milk. The
menstruation. virus can also be transmitted through
You may come across many other myths sexual contact with a person infected
and taboos. Discard them. with HIV.
Adolescent Pregnancy
You might be knowing that in our country, the legal age for marriage is 18 years
for girls and 21 years for boys. This is because teenage mothers are not prepared
mentally or physically for motherhood. Early marriage and motherhood cause
health problems in the mother and the child. It also curtails employment
opportunities for the young woman and may cause mental agony as she is not
ready for responsibilities of motherhood.

122 SCIENCE
KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ADAM’S APPLE Ü Humans become capable of reproduction af-
ter puberty sets in. Between the ages of 11
ADOLESCENCE
years and 19 years children are called ado-
ADRENALIN lescents.
Ü The onset of puberty brings about growth of
BALANCED DIET
the reproductive organs. Hair grow at various
ENDOCRINE GLANDS places on the body. Breasts develop in girls
and facial hair (moustache and beard) appear
ESTROGEN
in boys. Voice of boys becomes hoarse as voice
HORMONES box enlarges during adolescence.
Ü Children gain height during adolescence.
INSULIN
Ü The onset of puberty and maturity of
PITUITARY GLAND reproductive parts are controlled by hormones.
Ü Hormones are secretions of endocrine glands
PUBERTY
which pour them directly into the blood stream.
REPRODUCTIVE Ü Pituitary gland secretes hormones which in-
HEALTH clude growth hormone and hormones that
make other glands such as the testes, ovaries,
SECONDARY SEXUAL thyroids and adrenals, secrete hormones.
CHARACTERS Pancreas secretes insulin, thyroid produces

SEX CHROMOSOMES thyroxine and adrenals produce adrenalin.

Ü Testosterone is the male hormone and
TARGET SITE estrogen, the female hormone. The uterine wall
in females prepares itself to receive the
TESTOSTERONE
developing fertilised egg. In case there is no
THYROXINE fertilisation, the thickened lining of the uterine
wall breaks down and goes out of the body
VOICE BOX
along with blood. This is called menstruation.
Ü Sex of the unborn child depends on whether
the zygote has XX or XY chromosomes.
Ü It is important to eat balanced food and
maintain personal hygiene during
adolescence.

REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 123

 Exercises

1. What is the term used for secretions of endocrine glands responsible for
changes taking place in the body?
2. Define adolescence.
3. What is menstruation? Explain.

4. List changes in the body that take place at puberty.

5. Prepare a Table having two columns depicting names of endocrine glands
and hormones secreted by them.

6. What are sex hormones? Why are they named so? State their function.
7. Choose the correct option.
(a) Adolescents should be careful about what they eat, because

(i) proper diet develops their brains.

(ii) proper diet is needed for the rapid growth taking place in their
body.

(iii) adolescents feel hungry all the time.

(iv) taste buds are well developed in teenagers.
(b) Reproductive age in women starts when their

(i) menstruation starts.

(ii) breasts start developing.
(iii) body weight increases.

(iv) height increases.

(c) The right meal for adolescents consists of
(i) chips, noodles, coke.

(ii) chapati, dal, vegetables.

(iii) rice, noodles and burger.
(iv) vegetable cutlets, chips and lemon drink.

8. Write notes on—

(a) Adam’s apple.
(b) Secondary sexual characters.

(c) Sex determination in the unborn baby.

124 SCIENCE
 9. Word game : Use the clues to work out the words.
EXERCISES Across
3. Protruding voice box in boys
4. Glands without ducts
7. Endocrine gland attached to brain
8. Secretion of endocrine glands
9. Pancreatic hormone
10. Female hormone
Down
1. Male hormone
2. Secretes thyroxine
3. Another term for teenage
5. Hormone reaches here through blood stream
6. Voice box
7. Term for changes at adolescence

REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 125

 10. The table below shows the data on likely heights of boys and girls as they
grow in age. Draw graphs showing height and age for both boys and
girls on the same graph paper. What conclusions can be drawn from
these graphs?

Age Height (cm)

(Years) Boys Girls
0 53 53
4 96 92
8 114 110
12 129 133
16 150 150
20 173 165

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Find out from your elder relatives about their awareness of the
legal status of early marriage. You yourself may get information on
it from your teacher, parents, a doctor or the internet. Write a two-
minute speech explaining why early marriage is not good for the
couple.
2. Collect newspaper cuttings and information in magazines about HIV/
AIDS. Write a one page article of 15 to 20 sentences on HIV/AIDS.
3. In our country, according to 2011 census, there are 940 adolescent
females for every 1000 males. Find out.
(a) the concerns of the community regarding this low ratio.
Remember that the chance of having a boy or a girl is equal.
(b) what amniocentesis is and how useful this technique is. Why
is its use for identification of sex of the unborn child banned
in India?
4. Put your ideas together and write a short note on the importance of
knowing facts about reproduction.

126 SCIENCE
 FORCE AND PRESSURE

I
n Class VII, you have learnt how a flick of the stick (Fig. 11.1). In all
objects move. Do you recall how we these situations the ball is either
can decide whether an object is made to move faster or slower or its
moving faster than the other? What does direction of motion is changed.
the distance moved by an object in unit We often say that a force has been
time indicate? You also know that a applied on a ball when it is kicked,
moving object like a ball rolling on the pushed, thrown or flicked. What is a
ground slows down. Sometimes it may force? What can it do to bodies on which
change its direction of motion. It is also it is applied? We shall seek answers to
possible that the ball may slow down such questions in this chapter.
and also change its direction. Have you
ever wondered what makes an object 11.1 Force – A Push or a Pull
slow down or go faster, or change its
direction of motion? Actions like picking, opening,
Let us recall some of our everyday shutting, kicking, hitting, lifting,
experiences. What do you do to make flicking, pushing, pulling are often
a football move? What do you do to used to describe certain tasks. Each
make a moving ball move faster? How of these actions usually results in
does a goalkeeper stop a ball? How some kind of change in the motion of
do fielders stop a ball hit by a an object. Can these terms be
batsman? A hockey player changes replaced with one or more terms? Let
the direction of the moving ball with us find out.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 11.1 : (a) A goal keeper saving a goal, (b) A hockey player flicking a ball, and
(c) A fielder stopping a ball
Activity 11.1
Table 11.1 gives some examples of familiar situations involving motion of objects.
You can add more such situations or replace those given here. Try to identify
action involved in each case as a push and/or a pull and record your observations.
One example has been given to help you.

Table 11.1 : Identifying Actions as Push or Pull

S. Description of Action : (pushing/ pulling/picking/ Action can be

No the situation hitting/lifting/ lowering/flying/ grouped as a
kicking/ throwing/shutting/
flicking ) Push Pull

1. Moving a book Pushing Pulling Lifting — Yes Yes

placed on a table

2. Opening or
shutting a door

3. Drawing a bucket
of water from a
well

4. A football player
taking a penalty
kick

5. A cricket ball hit

by a batsman

6. Moving a loaded
cart

7. Opening a
drawer
Do you notice that each of the actions
can be grouped as a pull or a push or
both? Can we infer from this, that to move
an object, it has to be pushed or pulled? I learnt in Class VI that a
In science, a push or a pull on an magnet attracts a piece of
object is called a force. Thus, we can iron towards it. Is attraction
say that the motion imparted to objects also a pull? What about
was due to the action of a force. When repulsion between similar
poles of two magnets? Is it a
does a force come into play? Let us
pull or a push?
find out.
128 SCIENCE
11.2 Forces are due to an Fig. 11.3 shows three situations that
Interaction may be familiar to you. Can you decide
who is pulling and who is pushing in
Suppose a man is standing behind a
stationary car [Fig.11.2(a)]. Will the car these cases? In Fig. 11.3 (a), both the
move due to his presence? Suppose the girls appear to push each other while
man now begins to push the car
[Fig.11.2(b)], that is, he applies a force on
it. The car may begin to move in the

Fig 11.3 (b) : Who is pulling whom ?

Fig.11.2(a) : A man standing behind a stationary car the pair of girls in Fig. 11.3 (b) are trying
to pull each other. Similarly, the cow
and the man in Fig. 11. 3(c) appear to

Fig.11.2 (b) : A car being pushed by a man

direction of the applied force. Note that the Fig 11.3 (c) : Who is pulling whom?
man has to push the car to make it move.
pull each other. The girls in the two
situations shown here are applying force
on each other. Is it also true for the man
and the cow?
From these examples, we can infer
that at least two objects must interact
for a force to come into play. Thus, an
interaction of one object with another
object results in a force between the
Fig11.3 (a) : Who is pushing whom? two objects.
FORCE AND PRESSURE 129
11.3 Exploring Forces
Let us try to learn more about forces.

Activity 11.2
Choose a heavy object like a table
or a box, which you can move only
by pushing hard. Try to push it all
Fig. 11.5 : The rope may not move if the two
by yourself. Can you move it? Now teams pull at it with equal force
ask one of your friends to help you
in pushing it in the same direction rope in their direction. Sometimes the rope
simply does not move. Is it not similar to
[Fig.11.4(a)]. Is it easier to move it
the situation shown in Fig. 11.3 (b)? The
now? Can you explain why?
team that pulls harder, that is, applies a
Now push the same object, but
larger force, finally wins the game.
ask your friend to push it from the
What do these examples suggest
opposite side [Fig.11.4 (b)]. Does the about the nature of force?
object move? If it does, note the Forces applied on an object in the
direction in which it moves. Can same direction add to one another. Now
you guess which one of you is recall what happened when you and
applying a larger force? your friend pushed the heavy box in the
(a) same direction in Activity 11.2.
If the two forces act in the opposite
directions on an object, the net force acting
on it is the difference between the two
forces. What did you observe in Activity
11.2 when both of you were pushing the
heavy box from opposite directions?
Recall that in the tug-of-war when
two teams pull equally hard, the rope
(b) does not move in any direction.
So, we learn that a force could be larger
or smaller than the other. The strength of
a force is usually expressed by its
magnitude. We have also to specify the
direction in which a force acts. Also, if the
Fig. 11.4 : Two friends pushing a heavy load
direction or the magnitude of the applied
(a) in the same direction, (b) in
opposite direction force changes, its effect also changes.

Have you ever seen a game of tug-of Does it mean that the net
war? In this game two teams pull at a force on an object is zero if the
rope in opposite directions (Fig. 11.5). two forces acting on it in
Members of both the teams try to pull the opposite directions are equal?

130 SCIENCE
 In general, more than one force may You might recall similar situations.
be acting on an object. However, the For example, while taking a penalty kick
effect on the object is due to the net in football, the player applies a force on
force acting on it. the ball. Before being hit, the ball was at
rest and so its speed was zero. The
applied force makes the ball move
11.4 A Force can Change the
towards the goal. Suppose, the
State of Motion goalkeeper dives or jumps up to save the
Let us now find out what happens when goal. By his action the goalkeeper tries
a force acts on an object. to apply a force on the moving ball. The
force applied by him can stop or deflect
Activity 11.3 the ball, saving a goal being scored. If
the goalkeeper succeeds in stopping the
Take a rubber ball and place it on a
ball, its speed decreases to zero.
level surface such as a table top or
These observations suggest that a
a concrete floor. Now, gently push
force applied on an object may change
the ball along the level surface
its speed. If the force applied on the object
(Fig. 11.6). Does the ball begin to
is in the direction of its motion, the speed
move? Push the ball again while it
of the object increases. If the force is
is still moving. Is there any change
applied in the direction opposite to the
in its speed? Does it increase or
direction of motion, then it results in a
decrease?
decrease in the speed of the object.
Next, place your palm in front
of the moving ball. Remove your
I have seen
palm as soon as the moving ball
children competing with one
touches it. Does your palm apply a another in moving a rubber tyre
force on the ball? What happens to or a ring by pushing it
the speed of the ball now? Does it (Fig. 11.7). I now understand
increase or decrease? What would why the speed of the tyre
increases whenever it is
happen if you let your palm hold
pushed.
the moving ball?

Fig. 11.6 : A ball at rest begins to move Fig. 11.7 : To move a tyre faster it has to be
when a force is applied on it pushed repeatedly

FORCE AND PRESSURE 131

 Paheli is curious to know whether L et u s co n si de r so m e m o r e
application of a force can only change the examples. In a game of volleyball,
speed of an object. Let us find out. players often push the moving ball to
their team mates to make a winning
Activity 11.4 move. Sometimes the ball is returned
to the other side of the court by
Take a ball and place it on a level
pushing or smashing it. In cricket, a
surface as you did in Activity 11.3.
batsman plays his or her shot by
Make the ball move by giving it a
applying a force on the ball with the
push. Now place the ruler from your
ba t. I s ther e a ny cha nge in t h e
geometry box in its path as shown
direction of motion of the ball in these
in Fig. 11.8. In doing so, you would
cases? In all these examples the speed
apply a force on the moving ball.
and the direction of the moving ball
Does the ball continue to move in
change due to the application of a
the same direction after it strikes
force. Can you give a few more
the ruler? Repeat the activity and
examples of this kind?
try to obstruct the moving ball by
A change in either the speed of an
placing the ruler in such a way that
object, or its direction of motion, or both,
it makes different angles to its path.
is described as a change in its state of
In each case note your observations
motion. Thus, a force may bring a
about the direction of motion of the
change in the state of motion of an
ball after it strikes the ruler.
object.

State of Motion
The state of motion of an object is
described by its speed and the
direction of motion. The state of rest
is considered to be the state of zero
(a) speed. An object may be at rest or in
motion; both are its states of motion.

Does it mean that the application of

a force would always result in a change
in the state of motion of the object? Let
us find out.
It is common experience that many
a time application of force does not result
(b) in a change in the state of motion. For
Fig. 11.8 : (a) A ball set in motion by example, a heavy box may not move at
pushing it along a level surface all even if you apply the maximum force
and (b) the direction of motion that you can exert. Again, no effect of
of the ball after it strikes the force is observed when you try to push
ruler placed in its path
a wall.
132 SCIENCE
11.5 Force can Change the
Shape of an Object

Activity 11.5
Some situations have been given in Column 1 of Table 11.2 in which
objects are not free to move. Column 2 of the Table suggests the manner
in which a force can be applied on each object while Column 3 shows a
diagram of the action. Try to observe the effect of force in as many situations
as possible. You can also add similar situations using available material
from your environment. Note your observations in Columns 4 and 5 of
the Table.

Table 11.2 : Studying the Effect of Force on Objects

Description of How to Apply Diagram Action of Force

Situation Force
Change in Change in
State of Shape
Motion
Yes No Yes No
A lump of dough on Pressing it down
a plate. with your hands.

Spring fixed to the By sitting on the

seat of a bicycle. seat.

A rubber band By hanging a

suspended from a weight or by
hook/nail fixed on a pulling its free end.
wall.

A plastic or metal By putting a weight

scale placed at the centre of the
between two bricks. scale.

FORCE AND PRESSURE 133

 What do you conclude from the help of a stick or a piece of rope. When
observations noted in Table 11.2? we push an object like a school bag or
What happens when you apply a force lift a bucket of water, where does the
on an inflated balloon by pressing it force come from? This force is caused
between your palms? What happens by the action of muscles in our body.
to the shape of a ball of dough when it The force resulting due to the action of
is rolled to make a chapati? What muscles is known as the muscular
happens when you press a rubber ball force.
p l a c e d on a tab l e? In all these
examples you saw that the application It is the muscular force that enables
of force on an object may change its us to perform all activities involving
movement or bending of our body. In
shape.
Class VII you have learnt that in the
Having performed all the above process of digestion the food gets
activities, you would have realised that pushed through the alimentary canal.
a force Could it be a muscular force that does
it? You also know that lungs expand
l may make an object move from rest. and contract while we inhale and
l may change the speed of an object exhale air during breathing. Where
if it is moving. are these muscles located which
l may change the direction of motion make breathing possible? Can you list
a few more examples of the force
of an object.
exerted by the muscles in our body?
l may bring about a change in the
shape of an object.
Animals also make use of muscular
l may cause some or all of these
force to carry out their physical activities
effects. and other tasks. Animals like bullocks,
horses, donkeys and camels are used to
While a force may cause one or more
per for m various tasks for us. In
of these effects, it is important to
per for ming these tasks they use
remember that none of these actions can
muscular force (Fig. 11.9).
take place without the action of a force.
Thus, an object cannot move by itself,
it cannot change speed by itself, it
cannot change direction by itself and
its shape cannot change by itself.

11.6 Contact Forces

Muscular Force
Can you push or lift a book lying on a
table without touching it? Can you lift
a bucket of water without holding it?
Generally, to apply a force on an object,
your body has to be in contact with the Fig.11.9 : Muscular force of animals is used to
object. The contact may also be with the carry out many difficult tasks
134 SCIENCE
 Since muscular force can be applied on an object to be always in contact with
only when it is in contact with an object, it. Let us find out.
it is also called a contact force. Are there
other types of contact forces? Let us find 11.7 Non-contact Forces
out. Magnetic Force
Friction
Activity 11.6
Recall some of your experiences. A ball
rolling along the ground gradually slows Take a pair of bar magnets. Place
down and finally comes to rest. When the longer side of one of the magnets
we stop pedalling a bicycle, it gradually over three round shaped pencils or
slows down and finally comes to a stop. wooden rollers as shown in
A car or a scooter also comes to rest Fig.11.10. Now bring one end of the
once its engine is switched off. Similarly, other magnet near the end of the
a boat comes to rest if we stop rowing magnet placed on the rollers. Make
it. Can you add some more such sure that the two magnets do not
experiences? touch each other. Observe what
In all these situations no force happens. Next, bring the other end
appears to be acting on the objects, yet of the magnet near the same end of
their speed gradually decreases and the magnet placed on the rollers
they come to rest after some time. What (Fig.11.10). Note what happens to
causes a change in their state of motion? the magnet placed on the rollers
Could some force be acting on them! every time another magnet is
Can you guess the direction in which brought near it.
the force must be acting in each case?
The force responsible for changing the
state of motion of objects in all these
examples is the force of friction. It is the
force of friction between the surface of
the ball and the ground that brings the
moving ball to rest. Similarly, friction
between water and the boat brings it to
a stop once you stop rowing.
The force of friction always acts on
all the moving objects and its direction
is always opposite to the direction of
motion. Since the force of friction arises
due to contact between surfaces, it is
also an example of a contact force. You
will learn more about this force in
Chapter 12.
You may be wondering whether it is Fig.11.10 : Observing attraction and repulsion
between two magnets
essential for the agent applying a force
FORCE AND PRESSURE 135
 Does the magnet on the rollers begin
to move when the other magnet is brought
near it? Does it always move in the
direction of the approaching magnet?
What do these observations suggest? Does
it mean that some force must be acting
between the two magnets?
You have learnt in Class VI that like
poles of two magnets repel each other and
unlike poles attract each other. Attraction
or repulsion between objects can also be
seen as another form of pull or push. Do
Fig.11.11 : A straw rubbed with paper attracts
you have to bring the magnets in contact
another straw but repels it if it has
for observing the force between them? A also been rubbed with a sheet of
magnet can exert a force on another paper
magnet without being in contact with it.
The force exerted by a magnet is an A straw is said to have acquired
example of a non-contact force. electrostatic charge after it has been
Similarly, the force exerted by a rubbed with a sheet of paper. Such a
magnet on a piece of iron is also a non- straw is an example of a charged body.
contact force. The force exerted by a charged body
on another charged or uncharged body
Electrostatic Force is known as electrostatic force. This
Activity 11.7 force comes into play even when the
bodies are not in contact. The
Take a plastic straw and cut it into electrostatic force, therefore, is another
nearly two equal pieces. Suspend one example of a non-contact force. You will
of the pieces from the edge of a table learn more about electric charges in
with the help of a piece of thread (Fig. Chapter 15.
11.11). Now hold the other piece of
straw in your hand and rub its free Gravitational Force
end with a sheet of paper. Bring the
rubbed end of the straw near the You know that a coin or a pen falls to the
suspended straw. Make sure that the ground when it slips off your hand.
two pieces do not touch each other. Leaves and fruits also fall to the ground
What do you observe? when they get detached from the plant.
Next, rub the free end of the Have you ever wondered why it is so?
suspended piece of straw with a When the coin is held in your hand it
sheet of paper. Again, bring the piece is at rest. As soon as it is released, it
of straw that was rubbed earlier with begins to move downwards. It is clear that
paper near the free end of the the state of motion of the coin undergoes
suspended straw. What do you a change. Can this happen without a
observe now? force acting on it? Which is this force?
136 SCIENCE
 Objects or things fall towards the Try cutting vegetables with a blunt and
earth because it pulls them. This force a sharp knife. Which is easier?
is called the force of gravity, or just Do you get the feeling that the area
gravity. This is an attractive force. The over which the force is applied (for
force of gravity acts on all objects. The example, the pointed end of the nail)
force of gravity acts on all of us all the plays a role is making these tasks easier?
time without our being aware of it. Water The force acting on a unit area of a
begins to flow towards the ground as surface is called pressure.
soon as we open a tap. Water in rivers
flows downward due to the force of pressure = force / area on which it acts
gravity.
At this stage we consider only those
Gravity is not a property of the earth forces which act perpendicular to the
alone. In fact, every object in the surface on which the pressure is to
universe, whether small or large, be computed.
exerts a force on every other object.
This force is known as the
gravitational force.
I now understand why
11.8 Pressure porters place a round piece
of cloth on their heads,
You have learnt in Class VII that strong when they have to carry
winds during a storm or a cyclone can heavy loads (Fig. 11.13). By
blow away even the roof-tops. You also doing this they increase the
learnt that winds and cyclones are area of contact of the load
caused by the differences in air with their head. So, the
pressure. Is there any relation between pressure on their head is
reduced and they find it
pressure and force? Let us find out.
easier to carry the load.
Try to push a nail into a wooden
plank by its head. Did you succeed? Try
now to push the nail by the pointed end
(Fig. 11.12). Could you do it this time?

Fig. 11.12 : Pushing a nail into a wooden plank Fig. 11.13 : A porter carrying a heavy load
FORCE AND PRESSURE 137
 Note that the area is in the this process a few more times. Can
denominator in the above expression. you see any relation between the
So, the smaller the area, larger the amount of the bulge in the rubber
pressure on a surface for the same force. sheet and the height of the water
The area of the pointed end of the nail column in the pipe?
is much smaller than that of its head.
The same force, therefore, produces a
pressure sufficient to push the pointed
end of the nail into the wooden plank.
Can you explain now why shoulder
bags are provided with broad straps and
not thin strap? And, why the tools
meant for cutting and piercing always
have sharp edges?
Do liquids and gases also exert
pressure? Does it also depend on the
area on which the force acts? Let us
find out.

11.9 Pressure Exerted by

Liquids and Gases
Fig.11.14 : Pressure exerted by water at the
Activity 11.8 bottom of the container depends
on the height of its column
Take a transparent glass tube or a
plastic pipe. The length of the pipe/
tube should be about 15 cm and its
Activity 11.9
diameter should be 5-7.5 cm. Also Take a plastic bottle. You can take
take a piece of thin sheet of a good a discarded water or soft drink
quality rubber, say, a rubber bottle. Fix a cylindrical glass tube,
balloon. Stretch the rubber sheet a few cm long near its bottom as
tightly over one end of the pipe. shown in Fig. 11.15. You can do so
Hold the pipe at the middle, keeping by slightly heating one end of the
it in a vertical position (Fig.11.14). glass tube and then quickly
Ask one of your friends to pour some inserting it near the bottom of the
water in the pipe. Does the rubber bottle. Make sure that the water
sheet bulge out? Note also the does not leak from the joint. If there
height of the water column in the is any leakage, seal it with molten
pipe. Pour some mor e water. wax. Cover the mouth of the glass
tube with a thin rubber sheet as you
Observe again the bulge in the
did in Activity 11.8. Now fill the
rubber sheet and the height of the
bottle upto half with water. What do
water column in the pipe. Repeat
you observe? Why does the rubber
138 SCIENCE
 sheet fixed to the glass tube bulge
this time? Pour some more water in
the bottle. Is there any change in
the bulge of the rubber sheet?

Fig. 11.16 : Liquids exert equal pressure at

Fig.11.15 : A liquid exerts pressure on the the same depth
walls of the container

Note that the rubber sheet has been Can you now say that liquids exert
fixed on the side of the container and not pressure on the walls of the
at the bottom. Does the bulging of the container?
rubber sheet in this case indicate that water Do gases also exert pressure? Do
exerts pressure on the sides of the container they also exert pressure on the walls of
as well? Let us investigate further. their containers? Let us find out.

Activity 11.10
Take an empty plastic bottle or a
cylindrical container. You can take I have seen fountains of water
a used tin of talcum powder or a coming out of the leaking joints
plastic bottle. Drill four holes all or holes in pipes supplying
around near the bottom of the water. Is it not due to the
bottle. Make sure that the holes are pressure exerted by water on the
walls of the pipes?
at the same height from the bottom
(Fig. 11.16). Now fill the bottle with
water. What do you observe? When you inflate a balloon, why do
Do the different streams of water you have to close its mouth? What
coming out of the holes fall at the happens when you open the mouth of
same distance from the bottle? What an inflated balloon? Suppose you have
does this indicate? a balloon which has holes. Would you
FORCE AND PRESSURE 139
be able to inflate it? If not, why? Can we But, how large or small is the
say that air exerts pressure in all atmospheric pressure? Let us get an
directions? idea about its magnitude.
Do you recall what happens to the
air in the bicycle tube when it has a Activity 11.11
puncture? Do these observations suggest
that air exerts pressure on the inner walls Take a good quality rubber sucker.
of an inflated balloon or a tube? So, we It looks like a small rubber cup (Fig.
find that gases, too, exert pressure on 11.18). Press it hard on a smooth
the walls of their container. plane surface. Does it stick to the
surface? Now try to pull it off the
11.10 Atmospheric Pressure surface. Can you do it?

You know that there is air all around

us. This envelop of air is known as the
atmosphere. The atmospheric air
extends up to many kilometres above
the surface of the earth. The pressure
exerted by this air is known as
atmospheric pressure. We know that
pressure is force per unit area. If we
imagine a unit area and a very long
cylinder standing on it filled with air,
then the weight of the air in this cylinder
is the atmospheric pressure (Fig. 11.17).

Fig.11.18 : A rubber sucker pressed on a

surface

When you press the sucker, most of

the air between its cup and the surface
escapes out. The sucker sticks to the
sur face because the pr essure of
atmosphere acts on it. To pull the sucker
off the surface, the applied force should
be large enough to overcome the
Unit area atmospheric pressure. This activity
might give you an idea about the
magnitude of atmospheric pressure. In
Fig. 11.17 : Atmospheric pressure is the weight fact, it would not be possible for any
of air in a column of unit area human being to pull the sucker off the
140 SCIENCE
surface if there were no air at all between
the sucker and the surface. Does it give
you an idea how large the atmospheric
pressure is?

If the area of my head

were 15 cm × 15 cm, how
much weight of air would I
be carrying on my head?

The weight of air in a column of the

height of the atmosphere and area
15 cm × 15 cm (Fig. 11.19) is nearly
equal to the weight of an object of mass
225 kg (2250N). The reason we are not
crushed under this weight is that the
pressure inside our bodies is also equal Fig. 11.19 : Pressure of atmosphere on
to the atmospheric pressure and cancels your head
the pressure from outside.

Did you know?

Otto von Guericke, a German scientist of the 17th century, invented a pump to
extract air out of a vessel. With the help of this pump, he demonstrated
dramatically the force of the air pressure. He joined two hollow metallic
hemispheres of 51 cm diameter each and pumped air out of them. Then he
employed eight horses on each hemisphere to pull them apart (Fig. 11.20). So
great is the force of air pressure that the hemispheres could not be pulled apart.

Fig. 11.20 : Horses pulling the hemispheres

FORCE AND PRESSURE 141

 KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ATMOSPHERIC Ü Force could be a push or a pull.
PRESSURE Ü A force arises due to the interaction between

CONTACT FORCE two objects.

Ü Force has magnitude as well as direction.
ELECTROSTATIC Ü A change in the speed of an object or the di-
FORCE rection of its motion or both implies a change

FORCE in its state of motion.

Ü Force acting on an object may cause a change
FRICTION in its state of motion or a change in its shape.
Ü A force can act on an object with or without
GRAVITATIONAL
being in contact with it.
FORCE
Ü Force per unit area is called pressure.
GRAVITY Ü Liquids and gases exert pressure on the walls
of their containers.
MAGNETIC FORCE
Ü The pressure exerted by air around us is
MUSCULAR FORCE known as atmospheric pressure.

NON-CONTACT
FORCE

PRESSURE

PULL

PUSH

Exercises

1. Give two examples each of situations in which you push or pull to change
the state of motion of objects.
2. Give two examples of situations in which applied force causes a change in
the shape of an object.
3. Fill in the blanks in the following statements.
(a) To draw water from a well we have to __________ at the rope.

(b) A charged body __________ an uncharged body towards it.

(c) To move a loaded trolley we have to __________ it.
(d) The north pole of a magnet __________the north pole of another
magnet.
142 SCIENCE
 EXERCISES
4. An archer stretches her bow while taking aim at the target. She then
releases the arrow, which begins to move towards the target. Based on
this information fill up the gaps in the following statements using the
following terms.
muscular, contact, non-contact, gravity, friction, shape, attraction
(a) To stretch the bow, the archer applies a force that causes a change
in its __________.
(b) The force applied by the archer to stretch the bow is an example of
__________ force.
(c) The type of force responsible for a change in the state of motion of the
arrow is an example of a __________ force.
(d) While the arrow moves towards its target, the forces acting on it are
due to __________ and that due to __________ of air.

5. In the following situations identify the agent exerting the force and the
object on which it acts. State the effect of the force in each case.
(a) Squeezing a piece of lemon between the fingers to extract its juice.
(b) Taking out paste from a toothpaste tube.
(c) A load suspended from a spring while its other end is on a hook fixed
to a wall.
(d) An athlete making a high jump to clear the bar at a certain height.
6. A blacksmith hammers a hot piece of iron while making a tool. How does
the force due to hammering affect the piece of iron?

7. An inflated balloon was pressed against a wall after it has been rubbed
with a piece of synthetic cloth. It was found that the balloon sticks to the
wall. What force might be responsible for the attraction between the balloon
and the wall?
8. Name the forces acting on a plastic bucket containing water held above
ground level in your hand. Discuss why the forces acting on the bucket do
not bring a change in its state of motion.
9. A rocket has been fired upwards to launch a satellite in its orbit. Name
the two forces acting on the rocket immediately after leaving the launching
pad.
10. When we press the bulb of a dropper with its nozzle kept in water, air in
the dropper is seen to escape in the form of bubbles. Once we release the
pressure on the bulb, water gets filled in the dropper. The rise of water in
the dropper is due to
(a) pressure of water.
(b) gravity of the earth.
(c) shape of rubber bulb.
(d) atmospheric pressure.

FORCE AND PRESSURE 143

 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Make a 50 cm × 50 cm bed of dry sand about 10 cm in thickness.

Make sure that its top surface is levelled. Take a wooden or a plastic
stool. Cut two strips of graph paper each with a width of 1 cm.
Paste them vertically on any leg of the stool - one at the bottom and
the other from the top. Now gently put the stool on the sand bed
with its legs resting on the sand. Increase the size of sand bed if
required. Now put a load, say a school bag full of books, on the seat
of the stool. Mark the level of sand on the graph strip. This would
give you the depth, if any, to which the legs of stool sink in sand.
Next, turn the stool upside down so that now it rests on its seat on
the sand bed. Note the depth to which the stool sinks now. Next,
put the same load on the stool and note the depth to which it sinks
in the sand. Compare the pressure exerted by the stool in the two
situations.
2. Take a tumbler and fill it with water. Cover the mouth of the tumbler
with a thick card similar to that of a postcard. Hold the tumbler
with one hand while keeping the card pressed to its mouth with
your other hand. Turn the tumbler upside down while keeping the
card pressed to its mouth. Make sure that the tumbler is held
vertical. Gently remove the hand pressing the card. What do you
observe? Does the card get detached allowing the water to spill?
With a little practice you will find that the card continues to hold
water in the tumbler even after it is not supported by your hand.
Also try this activity by using a piece of cloth to hold the tumbler in
an upside down position (Fig. 11.21).

Fig. 11.21

144 SCIENCE
 3. Take 4-5 plastic bottles of different shapes and sizes. Join them
together with small pieces of glass or rubber tube as shown in
Fig. 11.22. Keep this arrangement on a level surface. Now pour
water in any one of the bottles. Note whether the bottle in which
water is poured gets filled first or all the bottles get filled up
simultaneously. Note the level of water in all the bottles from time
to time. Try to explain your observations.

Fig. 11.22

For more information on force and pressure visit:

l kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/air_pressure/

FORCE AND PRESSURE 145

 FRICTION

Y 12.1 Force of Friction

ou might have seen a driver of a
car or a truck slowing down the
vehicle at a traffic signal. You, too, Activity 12.1
slow down your bicycle whenever Gently push a book on a table [Fig.
needed by applying brakes. Have you 12.2(a)]. You observe that it stops
ever thought why a vehicle slows after moving for some distance.
down when brakes are applied? Not Repeat this activity pushing the
only vehicles, any object, moving over book from the opposite direction
the surface of another object slows [Fig. 12.2, (b)]. Does the book stop
down when no external force is this time, too? Can you think of an
applied on it. Finally it stops. Have explanation? Can we say that a force
you not seen a moving ball on the must be acting on the book
ground stopping after some time? opposing its motion? This force is
Why do we slip when we step on a called the force of friction.
banana peel (Fig. 12.1)? Why is it
difficult to walk on a smooth and wet
floor?

(a)

(b)
Fig. 12.1 : A boy falls down when he steps on a Fig. 12.2 (a), (b) : Friction opposes relative
banana peel motion between the
surfaces of the book and
You will find the answers to such
the table
questions in this chapter.
 You saw that if you apply the force
for this difference? Repeat this
along the left, friction acts along the
activity by wrapping a piece of jute
right. If you apply the force along the
bag around the brick. What do you
right, the friction acts along the left
observe?
direction. In both cases the force opposes
the motion of the book. The force of
Spring Balance
friction always opposes the applied force.
In the above activity, the force of Spring balance is a device used for
friction acts between the surface of the measuring the force acting on an
book and the surface of the table. object. It consists of a coiled spring
Is the friction the same for all the which gets stretched when a force is
applied to it. Stretching of the spring
sur faces? Does it depend on the
is measured by a pointer moving on
smoothness of the surfaces? Let us find a graduated scale. The reading on the
out. scale gives the magnitude of the force.

12.2 Factors affecting Friction

Activity 12.2
Tie a string around a brick. Pull the
brick by a spring balance (Fig.
12.3). You need to apply some force.
Note down the reading on the
spring balance when the brick just
begins to move. It gives you a
measure of the force of friction
between the surface of the brick and
the floor.

Activity 12.3
Make an inclined plane on a smooth
Fig. 12.3 : A brick is being pulled by spring floor, or on a table. You may use a
balance wooden board supported by bricks,
Now wrap a piece of polythene or books. [Fig. 12.4 (a)]. Put a mark
with a pen at any point A on the
around the brick and repeat the
inclined plane. Now let a pencil cell
activity. Do you observe any
move down from this point. How far
difference in the readings of the
does it move on the table before
spring balance in the above two coming to rest? Note down the
cases? What might be the reason distance. Now spread a piece of cloth

FRICTION 147
 Does the distance covered depend on
over the table. Make sure that there
the nature of the surface on which the
are no wrinkles in the cloth. Try the
cell moves?
activity again [Fig. 12.4 (b)].
Could the smoothness of the surface
of the cell also affect the distance
travelled by it?

Mark A

I shall try the activity

by wrapping a piece of
sandpaper around
the cell.

Friction is caused by the

irregularities on the two surfaces in
(a) contact. Even those surfaces which
appear very smooth have a large number
of minute irregularities on them (Fig.
12.5). Irregularities on the two surfaces
lock into one another. When we attempt
Mark A to move any surface, we have to apply a
force to overcome interlocking. On
rough sur faces, there are a larger
number of irregularities. So the force of
friction is greater if a rough surface is
involved.

(b)

Fig. 12.4 : The pencil cell covers different

distances on different surfaces

Repeat this activity by spreading

a thin layer of sand over the
table. Maintain the same slope
throughout the activity.

In which case is the distance covered

the minimum? Why is the distance
covered by the pencil cell different every
time. Try to reason why? Discuss the
result. Fig. 12.5 : Surface irregularities
148 SCIENCE
 We see that the friction is caused by friction and you find it somewhat easier
the interlocking of irregularities in the to move the box already in motion than
two surfaces. It is obvious that the force to get it started.
of friction will increase if the two
surfaces are pressed harder. You can 12.3 Friction : A Necessary
experience it by dragging a mat when Evil
nobody is sitting on it, and when a
Recall now some of your experiences. Is
preson is sitting on it. it easier to hold a kulhar (earthen pot)
or a glass tumbler? Suppose the outer
surface of the tumbler is greasy, or has
a film of cooking oil on it; would it
become easier or more difficult to hold
it? Just think : would it be possible to
hold the glass at all if there is no
friction?
Recall also how difficult it is to move
on a wet muddy track, or wet marble
floor. Can you imagine being able to walk
at all if there were no friction?
You could not write with pen or
pencil if there were no friction. When
Fig. 12.6 : You have to push on the box to keep
it moving
your teacher is writing with chalk on
the blackboard, its rough surface rubs
Recall your experience when last time off some chalk particles which stick to
you moved a heavy box from one place
to another (Fig. 12.6). If you have no
such experience, get that experience
now. What is easier — to move the box
from rest, or to move it when it is already
in motion?
The force required to overcome
friction at the instant an object starts
moving from rest is a measure of static
friction. On the other hand, the force
required to keep the object moving with
the same speed is a measure of sliding
friction.
When the box starts sliding, the
contact points on its surface, do not get
enough time to lock into the contact
points on the floor. So, the sliding Fig. 12.7 : A nail is fixed in the wall due to
friction is slightly smaller than the static friction
FRICTION 149
the black board. Could it happen if there
were no friction between the chalk and
the board?
If an object started moving, it would
never stop if there were no friction. Had
there been no friction between the tyres
of the automobiles and the road, they
could not be started or stopped or
turned to change the direction of
motion. You could not fix a nail on the
wall (Fig. 12.7) or tie a knot. Without
friction no building could be constructed.

Fig. 12.9 : Rubbing of your palms makes you

feel warm

for a few minutes. You can cite various

other examples in which friction

Fig. 12.8 : Soles of shoes wear out due

to friction

On the other hand, friction is an evil,

too. It wears out the materials whether
they are screws, ball bearings or soles
of shoes (Fig. 12.8). You must have seen
worn-out steps of foot over-bridges at
railway stations.
Friction can also produce heat.
Vigorously rub your palms together for Fig. 12.10 : Stricking a matchstick produces
a few minutes (Fig. 12.9). How do you fire by friction
feel? When you strike a matchstick produces heat. In fact, when a machine
against the rough surface, it catches fire is operated, heat generated causes much
(Fig. 12.10). wastage of energy. We shall discuss the
You might have observed that the jar ways of minimising friction in the
of a mixer becomes hot when it is run following section.
150 SCIENCE
12.4 Increasing and Reducing In some situations, however, friction
Friction is undesirable and we would want to
minimise it.
As you have seen in the previous section, Why do you sprinkle fine powder on
friction is desirable in some situations. the carrom board (Fig. 12.12)? You might
Have you ever thought why the sole have noticed that when a few drops of
of your shoe is grooved [Fig. 12.11 (a)]? oil are poured on the hinges of a door,
It is done to provide the shoes better the door moves smoothly. A bicycle and
grip on the floor, so that you can move a motor mechanic uses grease between
safely. Similarly, the treaded tyres of the moving parts of these machines. In
cars,trucks and bulldozers provide better all the above cases, we want to reduce
grip with the ground.

Fig. 12.12 : Powder is sprinkled on the carrom

board to reduce friction

friction in order to increase efficiency.

When oil, grease or graphite is applied
between the moving part of a machine,
(a) (b)
a thin layer is formed there and moving
surfaces do not directly rub against each
Fig. 12.11 : (a) Soles of shoes and (b) tyres are
other (Fig. 12.13). Interlocking of
treaded to increase friction
irregularities is avoided to a great extent.
We deliberately increase friction by Movement becomes smooth. The
using brake pads in the brake system substances which reduce friction are
of bicycles and automobiles. When you called lubricants. In some machines, it
are riding a bicycle, the brake pads do may not be advisable to use oil as
not touch the wheels. But when you lubricant. An air cushion between the
press the brake lever, these pads arrest moving parts is used to reduce friction.
the motion of the rim due to friction.
Lubricant
The wheel stops moving. You might have
seen that kabaddi players rub their
hands with soil for a better grip of their
opponents. Gymnasts apply some coarse
substance on their hands to increase
friction for better grip. Fig. 12.13 : Action of lubricant
FRICTION 151
 Activity 12.4
Take a few pencils which are
Can we reduce friction to cylindrical in shape. Place them
zero by polishing surfaces parallel to each other on a table.
or using large amount of Place a thick book over it (Fig.
lubricants? 12.15). Now push the book. You
observe the pencils rolling as the
book moves. Do you feel it easier to
move the book in this way than to
Friction can never be slide it? Do you think that
entirely eleminated. No resistance to the motion of the book
surface is perfectly smooth. has been reduced? Have you seen
Some irregularities are heavy machinary being moved by
always there. placing logs under it?

12.5 Wheels Reduce Friction

You must have seen attaches and other
pieces of luggage fitted with rollers. Even
a child can pull such pieces of luggage
(Fig. 12.14). Why is it so? Let us find
out.

Fig. 12.15 : Motion of the book on rollers

When one body rolls over the surface

of another body, the resistance to its
motion is called rolling friction. Rolling
reduces friction. It is always easier to
roll than to slide a body over another.
That is the reason it is convenient to
pull luggage fitted with rollers. Can you
now understand why the wheel is said
to be one of the greatest inventions of
mankind?
Since the rolling friction is smaller
than the sliding friction, sliding is
replaced in most machines by rolling
by the use of ball bearings. Common
examples are the use of ball bearings
between hubs and the axles of ceiling
Fig. 12.14 : Rolling reduces friction fans and bicycles (Fig. 12.16).
152 SCIENCE
 is fluids. So we can say that fluids exert
force of friction on objects in motion
through them.

The frictional force exerted by fluids

is also called drag.

The frictional force on an object in a

fluid depends on its speed with respect
to the fluid. The frictional force also
depends on the shape of the object and
the nature of the fluid.
It is obvious that when objects move
through fluids, they have to overcome
friction acting on them. In this process
they lose energy. Efforts are, therefore,
made to minimise friction. So, objects
are given special shapes. Where do you
think scientists get hints for these
special shapes? From nature, of course.
Birds and fishes have to move about in
fluids all the time. Their bodies must
Fig. 12.16 : Ball bearings reduce friction
have evolved to shapes which would
12.6 Fluid Friction make them lose less energy in
overcoming friction. You read about
You know that air is very light and thin. these shapes in Class VI. Look carefully
Yet it exerts frictional force on objects at the shape of an aeroplane (Fig. 12.17).
moving through it. Similarly, water and Do you find any similarity in its shape
other liquids exert force of friction when and that of a bird? In fact, all vehicles
objects move through them. In science, are designed to have shapes which
the common name of gases and liquids reduce fluid friction.

Fig. 12.17 : Similarity in shapes of an aeroplane and a bird

FRICTION 153
KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
BALL BEARING Ü Friction opposes the relative motion between
two surfaces in contact. It acts on both the
DRAG
surfaces.
FLUID FRICTION Ü Friction depends on the nature of surfaces in
contact.
FRICTION Ü For a given pair of surfaces friction depends
upon the state of smoothness of those
INTERLOCKING
surfaces.
LUBRICANTS Ü Friction depends on how hard the two surfaces
press together.
ROLLING FRICTION Ü Static friction comes into play when we try to
move an object at rest.
SLIDING FRICTION
Ü Sliding friction comes into play when an
STATIC FRICTION object is sliding over another.
Ü Sliding friction is smaller than static friction.
Ü Friction is important for many of our activities.
Ü Friction can be increased by making a surface
rough.
Ü The sole of the shoes and the tyres of the
vehicle are treaded to increase friction.
Ü Friction is sometimes undesirable.
Ü Friction can be reduced by using lubricants.
Ü When one body rolls over another body, rolling
A riddle for you friction comes into play. Rolling friction is
In some situations, I oppose the motion smaller than sliding friction.
in other situations, I facilitate the motion Ü In many machines, friction is reduced by
but, I always oppose using ball bearings.
the relative motion
Ü Fluid friction can be minimised by giving
between two moving surfaces.
suitable shapes to bodies moving in fluids.
Put some lubricant, and
I become small there.
Make the moving surfaces rough
I make the movement tough.
I may be—
static, sliding or rolling
but whenever two surfaces are in motion
I am always there,
Tell me who I am!

154 SCIENCE
 Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Friction opposes the _____________ between the surfaces in contact
with each other.
(b) Friction depends on the _____________ of surfaces.

(c) Friction produces __________.

(d) Sprinkling of powder on the carrom board ________ friction.

(e) Sliding friction is ___________ than the static friction.

2. Four children were asked to arrange forces due to rolling, static and sliding
frictions in a decreasing order. Their arrangements are given below.
Choose the correct arrangement.

(a) rolling, static, sliding

(b) rolling, sliding, static

(c) static, sliding, rolling

(d) sliding, static, rolling

3. Alida runs her toy car on dry marble floor, wet marble floor, newspaper
and towel spread on the floor. The force of friction acting on the car on
different surfaces in increasing order will be

(a) wet marble floor, dry marble floor, newspaper and towel.

(b) newspaper, towel, dry marble floor, wet marble floor.

(c) towel, newspaper, dry marble floor, wet marble floor.

(d) wet marble floor, dry marble floor, towel, newspaper

4. Suppose your writing desk is tilted a little. A book kept on it starts sliding
down. Show the direction of frictional force acting on it.
5. You spill a bucket of soapy water on a marble floor accidently. Would it
make it easier or more difficult for you to walk on the floor? Why?
6. Explain why sportsmen use shoes with spikes.
7. Iqbal has to push a lighter box and Seema has to push a similar heavier
box on the same floor. Who will have to apply a larger force and why?
8. Explain why sliding friction is less than static friction.
9. Give examples to show that friction is both a friend and a foe.
10. Explain why objects moving in fluids must have special shapes.

FRICTION 155
 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects
1. What role does friction play in the sport of your choice? Collect
some pictures of that sport in action where friction is either
supporting it or opposing it. Display these pictures with proper
captions on the bulletin board of your classroom.
2. Imagine that friction suddenly vanishes. How would life be affected.
List ten such situations.
3. Visit a shop which sells sports shoes. Observe the soles of shoes
meant for various sports. Describe your observations.

4. A toy to play with:

Take an empty match box. Take out its tray. Cut a used refill of a ball
pen of the same width as the tray as shown in the figure below. Fix
the refill with two pins on the top of the tray as shown in Fig. 12.18.
Make two holes on the opposite sides of the tray. Make sure that the
holes are large enough to allow a thread to pass through them easily.
Take a thread about a metre long and pass it through the holes as
shown. Fix beads at the two ends of the thread so that it does not
come out. Insert the tray in the outer cover of the matchbox.
Suspend the match box by the thread. Leave the thread loose.
The match box will start falling down due to gravity. Tighten the
thread now and observe what happens.
Explain your observation. Can you relate it to friction?

Fig. 12.18

You can read more on the related topic on the following websites :
l http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/friction.htm
l http//hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/firct2.html

156 SCIENCE
 SOUND

H
ow do you come to know that a Sound plays an important role in our
‘period’ is over in your school? lives. It helps us to communicate with
You come to know easily that one another. We hear a variety of sounds
someone is at your door when he knocks in our surroundings.
or you hear the sound of the doorbell. Make a list of sounds you hear in
Most of the time you can make out that your surroundings.
someone is approaching you by just In the music room of your school you
hear the sounds produced by musical
hearing the foot steps.
instruments like flute, tabla,
You might have played a game called
harmonium, etc. (Fig 13.1).
hide and seek. In this game a person is How is sound produced? How does it
blind-folded and has to catch the travel from one place to another ? How
remaining players. How is the blind- do we hear sound? Why are some sounds
folded person able to guess which player louder than others? We shall discuss
is closest to her? such questions in this chapter.

Tabla

Sitar

Flute
Harmonium

Fig. 13.1 : Some musical instruments

13.1 Sound is Produced by a Activity 13.2
Vibrating Body Take a rubber band. Put it around
Touch the school bell when not in use. the longer side of a pencil box
What do you feel? Again touch it when (Fig. 13.3). Insert two pencils
producing sound. Can you feel it between the box and the stretched
vibrating? rubber. Now, pluck the rubber band
somewhere in the middle. Do you
Activity 13.1 hear any sound? Does the band
vibrate?
Take a metal plate (or a shallow pan).
Hang it at a convenient place in
such a way that it does not touch
any wall. Now strike it with a stick
(Fig.13.2). Touch the plate or pan
gently with your finger. Do you feel
the vibrations?

Fig. 13.3 : Plucking the rubber band

As you learnt in Class VII the to and

fro or back and forth motion of an
object is called vibration. When a
tightly stretched band is plucked, it
vibrates and produces sound. When it
stops vibrating, it does not produce
any sound.

Activity 13.3
Take a metal dish. Pour water in it.
Strike it at its edge with a spoon
(Fig. 13.4). Do you hear a sound?
Again strike the dish and then
touch it. Can you feel the dish
vibrating? Strike the dish again.
Fig. 13.2 : Striking a pan
Look at the surface of water. Do you
Again strike the plate with the stick see any waves there? Now hold the
and hold it tightly with your hands dish. What change do you observe
immediately after striking. Do you on the surface of water? Can you
still hear the sound? Touch the explain the change? Is there a hint
plate after it stops producing sound. to connect sound with the
Can you feel the vibrations now? vibrations of a body?
158 SCIENCE
 Table 13.1 : Musical Instruments and
their Vibrating Parts

S . N o . Musical Vibrating Part

Instrument Producing Sound
1. Veena Stretched string
2. Tabla Stretched
membrane
3. Flute Air -column
Fig. 13.4 : Vibrating dish produces waves
4.
in water
5.
We see that a vibrating object 6.
produces sound. In some cases, the
7.
vibrations are easily visible to us. But
in most cases, their amplitude is so small
that we cannot see them. However, we Many of you might have seen the
can feel them. manjira (cymbals), the ghatam, and the
noot (mudpots) and the kartal. These
Activity 13.4 instruments are commonly used in
many parts of our country. These
Take a hollow coconut shell and musical instruments are simply beaten
make a musical instrument ektara. or struck. Can you name a few other
You can also make it with the help musical instruments of this type?
of an earthen pot (Fig. 13.5). Play You too can make a musical
this instrument and identify its instrument.
vibrating part. Ghatam

Fig. 13.5 : Ektara

Make a list of familiar musical

instruments and identify their vibrating
Manjira
parts. A few examples are given in Table
13.1. Complete the rest of the Table. Fig. 13.6 : A few more musical instruments
SOUND 159
Activity 13.5
Take 6-8 bowls or tumblers. Fill
them with water up to different
When we speak, does
levels, increasing gradually from any part of our body
one end to the other. Now take vibrate?
a pencil and strike the bowls gently.
Strike all of them in succession. You
will hear pleasant sounds. This is
13.2 Sound Produced by
your jaltrang (Fig.13.7). Humans
Speak loudly for a while or sing a song,
or buzz like a bee. Put your hand on
your throat as shown in Fig. 13.8. Do
you feel any vibrations?
In humans, the sound is produced
by the voice box or the larynx. Put your
fingers on the throat and find a hard
bump that seems to move when you
swallow. This part of the body is known
as the voice box. It is at the upper end
of the windpipe. Two vocal cords, are
stretched across the voice box or larynx
in such a way that it leaves a narrow
slit between them for the passage of air
(Fig.13.8).

Fig. 13.7 : Jaltrang

When we pluck the string of an

instrument, like the sitar, the sound
that we hear is not only that of the
string. The whole instrument is forced
Fig.13.8 : Voice box in humans
to vibrate, and it is the sound of the
vibration of the instrument that we When the lungs force air through the
hear. Similarly, when we strike the slit, the vocal cords vibrate, producing
membrane of a mridangam, the sound sound. Muscles attached to the vocal
that we hear is not only that of the cords can make the cords tight or loose.
membrane but of the whole body of When the vocal cords are tight and thin,
the instrument.
the type or quality of voice is different
160 SCIENCE
from that when they are loose and The vocal cords in men are about
thick. Let us see how the vocal cords 20 mm long. In women these are about
function. 5 mm shorter. Children have very
short vocal cords. This is the reason
Activity 13.6 why the voices of men, women and
children are different.
Take two rubber strips of the same
size. Place these two pieces one
13.3 Sound Needs a Medium
above the other and stretch them
tight. Now blow air through the gap for Propagation
between them [Fig. 13.9(a)]. As the When you call up your friend who is
air blows through the stretched standing at a distance, your friend is
rubber strips, a sound is produced. able to hear your voice. How does the
You can also take a piece of paper sound travel to her?
with a narrow slit and hold it
between your fingers as shown in Activity 13.7
Fig. 13.9 (b). Now blow through the
slit and listen to the sound. Our Take a metal or glass tumbler. Make
vocal cords produce sound in a sure that it is dry. Place a cell phone
similar manner. in it. (Remember that the cell phone
must not be kept in water.) Ask your
friend to give a ring on this cell
phone from another cell phone.
Listen to the ring carefully.
Now, surround the rim of the
tumbler with your hands (Fig.
13.10). Put your mouth on the

(a)

(b)
Fig. 13.9 (a), (b) : Working of vocal cords Fig. 13.10 : Sound needs a medium to travel

SOUND 161
 opening between your hands. Place your ear gently on the water
Indicate to your friend to give a ring surface (Fig. 13.11). (Be careful : the
again. Listen to the ring while water should not enter in your ear.)
sucking air from the tumbler. Can you hear the sound of the bell?
Does the sound become fainter Does it indicate that sound can
as you suck air? travel through liquids?
Remove the tumbler from your
mouth. Does the sound become
loud again?
Oh ! That is how whales
Can you think of an explanation? Is and dolphins might be
it possible that the decreasing amount communicating under
of air in the tumbler had something to water.
do with decreasing loudness of the ring?
Let us find out if sound can travel
Indeed, if you had been able to suck
through solids also.
all the air in the tumbler, the sound would
stop completely. Actually, sound needs a
Activity 13.9
medium to travel. When air has been
removed completely from a vessel, it is said Take a metre scale or a long metal
that there is a vacuum in the vessel. The rod and hold its one end to your
sound cannot travel through a vacuum. ear. Ask your friend to gently
Does sound travel in liquids? Let us scratch or tap at the other end of
find out. the scale (Fig. 13.12).

Activity 13.8
Take a bucket or a bathtub. Fill it
with clean water. Take a small bell
in one hand. Shake this bell inside
the water to produce sound. Make
sure that the bell does not touch
the body of the bucket or the tub.

Fig. 13.12 : Sound travelling through a

metre scale

Can you hear the sound of the

scratching? Ask your friends
around you if they were able to hear
Fig. 13.11 : Sound travelling through water the same sound?

162 SCIENCE
 You can also perform the above 13.4 We Hear Sound through
activity by placing your ear at one end Our Ears
of a long wooden or metallic table and
asking your friend to gently scratch the The shape of the outer part of the ear is
other end of the table (Fig. 13.13). like a funnel. When sound enters it, it
travels down a canal at the end of which
a thin membrane is stretched tightly. It
is called the eardrum. It performs an
important function. To understand what
the eardrum does, let us build a tin can
model of the eardrum.

Activity 13.10
Take a plastic or tin can. Cut its
ends. Stretch a piece of rubber
Fig. 13.13 : Sound can travel through solids
balloon across one end of the can
We find that sound can travel and fasten it with a rubber band.
through wood or metal. In fact, sound Put four or five grains of dry cereal
can travel through any solid. You can on the stretched rubber. Now ask
perform interesting activities to show your friend to speak “Hurrey,
that sound can also travel through Hurrey” from the open end
strings. Have you ever made a toy (Fig.13.15). Observe what happens
telephone (Fig. 13.14). Can you say that to the grain. Why do the grains
sound can travel through strings? jump up and down?

Fig. 13.14 : A toy telephone

We have learnt so far that vibrating

objects produce sound and it is carried
in all directions in a medium. How do
we hear it? Fig. 13.15 : Plastic can eardrum

SOUND 163
 The eardrum is like a stretched You have already learnt in earlier classes
rubber sheet. Sound vibrations make about the oscillatory motion and its
the eardrum vibrate (Fig. 13.16). The time period.
eardrum sends vibrations to the inner The number of oscillations per
ear. From there, the signal goes to the second is called the frequency of
brain. That is how we hear. oscillation. Frequency is expressed in
hertz. Its symbol is Hz. A frequency of
1 Hz is one oscillation per second. If an
object oscillates 20 times in one second,
what would be its frequency?
You can recognise many familiar
sounds without seeing the objects
producing them. How is it possible?
These sounds must be different to
enable you to recognise them. Have you
ever thought what factors make them
different? Amplitude and frequency are
two important properties of any sound.
Can we differentiate sounds on the basis
of their amplitudes and frequencies?

Loudness and Pitch

Eardrum
Activity 13.11
Take a metallic tumbler and a
Fig. 13.16 : Human ear tablespoon. Strike the tablespoon
gently at the brim of the tumbler.

We must NEVER put a sharp,

pointed or hard thing into our
ear. It can damage the
eardrum. The damaged
eardrum can impair hearing.

13.5 Amplitude, Time Period

and Frequency of a
Vibration
We have learnt that the to and fro motion
of an object is known as vibration. This Fig. 13.17 : ThermoCole ball touching the
motion is also called oscillatory motion. vibrating glass tumbler

164 SCIENCE
 Compare the sound of a baby with
Hear the sound produced. Now bang
that of an adult. Is there any difference?
the spoon on the tumbler and hear
Even if two sounds are equally loud,
the sound produced again. Is the
they differ in some way. Let us see how.
sound louder when the tumbler is
struck hard?
Now suspend a small thermocole I wonder why my voice
ball touching the rim of the tumbler is different from that of
(Fig. 13.17). Vibrate the tumbler by my teacher.
striking it. See how far the ball is
displaced. The displacement of the The frequency determines the
ball is a measure of the amplitude shrillness or pitch of a sound. If the
of vibration of the tumbler. frequency of vibration is higher we say
Now, strike the tumbler gently that the sound is shrill and has a higher
and then with some force. Compare pitch. If the frequency of vibration is
the amplitudes of vibrations of the lower, we say that the sound has a lower
tumbler in the two cases. In which pitch. For example, a drum vibrates with
case is the amplitude larger? a low frequency. Therefore, it produces

Loudness of sound is proportional to

the square of the amplitude of the
vibration producing the sound. For
example, if the amplitude becomes
twice, the loudness increases by a
factor of 4. The loudness is expressed
in a unit called decibel (dB). The
following table gives some idea of the
loudness of sound coming from
various sources.

Normal breathing 10 dB
Soft whisper (at 5m) 30 dB
Normal conversation 60 dB
Busy traffic 70 dB
Average factory 80 dB

Above 80 dB the noise becomes

physically painful.

The loudness of sound depends on

its amplitude. When the amplitude of
vibration is large, the sound produced
is loud. When the amplitude is small, Fig. 13.18 : Frequency determines the
the sound produced is feeble. pitch of a sound

SOUND 165
a low-pitched sound. On the other 13.7 Noise and Music
hand, a whistle has a high frequency
We hear different types of sounds
and therefore, produces a sound of
around us. Is the sound always
higher pitch (Fig. 13.18). A bird makes
pleasing? Does a sound sometimes
a high-pitched sound whereas a lion
cause discomfort to you? Some sounds
makes a low-pitched roar. However, the
are pleasant to the ear, whereas some
roar of a lion is very loud while the are not.
sound of the bird is quite feeble. Suppose construction work is going
Every day you hear the voices of on in your neighbourhood. Are the
children and adults. Do you find any sounds coming from the construction
difference in their voices? Can you say site pleasing? Do you enjoy the sounds
that the frequency of the voice of a child produced by horns of buses and trucks?
is higher than that of an adult? Usually Such unpleasant sounds are called
the voice of a woman has a higher noise. In a classroom, if all the students
frequency and is shriller than that of a speak together, what would the sound
man. produced be called?
On the other hand you enjoy sounds
13.6 Audible and Inaudible from musical instruments. Musical
Sounds sound is one which is pleasing to the
ear. Sound produced by a harmonium
We know that we need a vibrating body
is a musical sound. The string of a sitar
for the production of sound. Can we
also gives out a musical sound. But, if
hear the sound of all vibrating bodies?
a musical sound becomes too loud,
The fact is that sounds of frequencies
would it remain melodious?
less than about 20 vibrations per second
(20 Hz) cannot be detected by the human 13.8 Noise Pollution
ear. Such sounds are called inaudible.
On the higher side, sounds of frequencies You already know about air pollution.
higher than about 20,000 vibrations per Presence of unwanted gases and
second (20 kHz) are also not audible to particles in air is called air pollution.
the human ear. Thus, for human ear, Similarly, presence of excessive or
the range of audible frequencies is unwanted sounds in the environment
roughly from 20 to 20,000 Hz. is called noise pollution. Can you list
some sources of noise pollution? Major
Some animals can hear sounds of causes of noise pollution are sounds of
frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz. vehicles, explosions including bursting
Dogs have this ability. The police use of crackers, machines, loudspeakers etc.
high frequency whistles which dogs can What sources in the home may lead to
hear but humans cannot. noise? Television and transistor radio
The ultrasound equipment, familiar at high volumes, some kitchen
to us for investigating and tracking appliances, desert coolers, air
many medical problems, works at conditioners, all contribute to noise
frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz.
pollution.
166 SCIENCE
What are the Harms of Noise must be installed in air craft engines,
Pollution? transport vehicles, industrial
Do you know that presence of excessive machines and home appliances.
noise in the surroundings may cause How can the noise pollution be
many health related problems. Lack of controlled in a residential area?
sleep, hypertension (high blood- All n o i s y o p e r a t i o n s m u s t b e
pressure), anxiety and many more health conducted away from any residential
disorders may be caused by noise area. Noise producing industries
pollution. A person who is exposed to a should be set up away from such
loud sound continuously may get areas. Use of automobile horns
temporary or even permanent should be minimised. TV and music
impairment of hearing. systems should be run at low
volumes. Trees must be planted along
Measures to Limit Noise Pollution the roads and around buildings to
To control noise, we must control the cut down on the sounds reaching the
sources of noise. How can this be residents, thus reducing the harmful
achieved? For this, silencing devices effects of noise pollution.

Hearing Impairment
Total hearing impairment, which is rare, is usually from birth itself. Partial
disability is generally the result of a disease, injury or age. Children with
impaired hearing need special care. By learning sign language, such children
can communicate effectively. Because speech develops as the direct result of
hearing, a child with a hearing loss may have defective speech also.
Technological devices for the hearing-impaired have made it possible for such
persons to improve their quality of life. Society can do much to improve the
living environment for the hearing-impaired and help them live normal lives.

SOUND 167
KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
AMPLITUDE Ü Sound is produced by vibrating objects.
Ü In human beings, the vibration of the vocal
AUDIBLE
cords produces sound.
EARDRUM Ü Sound travels through a medium (gas, liquid
or solid). It cannot travel in a vacuum.
hertz (Hz)
Ü The eardrum senses the vibrations of sound,
LARYNX It sends the signals to the brain. This process
is called hearing.
LOUDNESS
Ü The number of oscillations or vibrations per
NOISE second is called the frequency of oscillation.
Ü The frequency is expressed in hertz (Hz)
OSCILLATION
Ü Larger the amplitude of vibration, the louder
PITCH is the sound.
Ü Higher the frequency of vibration, the higher
SHRILLNESS
is the pitch, and shriller is the sound.
TIME PERIOD Ü Unpleasant sounds are called noise.
Ü Excessive or unwanted sounds lead to noise
VIBRATION pollution. Noise pollution may pose health

VOICE BOX problems for human beings.

Ü Attempts should be made to minimise noise
WIND PIPE pollution.
Ü Plantation on the roadside and elsewhere can
reduce noise pollution.

Exercises

1. Choose the correct answer.

Sound can travel through
(a) gases only (b) solids only
(c) liquids only (d) solids, liquids and gases.

2. Voice of which of the following is likely to have minimum frequency?

(a) Baby girl (b) Baby boy
(c) A man (d) A woman

168 SCIENCE
 3. In the following statements, tick ‘T’ against those which are true, and ‘F’
EXERCISES against those which are false.
(a) Sound cannot travel in vacuum. (T/F)
(b) The number of oscillations per second of a vibrating object is called
its time period. (T/F)
(c) If the amplitude of vibration is large, sound is feeble. (T/F)
(d) For human ears, the audible range is 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. (T/F)
(e) The lower the frequency of vibration, the higher is the pitch. (T/F)
(f) Unwanted or unpleasant sound is termed as music. (T/F)
(g) Noise pollution may cause partial hearing impairment. (T/F)

4. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

(a) Time taken by an object to complete one oscillation is called
__________.
(b) Loudness is determined by the __________ of vibration.
(c) The unit of frequency is __________
(d) Unwanted sound is called __________ .
(e) Shrillness of a sound is determined by the __________ of vibration.

5. A pendulum oscillates 40 times in 4 seconds. Find its time period and

frequency.
6. The sound from a mosquito is produced when it vibrates its wings at an
average rate of 500 vibrations per second. What is the time period of the
vibration?
7. Identify the part which vibrates to produce sound in the following
instruments.
(a) Dholak (b) Sitar (c) Flute

8. What is the difference between noise and music? Can music become noise
sometimes?
9. List sources of noise pollution in your surroundings.

10. Explain in what way noise pollution is harmful to human.

11. Your parents are going to buy a house. They have been offered one on the
roadside and another three lanes away from the roadside. Which house
would you suggest your parents should buy? Explain your answer.
12. Sketch larynx and explain its function in your own words.
13. Lightning and thunder take place in the sky at the same time and at the
same distance from us. Lightning is seen earlier and thunder is heard
later. Can you explain why?

SOUND 169
 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects
1. Visit the music room of your school. You may also visit musicians
in your locality. Make a list of musical instruments. Note down the
parts of these instruments that vibrate to produce sound.
2. If you play a musical instrument, bring it to the class and
demonstrate how you play it.

3. Prepare a list of famous Indian musicians and the instruments

they play.
4. Take a long thread. Place your hands over your ears and get some
one to place this thread round your head and hands. Ask her to
make the thread taut and hold its ends in one hand. Now ask her
to draw her finger and thumb tightly along the thread (Fig. 13.19).
Can you hear a rolling sound like that of a thunder? Now repeat
the activity while another friend stands near both of you. Can he
hear any sound?

Fig. 13.19
5. Make two toy telephones. Use them as shown in Fig. 13.20. Make
sure that the two strings are taut and touch each other. Let one of
you speak. Can the remaining three persons hear? See how many
more friends you can engage in this way. Explain your observations.

Fig. 13.20

170 SCIENCE
 6. Identify the sources of noise pollution in your locality. Discuss with
your parents, friends and neighbours. Suggest how to control noise
pollution. Prepare a brief report and present it in the class.

You can read more on the related topics on the following websites:
l www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/sound/soundtoc.html
l health.howstuffworks.com/hearing.htm

Did You Know?

Golconda fort, near Hyderabad, is one of the most magnificient

forts in India. It is famous for many engineering and architectural
marvels. One of the marvels is the water supply system. But,
perhaps, more astonishing is a dome near the entrance to the fort.
A hand-clap at a particular point under the dome reverberates
and can be heard at the highest point of the fort, about a kilometre
away. This was devised as a warning system. If a guard saw a
suspicious movement outside the fort, he clapped at the particular
point under the dome, and the army inside the fort was alerted to
the danger of the approaching enemy.

Golconda fort

SOUND 171
 CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC
CURRENT

Y
our elders might have cautioned plastic and wood do not conduct
you against touching an electrical electricity. However, so far we have used
appliance with wet hands. But our tester to test materials which were
do you know why it is dangerous to in solid state. But what about liquids?
touch an electrical appliance with wet Do liquids also conduct electricity? Let
hands? us find out.
We have learnt earlier that the
materials, which allow electric current
to pass through them, are good Paheli and Boojho want to
conductors of electricity. On the other remind you that one
hand, materials, which do not allow should not experiment
electric current to pass through them with the electric supply
easily, are poor conductors of electricity. from the mains or a
In Class VI, we made a tester generator or an inverter.
(Fig.14.1) to test whether a particular Use only electric cells for
material allows the electric current to all the activities suggested
here.
pass through it or not. Do you recall
how the tester helped us in deciding
that? 14.1 Do Liquids Conduct
We found that metals such as copper Electricity?
and aluminium conduct electricity
To test whether a liquid allows electric
whereas materials such as rubber,
current to pass through it or not, we
can use the same tester (Fig. 14.1) which

Fig.14.1 : A tester
we made in Class VI. However, replace
of the tester glow? Does lemon juice
the cell by a battery. Also, before using
or vinegar conduct electricity? How
the tester we should check whether it is
would you classify lemon juice or
working or not.
vinegar— a good conductor or a poor
conductor?
Activity 14.1
Join the free ends of the tester
together for a moment. This
completes the circuit of the tester
and the bulb should glow. However,
if the bulb does not glow, it means
that the tester is not working. Can
you think of the possible reasons?
Is it possible that the connections
are loose? Or, the bulb is fused? Or,
your cells are used up? Check that
all the connections are tight. If they
are, then replace the bulb with
another bulb. Now test if the tester
is working or not. If it is still not Fig. 14.2 : Testing conduction of electricity in
working then replace the cells with lemon juice or vinegar
fresh cells.
When the liquid between the two
Now that our tester is working, let ends of the tester allows the electric
us use it to test the various liquids. current to pass, the circuit of the tester
becomes complete. The current flows in
(Caution: While checking your tester,
the circuit and the bulb glows. When
do not join its free ends for more than a
the liquid does not allow the electric
few seconds. Otherwise the cells of the
current to pass, the circuit of the tester
battery will drain very quickly.)
is not complete and the bulb does not
glow.
Activity 14.2
In some situations even though the
Collect a few small plastic or rubber liquid is conducting, the bulb may not
caps of discarded bottles and clean glow. It may have happened in Activity
them. Pour one teaspoon of lemon 14.2. What can be the reason?
juice or vinegar in one cap. Bring Do you remember why the bulb
your tester over this cap and let the glows when the electric current passes
ends of the tester dip into lemon juice through it? Due to the heating effect
or vinegar as shown in Fig.14.2. Take of current, the filament of the bulb gets
care that the ends are not more than heated to a high temperature and it
1 cm apart but at the same time do starts glowing. However, if the current
not touch each other. Does the bulb through a circuit is too weak, the
f ila m ent does not get he at e d
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 173
sufficiently and it does not glow. And Activity 14.3
why is the current in the circuit weak?
Well, though a material may conduct Take the tray from inside a discarded
electricity, it may not conduct it as matchbox. Wrap an electric wire a few
easily as a metal. As a result, the times around the tray. Place a small
compass needle inside it. Now
circuit of the tester may be complete
connect one free end of the wire to
and yet the current through it may be
the terminal of a battery. Leave the
too weak to make the bulb glow. Can
other end free. Take another piece of
we make another tester which can
wire and connect it to the other
detect a weak current?
terminal of the battery (Fig. 14.4).
You may use an LED (Fig. 14.3) in
place of the electric bulb in the tester
of Fig. 14.2. LED glows even when a
weak electric current flows through
it.
There are two wires (called leads)
attached to an LED. One lead is
slightly longer than the other.
Remember that while connecting to
a circuit, the longer lead is always
connected to the positive terminal of
the battery and the shorter lead is
connected to the negative terminal of Fig 14.4 : Another tester
the battery. Join the free ends of two wires
momentarily. The compass needle
should show deflection. Your tester
with two free ends of the wire is ready.
Now repeat Activity 14.2 using this
tester. Do you find a deflection in the
compass needle the moment you dip
the free ends of the tester in lemon
juice?
Fig. 14.3 : LEDs
Take out the ends of the tester
We can use another effect of an electric from the lemon juice, dip them in
current to make another kind of tester. water and then wipe them dry.
Do you recall that electric current Repeat the activity with other liquids
produces a magnetic effect? What such as tap water, vegetable oil, milk,
happens to a compass needle kept nearby honey. (Remember to wash and wipe
when current flows in a wire? Even if dry the ends of tester after testing
the current is small, the deflection of the each liquid). In each case observe
whether the magnetic needle shows
magnetic needle can be seen. Can we
deflection or not. Record your
make a tester using the magnetic effect
observations in Table 14.1.
of currents? Let us find out.
174 SCIENCE
 Table 14.1 : Good/Poor Conducting Liquids
S.No Material Compass Needle Shows Good Conductor/
Deflection Yes/No Poor Conductor
1. Lemon juice Yes Good Conductor
2. Vinegar
3. Tap Water
4. Vegetable oil
5. Milk
6. Honey
7.
8.
9.
10.

From Table 14.1, we find that some We have tested the conduction of
liquids are good conductors of electricity electricity through tap water. Let us now
and some are poor conductors. test the conduction of electricity through
distilled water.

When the free ends of the

Activity 14.4
tester do not touch each Take about two teaspoonfuls of
other, there is an air gap distilled water in a clean and dry
between them. Paheli knows
plastic or rubber cap of a bottle. (You
that air is a poor conductor of
may obtain distilled water from your
electricity. But she has also read
that during lightning, an electric school science lab. You may also get
current passes through air. She distilled water from a medical store
wonders if air is indeed a poor or a doctor or a nurse). Use the tester
conductor under all conditions. to test whether distilled water
This makes Boojho ask whether conducts electricity or not. What do
other materials classified as you find? Does distilled water
poor conductors also allow conduct electricity? Now dissolve a
electricity to pass under pinch of common salt in distilled
certain conditions. water. Again test. What do you
conclude this time?

Actually, under certain conditions When salt is dissolved in distilled

most materials can conduct. That is why water, we obtain salt solution. This is a
it is preferable to classify materials as conductor of electricity.
good conductors and poor conductors The water that we get from sources
instead of classifying as conductors and such as taps, hand pumps, wells and
insulators. ponds is not pure. It may contain several
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 175
salts dissolved in it. Small amounts of Most liquids that conduct electricity
mineral salts are naturally present in it. are solutions of acids, bases and salts.
This water is thus a good conductor of When an electric current flows
electricity. On the other hand, distilled through a conducting solution, does it
water is free of salts and is a poor produce an effect on the solution?
conductor.
14.2 Chemical Effects of
Electric Current
Small amounts of mineral salts In Class VII, we have learnt some effects
present naturally in water are of electric current. Can you list these
beneficial for human health. effects? What effect does the current
However, these salts make water produce when it flows through a
a good conductor. So, we should conducting solution? Let us find out.
never handle electrical
appliances with wet hands or Activity 14.6
while standing on a wet floor.
Take out carbon rods carefully from
We have found that common salt, when two discarded cells. Clean their
dissolved in distilled water, makes it a good metal caps with sand paper. Wrap
conductor. What are the other substances copper wires around the metal caps
which, when dissolved in distilled water, of the carbon rods and join them to
make it conducting? Let us find out.
a battery (Fig. 14.5). We call these
Caution: Do the next activity under the two rods electrodes. (Instead of
supervision of your teacher/parent or
some elderly person, because the use of
acid is involved in it.

Activity 14.5
Take three clean plastic or rubber caps
of bottles. Pour about two teaspoonfuls
of distilled water in each of them. Add
a few drops of lemon juice or dilute
hydrochloric acid to distilled water in
one cap. Now in the second cap
containing distilled water, add a few Metal Cap
drops of a base such as caustic soda
or potassium iodide. Add a little sugar Carbon Carbon
to the distilled water in the third cap rod rod
and dissolve it. Test which solutions Water
conduct electricity and which do not.
What results do you obtain? Fig.14.5 : Passing current through water

176 SCIENCE
 carbon rods, you may take two iron
nails about 6 cm long .) Pour a
cupful of water in a glass/plastic Boojho decided to test
bowl. Add a teaspoonful of salt or a whether some fruits and
vegetables also conduct
few drops of lemon juice to water to
electricity or not. He cut
make it more conducting. Now a potato into two halves and
immerse the electrodes in this inserted the copper wires of a tester
solution. Make sure that the metal into it. Just then his mother called
caps of the carbon rods are outside him and he forgot to take out the
the water. Wait for 3-4 minutes. wires of the tester inserted into the
Observe the electrodes carefully. Do potato. When he came back after
you notice any gas bubbles near the half an hour, he noticed that there
was a greenish blue spot on the
electrodes? Can we call the change
potato around one wire whereas
taking place in the solution a there was no such spot around the
chemical change? Recall the other wire (Fig. 14.6).
definition of a chemical change that
you learnt in Class VII.

In 1800, a British chemist, William

Nicholson (1753–1815), had shown
that if electrodes
were immersed
in water, and a
current was passed,
bubbles of oxygen
and hydrogen were
produced. Oxygen
bubbles formed
on the electrode Fig. 14.6 : Testing potato
connected to the positive terminal of
He was surprised with this
the battery and hydrogen bubbles
observation and along with Paheli
formed on the other electrode.
repeated this activity many times. They
The passage of an electric current found that it was always the wire
through a conducting solution causes connected to the positive terminal,
which had a greenish blue spot around
chemical reactions. As a result, bubbles
it. They felt that this discovery was very
of a gas may be formed on the electrodes. useful because it could be used for
Deposits of metal may be seen on identifying the positive terminal of a
electrodes. Changes of colour of cell or a battery concealed in a box.
solutions may occur. The reaction would They decided to report their finding to
depend on what solution and electrodes a children’s magazine.
are used. These are some of the chemical Remember that Boojho set out to
effects of the electric current. test whether potato conducted

CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 177

 electricity or not. What he found was
that current produced a chemical
effect in the potato. To him this was
very exciting. In fact, this is how
science sometimes works. You are
looking for something and you
discover something else. Many
Copper plate
important discoveries have been
made in this manner.
Copper plate Copper sul-
14.3 Electroplating phate
solution
You know that a brand new bicycle has
shiny handlebar and wheel rims. Fig.14.7 : A simple circuit showing
However, if these are accidentally electroplating
scratched, the shiny coating comes off Allow the current to pass for
revealing a not so shiny surface beneath. about 15 minutes. Now remove the
You might have also seen women using electrodes from the solution and
ornaments, which appear to be made of look at them carefully. Do you find
gold. However, with repeated use, the any difference in any one of them?
gold coating wears off, revealing silver or Do you find a coating over it? What
some other metal beneath. colour is the coating? Note down the
In both these cases, a metal has a terminal of the battery with which
coating of another metal. Do you wonder this electrode is connected.
how a layer of one metal can be
deposited on top of another? Well, let
us try doing it ourselves. After doing the electroplating
activity, Paheli interchanged
Activity 14.7 the electrodes and repeated
We will need copper sulphate and the activity. What do you think
she would observe this time?
two copper plates of size around
10 cm × 4 cm. Take 250 mL of
distilled water in a clean and dry When electric current is passed
beaker. Dissolve two teaspoonfuls of through the copper sulphate solution,
copper sulphate in it. Add a few drops copper sulphate dissociates into
of dilute sulphuric acid to copper copper and sulphate. The free copper
sulphate solution to make it more gets drawn to the electrode connected
conducting. Clean copper plates with to the negative terminal of the battery
sand paper. Now rinse them with and gets deposited on it. But what
water and dry them. Connect the about the loss of copper from the
copper plates to the terminals of a solution?
battery and immerse them in copper From the other electrode, a copper
sulphate solution (Fig. 14.7). plate, an equal amount of copper gets
dissolved in the solution. Thus, the
178 SCIENCE
loss of copper from the solution is
restored and the process continues.
T h i s m ea n s th at co pp er ge ts
transferred from one electrode to the
other.

Boojho could get only one

copper plate. So he
performed Activity 14.7 by
connecting a carbon rod in
place of the copper plate
which was connected to
the negative terminal of
the battery. He succeeded
in obtaining a coating of
copper on carbon rod.

The process of depositing a layer of

any desired metal on another material
by means of electricity is called Fig. 14.8 : Some electroplated objects
electroplating. It is one of the most
silver and gold on less expensive metals.
common applications of chemical effects
These ornaments have the appearance
of electric current.
of silver or gold but are much less
Electroplating is a very useful
expensive.
process. It is widely used in industry
Tin cans, used for storing food, are
for coating metal objects with a thin
made by electroplating tin onto iron. Tin
layer of a different metal (Fig.14.8). The
is less reactive than iron. Thus, food
layer of metal deposited has some
does not come into contact with iron and
desired property, which the metal of the
is protected from getting spoilt.
object lacks. For example, chromium
Iron is used in bridges and
plating is done on many objects such
automobiles to provide strength.
as car parts, bath taps, kitchen gas
However, iron tends to corrode and rust.
burners, bicycle handlebars, wheel rims
So, a coating of zinc is deposited on iron
and many others.
to protect it from corrosion and
Chromium has a shiny appearance.
formation of rust.
It does not corrode. It resists scratches.
However, chromium is expensive and it In the electroplating factories the
may not be economical to make the disposal of the used conducting
whole object out of chromium. So the solution is a major concern. It is a
object is made from a cheaper metal and polluting waste and there are specific
only a coating of chromium over it is disposal guidelines to protect the
environment.
deposited. Jewellery makers electroplate
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 179
KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ELECTRODE Ü Some liquids are good conductors of electricity
and some are poor conductors.
ELECTROPLATING
Ü Most liquids that conduct electricity are
GOOD CONDUCTOR solutions of acids, bases and salts.
Ü The passage of an electric current through a
LED
conducting liquid causes chemical reactions.
POOR CONDUCTOR The resulting effects are called chemical effects
of currents.
Ü The process of depositing a layer of any desired
metal on another material, by means of
electricity, is called electroplating.

Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of ,
______________ and ______________.
(b) The passage of an electric current through a solution causes
______________ effects.

(c) If you pass current through copper sulphate solution, copper gets
deposited on the plate connected to the terminal of the
battery.

(d) The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another

material by means of electricity is called .
2. When the free ends of a tester are dipped into a solution, the magnetic
needle shows deflection. Can you explain the reason?
3. Name three liquids, which
when tested in the manner
shown in Fig.14.9, may
cause the magnetic needle
to deflect.

Fig. 14.9

180 SCIENCE
 4. The bulb does not glow in the setup shown in Fig.14.10. List the possible
EXERCISES reasons. Explain your answer.

Fig. 14.10
5. A tester is used to check the conduction of electricity through two liquids,
labelled A and B. It is found that the bulb of the tester glows brightly for
liquid A while it glows very dimly for liquid B. You would conclude that
(i) liquid A is a better conductor than liquid B.
(ii) liquid B is a better conductor than liquid A.
(iii) both liquids are equally conducting.
(iv) conducting properties of liquid cannot be compared in this manner.

6. Does pure water conduct electricity? If not, what can we do to make it

conducting?
7. In case of a fire, before the firemen use the water hoses, they shut off the
main electrical supply for the area. Explain why they do this.
8. A child staying in a coastal region tests the drinking water and also the
seawater with his tester. He finds that the compass needle deflects more
in the case of seawater. Can you explain the reason?
9. Is it safe for the electrician to carry out electrical repairs outdoors during
heavy downpour? Explain.

10. Paheli had heard that rainwater is as good as distilled water. So she
collected some rainwater in a clean glass tumbler and tested it using a
tester. To her surprise she found that the compass needle showed
deflection. What could be the reasons?
11. Prepare a list of objects around you that are electroplated.
12. The process that you saw in Activity 14.7 is used for purification of copper.
A thin plate of pure copper and a thick rod of impure copper are used as
electrodes. Copper from impure rod is sought to be transfered to the thin
copper plate. Which electrode should be attached to the positive terminal
of the battery and why?

CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 181

 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Test the conduction of electricity through various fruits and

vegetables. Display your result in a tabular form.
2. Repeat Activity 14.7 with a zinc plate in place of the copper plate
connected to the negative terminal of the battery. Now replace zinc
plate with some other metallic object and again repeat the activity.
Which metal gets deposited over which other metal? Discuss your
findings with your friends.

3. Find out if there is a commercial electroplating unit in your town.

What objects are electroplated there and for what purpose? (The
process of electroplating in a commercial unit is much more complex
than what we did in Activity 14.7). Find out how they dispose off the
chemicals they discard.
4. Imagine that you are an ‘entrepreneur’ and have been provided a
loan by a bank to set up a small electroplating unit. What object
would you like to electroplate and for what purpose? (Look up the
meaning of ‘entrepreneur’ in a dictionary).

5. Find out the health concerns associated with chromium

electroplating. How are people trying to resolve them?
6. You can make a fun pen for yourself. Take a conducting metal plate
and spread a moist paste of potassium iodide and starch. Connect
the plate to a battery as shown in Fig. 14.11. Now using the free
end of the wire, write a few letters on the paste. What do you see?

Fig. 14.11

182 SCIENCE
 For more information on this topic visit:
l electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm

Did You Know?

LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) are available in

many colours such as red, green, yellow, blue,
white and are increasingly being used for many
applications, for example in traffic signal lights.
LEDs are increasingly being used for lighting. A
cluster of white LEDs grouped together forms a
LED light source. LED light sources consume less
electricity and have longer lifetime than light
bulbs and fluorescent tubes. But LED light
sources are expensive, so CFLs are currently the
best choice. However, CFLs contain mercury
which is toxic. Therefore, used or broken CFLs
need to be disposed off safely. Once the
technological advances reduce the cost of LEDs,
they will become the preferred lighting source.

CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 183

 SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA

In Class VII, you read about winds, precautions to protect ourselves from
storms and cyclones. You learnt that the deadly sparks.
cyclones can cause a lot of damage to
human life and property. You also The Sparks that the Greeks Knew
About
learnt that we can protect ourselves from
these destructive phenomena to some The ancient Greeks knew as early as
extent. In this chapter we shall discuss 600 B.C. that when amber (amber is a
two other destructive natural kind of resin) was rubbed with fur, it
phenomena. These are lightning and attracted light objects such as hair. You
might have seen that when you take
earthquakes. We shall also discuss what
off woollen or polyester clothes, your
steps we can take to minimise
hair stands on end. If you take off these
destruction caused by these clothes in the dark, you even see a
phenomena. spark and hear a crackling sound. In
1752 Benjamin Franklin, an American
15.1 Lightning scientist, showed that lightning and the
You might have seen sparks on a spark from your clothes are essentially
electric pole when wires become loose. the same phenomena. However, it took
This phenomenon is quite common 2000 years for this realisation to occur.
when wind is blowing and shaking the
wires. You might also have seen sparks
when a plug is loose in its socket. I wonder why they took so
Lightning is also an electric spark, but many years to realise the
on a huge scale. similarity.
In ancient times, people did not
understand the cause of these sparks.
They were, therefore, afraid of lightning
and thought that the wrath of gods was Scientific discoveries are a
visiting them. Now, of course, we result of hardwork by many
people. It can sometimes take
understand that lightning is caused by a long time.
the accumulation of charges in the
clouds. We need not be afraid of We shall now study some properties
lightning, but we have to take of electric charges. We shall also see how
they are related to the lightning in the pieces of paper. Take care not to
sky. touch the rubbed end of the refill
Let us perform some activities to with your hand or with a metallic
understand the nature of electric object. Repeat the activity with small
charges. But recall first what you might pieces of dry leaf, husk and mustard
have played as a game. When you rub seeds. Record your observations.
a plastic scale on your dry hair, the
scale can attract very small pieces of When a plastic refill is rubbed with
paper. polythene, it acquires a small electric
charge. Similarly, when a plastic comb
15.2 Charging by Rubbing is rubbed with dry hair, it acquires a
small charge. These objects are called
Activity 15.1 charged objects. In the process of
charging the refill and the plastic comb,
Take a used ballpen refill and rub polythene and hair also get charged.
it vigorously with a piece of
polythene. Bring it close to small Let’s try to charge some other
objects that are familiar to you.

Activity 15.2
Collect the objects and the materials listed in Table 15.1. Try to charge each
by rubbing with the materials mentioned in the Table. Record your findings.
You can add more items to the Table.

Table 15.1

Objects Rubbed Materials Attracts/does not Charged/

Used for Rubbing Attract Pieces Not Charged
of Paper
Refill Polythene,
woollen cloth
Balloon Polythene, woollen
cloth, dry hair

Eraser Wool

Steel spoon Polythene,

woollen cloth

SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA 185

15.3 Types of Charges and Rub the other refill also with
Their Interaction polythene. Bring it close to the
We will select some objects from Table charged refill. Be careful not to
15.1 for the next activity. touch the charged end with your
hand. Is there any effect on the refill
Activity 15.3 in the tumbler? Do the two attract
each other, or repel each other?
(a) Inflate two balloons. Hang them In this activity we have brought
in such a way that they do not touch close together the charged objects
each other (Fig. 15.1). Rub both the that were made of the same
balloons with a woollen cloth and material. What happens if two
release them. What do you observe? charged objects made of different
materials are brought close to each
other? Let’s find out.
(b) Rub a refill and place it gently
in a glass tumbler as before (Fig.
15.3). Bring an inflated charged
balloon near the refill and observe.

Fig. 15.1 : Like charges repel each other

Now let us repeat this activity
with the used pen refills. Rub one
refill with polythene. Place it
carefully in a glass tumbler using
the tumbler as a stand (Fig. 15.2).
Fig. 15.3 : Unlike charges attract each other

Let’s summarise the observations:

l A charged balloon repelled a charged
balloon.
l A charged refill repelled a charged
refill.
l But a charged balloon attracted a
charged refill.
Does it indicate that the charge on
the balloon is of a different kind from
the charge on the refill? Can we say
Fig. 15.2 : Interaction between like charges then, that there are two kinds of
186 SCIENCE
charges? Can we also say that the with the end of the paper clip.
charges of the same kind repel each Observe what happens. Is there any
other, while charges of different kind effect on the foil strips? Do they
attract each other? repel each other or attract each
It is a convention to call the charge other? Now, touch other charged
acquired by a glass rod when it is bodies with the end of the paper clip.
rubbed with silk as positive. The Do foil strips behave in the same
other kind of charge is said to be way in all cases? Can this apparatus
negative. be used to detect whether a body is
It is observed that when a charged charged or not? Can you explain
glass rod is brought near a charged why the foil strips repel each other?
plastic straw rubbed with polythene
there is attraction between the two.
What do you think would be the kind
of charge on the plastic straw? Your
guess, that the plastic straw would carry
a negative charge is correct.
The electrical charges generated by
rubbing are static. They do not move by
themselves. When charges move, they
constitute an electric current. You have
been reading about electric current since
Class VI. The current in a circuit which
makes a bulb glow, or the current that
makes a wire hot, is nothing but a
motion of charges.
Fig 15.4 : A simple electroscope
15.4 Transfer of Charge
The aluminium foil strips receive the
Activity 15.4 same charge from the charged refill
Take an empty jam bottle. Take a through the paper clip (remember that
piece of cardboard slightly bigger in metals are good conductors of
size than the mouth of the bottle. electricity). The strips carrying similar
Pierce a hole in it so that a metal charges repel each other and they
paper clip can be inserted. Open out become wide open. Such a device can
the paper clip as shown in Fig. 15.4. be used to test whether an object is
Cut two strips of aluminium foil carrying charge or not. This device is
about 4 cm × 1 cm each. Hang them known as electroscope.
on the paper clip as shown. Insert Thus, we find that electrical charge
the paper clip in the cardboard lid can be transferred from a charged object
so that it is perpendicular to it (Fig. to another through a metal conductor.
15.4). Charge a refill and touch it Touch the end of the paper clip gently
with hand and you will find a change in
SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA 187
the foil strips. They come back to their You learnt in Class VII that during
original state. Repeat charging of foil the development of a thunderstorm, the
strips and touching the paper clip. Every air currents move upward while the
time you will find that the foil strips water droplets move downward. These
collapse as soon as you touch the vigorous movements cause separation
paperclip with hand. Why does it of charges. By a process, not yet
happen? The reason is that the foil strips
completely understood, the positive
lose charge to the earth through your
charges collect near the upper edges of
body. We say that the foil strips are
discharged. The process of transferring the clouds and the negative charges
of charge from a charged object to the accumulate near the lower edges. There
earth is called earthing. is accumulation of positive charges near
the ground also. When the magnitude
Earthing is provided in buildings to
of the accumulated charges becomes very
protect us from electrical shocks due large, the air which is normally a poor
to any leakage of electrical current. conductor of electricity, is no longer able
to resist their flow. Negative and positive
15.5 The Story of Lightning charges meet, producing streaks of
bright light and sound. We see streaks
It is now possible to explain lightning
as lightning (Fig. 15.5). The process is
in terms of the charges produced by
rubbing. called an electric discharge.

Fig 15.5 : Accumulation of charges leading to lightning.

188 SCIENCE
 The process of electric discharge can metal objects. Do not lie on the ground.
occur between two or more clouds, or Instead, squat low on the ground. Place
between clouds and the earth. Today we your hands on your knees with your
need not get frightened by lightning like head between the hands (Fig. 15.6). This
our ancestors did. Now we understand position will make you the smallest
the basic phenomenon. Scientists are target to be struck.
trying hard to improve this
understanding. However, lightning
strike could destroy life and property. It
is, therefore, necessary to take measures
to protect ourselves.

15.6 Lightning Safety

During lightning and thunderstorm no
open place is safe.
l Hearing thunder is an alert to rush
to a safer place.
l After hearing the last thunder, wait
for some time before coming out of
the safe place.

Finding a Safe Place

A house or a building is a safe place.
If you are travelling by car or by bus, Fig. 15.6 : Safe position during lightning
you are safe inside with windows and
doors of the vehicle shut. Inside the house
Lightning can strike telephone cords,
Do’s and Don’ts during a electrical wires and metal pipes (Do you
Thunderstorm remember, lightning is an electrical
Outside discharge?). During a thunderstorm
Open vehicles, like motorbikes, tractors, contact with these should be avoided. It
construction machinery, open cars are is safer to use mobile phones and
not safe. Open fields, tall trees, shelters cordless phones. However, it is not wise
in parks, elevated places do not protect to call up a person who is receiving your
us from lightning strokes. phone through a wired phone.
Carrying an umbrella is not at all a Bathing should be avoided during
good idea during thunderstorms. thunderstorms to avoid contact with
If in a forest, take shelter under running water.
shorter trees. Electrical appliances like computers,
If no shelter is available and you are TVs, etc., should be unplugged. Electrical
in an open field, stay far away from all lights can remain on. They do not cause
trees. Stay away from poles or other any harm.
SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA 189
Lightning Conductors 15.7 Earthquakes
Lightning Conductor is a device used You just learnt about thunderstorm and
to protect buildings from the effect of lightning. In Class VII you learnt about
lightning. A metallic rod, taller than the cyclones. These natural phenomena can
building, is installed in the walls of the cause large scale destruction of human
building during its construction. One life and property. Fortunately, these
end of the rod is kept out in the air and phenomena can be predicted to some
the other is buried deep in the ground extent. The weather department can
(Fig. 15.7). The rod provides easy route warn about a thunderstorm developing
for the transfer of electric charge to the in some area.
ground. If a thunderstorm occurs there is
The metal columns used during always a possibility of lightning and
construction, electrical wires and water cyclones accompanying it. So, we get
pipes in the buildings also protect us to time to take measures to protect
an extent. But do not touch them during ourselves from the damage caused by
a thunderstorm. these phenomena.

lightning
conductor

copper
plate

Fig. 15.7 : Lightning conductor

190 SCIENCE
 There is, however, one natural caused by these earthquakes from
phenomenon which we are not yet able newspapers and magazines of those
to predict accurately. It is an
days. Prepare a short report on the
earthquake. It can cause damage to
suffering of the people during and
human life and property on a huge scale.
after the earthquakes.
A major earthquake occurred in India
on 8 October 2005 in Uri and Tangdhar
towns of North Kashmir What is an earthquake? What
(Fig. 15.8). Before that a major happens when it occurs? What can we
earthquake occurred on 26 January do to minimise its effects? These are
2001 in Bhuj district of Gujarat. some of the questions which we shall
discuss below.
Activity 15.5
What is an Earthquake?
Ask your parents about the huge
An earthquake is a sudden shaking or
damage to life and property caused
trembling of the earth which lasts for a
by these earthquakes. Collect a few
very short time. It is caused by a
pictures showing the damage
disturbance deep inside the earth’s

Fig. 15.8 : Kashmir earthquake

SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA 191
crust. Earthquakes occur all the time,
all over the earth. They are not even What could cause a
noticed. Major earthquakes are much disturbance inside
less frequent. They can cause immense the earth?
damage to buildings, bridges, dams and
people. There can be a great loss to life Now we know that the tremors are
and property. Earthquakes can cause caused by the disturbance deep down
floods, landslides and tsunamis. A inside the uppermost layer of the earth
major tsunami occurred in the Indian called the crust (Fig. 15.9).
Ocean on 26 December 2004. All the
coastal areas around the ocean suffered
huge losses. crust

Activity 15.6
mantle
Take an outline map of the world.
Locate the eastern coast and outer
core
Andaman and Nicobar Islands in
India. Mark other countries around
inner
the Indian Ocean which could have core
suffered damage. Collect accounts
of the devastation caused by the
tsunami in India from your parents, Fig. 15.9 : Structure of the earth
or other elders in the family or in
the neighbourhood. The outermost layer of the earth is
not in one piece. It is fragmented. Each
What Causes an Earthquake? fragment is called a plate (Fig. 15.10).
These plates are in continual motion.
When they brush past one another, or
My grandmother told me
that the earth is balanced
on the horn of a bull and
when the bull shifts it to
the other horn, an
earthquake takes place.
How could it be true?
Eurasian
In ancient times, people did not know Plate
the true cause of earthquakes. Their Arabian
ideas were, therefore, expressed in Plate Indan
mythical stories such as the one told by Plate
Boojho’s grandmother. Similar myths
were prevalent in other parts of the
world. Fig. 15.10 : Earth plates

192 SCIENCE
a plate goes under another due to carried out. However, most earthquakes
collision (Fig. 15.11), they cause are caused by the movement of earth’s
disturbance in the earth’s crust. It is plates.
this disturbance that shows up as an Since earthquakes are caused by the
earthquake on the surface of the earth. movement of plates, the boundaries of
the plates are the weak zones where
earthquakes are more likely to occur.
The weak zones are also known as
seismic or fault zones. In India, the
Colliding
areas most threatened are Kashmir,
Western and Central Himalayas, the
whole of North-East, Rann of Kutch,
Rajasthan and the Indo–Gangetic Plane.
Some areas of South India also fall in
Brushing
the danger zone (Fig. 15.12).
past

Fig. 15.11 : Movements of earth’s plates

If scientists know so much

about earthquakes, can
they also predict when and
where the next one will
strike?

Although, we know for sure what

causes an earthquake, it is not yet
possible to predict when and where the
next earthquake might occur.

Fig. 15.12 : Movements of Indian earth’s plate

I read somewhere that
underground explosions
The power of an earthquake is
could also cause expressed in terms of a magnitude
tremors. on a scale called the Richter scale.
Really destructive earthquakes have
Tremors on the earth can also be magnitudes higher than 7 on the
caused when a volcano erupts, or a Richter scale. Both Bhuj and Kashmir
meteor hits the earth, or an earthquakes had magnitudes greater
underground nuclear explosion is than 7.5.
SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA 193
 The tremors produce waves on the surface of the earth. These are called
seismic waves. The waves are recorded by an instrument called the
seismograph (Fig. 15.13). The instrument is simply a vibrating rod, or a
pendulum, which starts vibrating when tremors occur. A pen is attached to
the vibrating system. The pen records the seismic waves on a paper which
moves under it. By studying these waves, scientists can construct a complete
map of the earthquake, as shown in Fig. 15.14. They can also estimate its
power to cause destruction.

Earth’s
Focus Surface Seismic
waves
Epicentre

Inside the earth

A typical seismograph record

Fig. 15.13 : A seismograph Fig. 15.14 : Map of the earthquake

Like many other scales in science (decibel is another example), Richter scale
is not linear. This means that an earthquake of magnitude 6 does not have
one and half times the destructive energy of an earthquake of magnitude 4.
In fact, an increase of 2 in magnitude means 1000 times more destructive
energy. Therefore, an earthquake of magnitude 6 has thousand times more
destructive energy than an earthquake of magnitude 4.

Protection against Earthquakes living in seismic zones, where the

We know from the earlier pages that earthquakes are more likely to occur,
earthquakes cannot be predicted. We have to be specially prepared. First of
have also seen that they can be highly all, the buildings in these zones should
destructive. It is, therefore, important be so designed that they can withstand
that we take necessary precautions to major tremors. Modern building
protect ourselves all the time. People technology can make it possible.

194 SCIENCE
 It is advisable to make the structure The Central Building Research
simple so that it is ‘Quake Safe’. Institute, Roorkee, has developed
knowhow to make quake-resistant
l Consult qualified architects and
structural engineers. houses.
In the event that an earthquake does
l In highly seismic areas, the use of
strike, take the following steps to protect
mud or timber is better than using
yourself.
heavy construction material. Keep
roofs as light as possible. In case 1. If you are at home
the structure falls, the damage will l Take shelter under a table and stay
not be heavy. there till the shaking stops.
l It is better if the cupboards and l Stay away from tall and heavy objects
shelves are fixed to the walls, so that that may fall on you.
they do not fall easily. l If you are in bed, do not get up.
l Be careful where you hang wall Protect your head with a pillow.
clocks, photo-frames, water heaters
etc., so that in the event of an 2. If you are outdoors
earthquake, they do not fall on l Find a clear spot, away from
people. buildings, trees and overhead power
l Since some buildings may catch fire lines. Drop to the ground.
due to an earthquake, it is necessary l If you are in a car or a bus, do not
that all buildings, especially tall come out. Ask the driver to drive
buildings, have fire fighting slowly to a clear spot. Do not come
equipment in working order. out till the tremors stop.

SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA 195

KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
CRUST Ü Some objects can be charged by rubbing with
other objects.
DISCHARGE
Ü There are two kinds of charges — positive
EARTH’S PLATES
charge and negative charge
EARTHQUAKE Ü Like charges repel and unlike charges attract
each other.
ELECTROSCOPE
Ü The electrical charges produced by rubbing
LIGHTNING are called static charges.
Ü When charges move, they constitute an
LIGHTNING
electric current.
CONDUCTOR
Ü An electroscope may be used to detect
NEGATIVE CHARGE whether a body is charged or not.
Ü The process of transfer of charge from a
POSITIVE CHARGE
charged object to the earth is called earthing.
RICHTER SCALE Ü The process of electric discharge between
clouds and the earth or between different
SEISMOGRAPH clouds causes lightning.

THUNDER Ü Lightning strike could destroy life and

property.
THUNDERSTORM Ü Lightning conductors can protect buildings
from the effects of lightning.
TRANSFER OF
Ü An earthquake is a sudden shaking or
CHARGE
trembling of the earth.
TSUNAMI Ü Earthquake is caused by a disturbance deep
inside the earth’s crust.
TREMOR
Ü It is not possible to predict the occurrence of
an earthquake.
Ü Earthquakes tend to occur at the boundaries
of earth’s plates. These boundaries are known
as fault zones.
Ü Destructive energy of an earthquake is
measured on the Richter scale. The
earthquake measuring 7 or more on Richter
scale can cause severe damage to life and
property.
Ü We should take necessary precautions to
protect ourselves from earthquakes.
196 SCIENCE
 Exercises
Select the correct option in Questions 1 and 2.
1. Which of the following cannot be charged easily by friction?
(a) A plastic scale
(b) A copper rod
(c) An inflated balloon
(d) A woollen cloth.
2. When a glass rod is rubbed with a piece of silk cloth the rod
(a) and the cloth both acquire positive charge.
(b) becomes positively charged while the cloth has a negative charge.
(c) and the cloth both acquire negative charge.
(d) becomes negatively charged while the cloth has a positive charge.
3. Write T against true and F against false in the following statements.
(a) Like charges attract each other (T/F)
(b) A charged glass rod attract a charged plastic straw (T/F)
(c) Lightning conductor cannot protect a building from lightning (T/F)
(d) Earthquakes can be predicted in advance (T/F)

4. Sometimes, a crackling sound is heard while taking off a sweater during

winters. Explain.
5. Explain why a charged body loses its charge if we touch it with our hand.

6. Name the scale on which the destructive energy of an earthquake is

measured. An earthquake measures 3 on this scale. Would it be recorded
by a seismograph? Is it likely to cause much damage?

7. Suggest three measures to protect ourselves from lightning.

8. Explain why a charged balloon is repelled by another charged balloon
whereas an uncharged balloon is attracted by another charged balloon?

9. Describe with the help of a diagram an instrument which can be used to

detect a charged body.
10. List three states in India where earthquakes are more likely to strike.

11. Suppose you are outside your home and an earthquake strikes. What
precaution would you take to protect yourself?
12. The weather department has predicted that a thunderstorm is likely to
occur on a certain day. Suppose you have to go out on that day. Would you
carry an umbrella? Explain.

SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA 197

 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects
1. Open a water tap. Adjust the flow so that it forms a thin stream.
Charge a refill. Bring it near the water stream. Observe what
happens. Write a short report on the activity.
2. Make your own charge detector. Take a paper strip roughly 10 cm ×
3 cm. Give it a shape as shown in Fig. 15.15. Balance it on a
needle. Bring a charged body near it. Observe what happens. Write
a brief report, explaining its working.

Paper 10 cm × 3 cm

Fold along the dotted line

Cut along the dotted line

Needle

ThermoCole

Fig. 15.15
3. This activity should be performed at night. Go to a room where there
is a fluorescent tube light. Charge a balloon. Switch off the tube light
so that the room is completely dark. Bring the charged balloon near
the tubelight. You should see a faint glow. Move the balloon along
the length of the tube and observe how the glow changes.
Caution : Do not touch the metal parts of the tube or the wires
connecting the tube with the mains.
4. Find out if there is an organisation in your area which provides
relief to those suffering from natural disaster. Enquire about the
type of help they render to the victims of earthquakes. Prepare a
brief report on the problems of the earthquake victims.
For more information on these topics, visit:
l science.howstuffworks.com/lightning.htm
l science.howstuffworks.com/earthquake.htm

198 SCIENCE
 LIGHT

T
he world is largely known through comb and close all its openings
the senses. The sense of sight except one in the middle. You can
is one of the most important use a strip of black paper for
senses. Through it we see mountains, this purpose. Hold the comb
rivers, trees, plants, chairs, people and
perpendicular to the sheet of paper.
so many other things around us. We also
Throw light from a torch through
see clouds, rainbows and birds flying
the opening of the comb from one
in the sky. At night we see the moon
side (Fig. 16.1). With slight
and the stars. You are able to see the
adjustment of the torch and the
words and sentences printed on this
page. How is seeing made possible? comb you will see a ray of light along
the paper on the other side of the
16.1 What makes Things comb. Keep the comb and the torch
steady. Place a strip of plane mirror
Visible
in the path of the light ray (Fig.
Have you ever thought how we see 16.1). What do you observe?
various objects? You may say that eyes
see the objects. But, can you see an
object in the dark? It means that eyes
alone cannot see any object. It is only
when light from an object enters our
eyes that we see the object. The light
may have been emitted by the object, or
may have been reflected by it.
You learnt in Class VII that a polished
or a shiny surface can act as a mirror. A
mirror changes the direction of light
that falls on it. Can you tell in which
direction the light falling on a surface Fig. 16.1 : Arrangement for showing reflection
will be reflected? Let us find out.
After striking the mirror, the ray of
16.2 Laws of Reflection light is reflected in another direction.
Activity 16.1 The light ray, which strikes any surface,
is called the incident ray. The ray that
Fix a white sheet of paper on a comes back from the sur face after
drawing board or a table. Take a reflection is known as the reflected ray.
 A ray of light is an idealisation. In Table 16.1 : Angles of Incidence
reality, we have a narrow beam of and Reflection
light which is made up of several S. Angle of Angle of
rays. For simplicity, we use the term No. Incidence (∠∠i) ∠r)
Reflection (∠
ray for a narrow beam of light.
1.
Draw lines showing the position of 2.
the plane mirror, the incident ray and
3.
the reflected ray on the paper with the
help of your friends. Remove the mirror 4.
and the comb. Draw a line making an 5.
angle of 90º to the line representing the
mirror at the point where the incident Do you see any relation between the
ray strikes the mirror. This line is known angle of incidence and the angle of
as the normal to the reflecting surface reflection. Are they approximately equal?
at that point (Fig. 16.2). The angle If the experiment is carried out carefully,
it is seen that the angle of incidence is
always equal to the angle of reflection.
This is known as the law of reflection.
Let us perform another activity on
reflection.

Fig. 16.2 : Drawing the normal

What would happen if I
between the normal and incident ray is threw the light on the
called the angle of incidence (∠i). The mirror along the normal.
angle between the normal and the
reflected ray is known as the angle of Activity 16.2
reflection (∠r) (Fig. 16.3). Measure the
angle of incidence and the angle of Perform Activity 16.1 again. This
reflection. Repeat the activity several time use a sheet of stiff paper or a
times by changing the angle of chart paper. Let the sheet project a
incidence. Enter the data in Table 16.1. little beyond the edge of the Table
(Fig. 16.4). Cut the projecting
portion of the sheet in the middle.
Look at the reflected ray. Make sure
Reflected Incident that the reflected ray extends to the
ray ray
projected portion of the paper. Bend
Normal that part of the projected portion on
which the reflected ray falls. Can
you still see the reflected ray? Bring
Fig. 16.3 : Angle of incidence and angle of the paper back to the original
reflection
200 SCIENCE
 position. Can you see the reflected with the sun as the source of light instead
ray again? What do you infer? of a torch. You, too, can use the sun as
the source of light.

These activities can also be performed

by making use of the Ray Streak
Apparatus (available in the kit
prepared by NCERT).

Boojho remembered that in Class VII,

he had studied some features of the
image of an object formed by a plane
mirror. Paheli asked him to recall those
(a)
features:
(i) Was the image erect or upside
down?
(ii) Was it of the same size as the
object?
(iii) Did the image appear at the same
distance behind the mirror as the
object was in front of it?
(iv) Could it be obtained on a screen?
Let us understand a little more about
(b) the formation of an image by a plane
Fig. 16.4 (a), (b) : Incident ray, reflected ray
and the normal at the point mirror in the following way:
of incidence lie in the same
plane Activity 16.3
When the whole sheet of paper is A source of light O is placed in front
spread on the table, it represents one of a plane mirror PQ. Two rays OA
plane. The incident ray, the normal at and OC are incident on it (Fig. 16.5).
the point of incidence and the reflected Can you find out the direction of
ray are all in this plane. When you bend the reflected rays?
the paper you create a plane different Draw normals to the surface of the
from the plane in which the incident mirror PQ, at the points A and C.
ray and the normal lie. Then you do not Then draw the reflected rays at the
see the reflected ray. What does it points A and C. How would you
indicate? It indicates that the incident draw these rays? Call the reflected
ray, the normal at the point of rays AB and CD, respectively.
incidence and the reflected ray all lie Extend them further. Do they meet?
in the same plane. This is another law Extend them backwards. Do they
of reflection. meet now? If they meet, mark this
Paheli and Boojho performed the point as I. For a viewer’s eye at E
above activities outside the classroom (Fig. 16.5), do the reflected rays
LIGHT 201
 Fig. 16.6 : Parallel rays incident on
an irregular surface

Fig. 16.5 : Image formation in a plane mirror

appear to come from the point I.
Since the reflected rays do not
actually meet at I, but only appear
to do so, we say that a virtual image Fig. 16.7 : Rays reflected from irregular
of the point O is formed at I. As you surface
have learnt already in Class VII,
such an image cannot be obtained When all the parallel rays reflected
on a screen. from a plane surface are not parallel,
You may recall that in an image the reflection is known as diffused or
formed by a mirror the left of the object irregular reflection. Remember that the
appears on the right and the right diffused reflection is not due to the
appears on the left. This is known as failure of the laws of reflection. It is
lateral inversion. caused by the irregularities in the
reflecting sur face, like that of a
16.3 Regular and Diffused cardboard.
On the other hand, reflection from
Reflection
a smooth surface like that of a mirror
Activity 16.4 is called regular reflection (Fig. 16.8).
Images are formed by regular
Imagine that parallel rays are reflection.
incident on an irregular surface as
shown in Fig. 16.6. Remember that
the laws of reflection are valid at
each point of the surface. Use these
laws to construct reflected rays at
various points. Are they parallel to
one another? You will find that
these rays are reflected in different
directions. (Fig. 16.7) Fig. 16.8 : Regular reflection

202 SCIENCE
 Do We See all Objects due to Reflected Light?
Nearly everything you see around is seen due to reflected light. Moon, for example,
receives light from the sun and reflects it. That’s how we see the moon. The objects
which shine in the light of other objects are called illuminated objects. Can you
name some other such objects?
There are other objects, which give their own light, such as the sun, fire, flame
of a candle and an electric lamp. Their light falls on our eyes. That is how we see
them. The objects which emit their own light are known as luminous objects.

Paheli recalls having constructed a

periscope as an Extended Activity in
I have a question. Can the Class VI. The periscope makes use of
reflected rays be further reflected two plane mirrors. Can you explain
if incident on another mirror? how reflection from the two mirrors
enables you to see objects which are
Let us find out.
not visible directly? Periscopes are
16.4 Reflected Light Can be used in submarines, tanks and also
Reflected Again by soldiers in bunkers to see things
outside.
Recall the last time you visited a hair
dresser. She/he makes you sit in front of 16.5 Multiple Images
a mirror. After your hair cut is complete,
You are aware that a plane mirror forms
she/he holds a mirror behind you to show
you how the hair has been cut only a single image of an object. What
(Fig. 16.9). Do you know how you could happens if two plane mirrors are used
see the hair at the back of your head? in combination? Let us see.

Fig. 16.9 : Mirror at the hair dresser shop

LIGHT 203
Activity 16.5 Can you now explain how you can
see the back of your head at the hair
Take two plane mirrors. Set them dresser’s shop?
at right angles to each other with This idea of number of images formed
their edges touching (Fig. 16.10). To by mirrors placed at an angle to one
hinge them you can use adhesive another is used in a kaleidoscope to
tape. Place a coin in between the make numerous beautiful patterns. You
mirrors. How many images of the can also make a kaleidoscope yourself.
coin do you see (Fig. 16.10)?
Kaleidoscope

Activity 16.6
To make a kaleidoscope, get three
rectangular mirror strips each
about 15 cm long and 4 cm wide.
Join them together to form a prism
as shown in Fig. 16.12(a). Fix them
in a circular cardboard tube or tube
Fig. 16.10 : Images in plane mirror at right
angle to each other of a thick chart paper. Make sure
that the tube is slightly longer than
Now hinge the mirrors using the
the mirror strips. Close one end of
adhesive tape at different angles, say
the tube by a cardboard disc
45º, 60º, 120º, 180º, etc. Place some
having a hole in the centre,
object (say a candle) in between
through which you can see [Fig.
them. Note down the number of
16.12(b)]. To make the disc durable,
images of the object in each case.
paste a piece of transparent plastic
Finally, set the two mirrors
sheet under the cardboard disc. At
parallel to each other. Find out how
many images of a candle placed
between them are formed (Fig.
16.11).

(a)

mirrors

Fig. 16.11 : Image in plane mirror parallel (b) (c)

to each other Fig. 16.12 : Making a kaleidoscope

204 SCIENCE
 the other end, touching the
16.6 Sunlight — White or
mirrors, fix a circular plane glass Coloured
plate [Fig. 16.12(c)]. Place on this In Class VII, you learnt that the sunlight
glass plate several small pieces of is referred to as white light. You also
coloured glass (broken pieces of learnt that it consists of seven colours.
coloured bangles). Close this end Here is another activity (Activity 16.7)
of the tube by a ground glass plate. showing that sunlight consists of several
Allow enough space for the colour colours.
pieces to move around.
16.7 What is inside Our Eyes?
Your kaleidoscope is ready. When
you peep through the hole, you will be We see things only when light coming
able to see a variety of patterns in the from them enters our eyes. Eye is one
tube. An interesting feature of a of our most important sense organs. It
kaleidoscope is that you will never see is, therefore, important to understand
the same pattern again. Designers of its structure and working.
wallpapers and fabrics and artists use The eye has a roughly spherical
kaleidoscopes to get ideas for new shape. The outer coat of the eye is
patterns. To make your toy attractive, white. It is tough so that it can protect
you can wrap the kaleidoscope in a the interior of the eye from accidents.
coloured paper. Its transparent front part is called

Activity 16.7
Get a plane mirror of a suitable size. prism. As you learnt in Class VII,
Place it in a bowl (katori) as shown this breaks up the light into its
in Fig. 16.13. Fill the bowl with water. colours, Splitting of light into its
Put this arrangement near a window colours is known as dispersion of
in such a way that direct sunlight light. Rainbow is a natural
falls on the mirror. Adjust the phenomenon showing dispersion.
position of the bowl
so that the reflected
light from the
mirror falls on a
wall. If the wall is
not white, fix a sheet
of white paper on it.
Reflected light will
be seen to have
many colours. How
can you explain
this? The mirror
and water form a Fig. 16.13 : Dispersion of light

LIGHT 205
cornea (Fig. 16.14). Behind the cornea, Class VII. The lens focuses light on the
we find a dark muscular structure back of the eye, on a layer called retina
called iris. In the iris, there is a small (Fig. 16.14). The retina contains several
opening called the pupil. The size of nerve cells. Sensations felt by the nerve
the pupil is controlled by the iris. The cells are then transmitted to the brain
iris is that part of eye which gives it its through the optic nerve.
distinctive colour. When we say that a There are two kinds of cells–
person has green eyes, we refer actually (i) cones, which are sensitive to bright
to the colour of the iris. The iris controls light and
the amount of light entering into the (ii) rods, which are sensitive to dim light.
eye. Let us see how. Cones sense colour. At the junction
of the optic nerve and the retina, there
Ciliary
are no sensory cells, so no vision is
muscle
possible at that spot. This is called the
Iris blind spot. Its existence can be
Optic
Nerve demonstrated as follows:
Lens

Cornea
Activity 16.9
Make a round mark and a cross on
Retina
a sheet of paper with the spot to the
Fig. 16.14 : Human eye right of the cross (Fig. 16.15). The
distance between two marks may be
Caution : For this activity, never use 6-8 cm. Hold the sheet of paper at
a laser torch. an arm’s length from the eye. Close
Activity 16.8 your left eye. Look continuously at
the cross. Move the sheet slowly
Look into your friend’s eye. Observe towards you, keeping your eye on
the size of the pupil. Throw light on the cross. What do you find? Does
her eye with a torch. Observe the the round mark disappear at some
pupil now. Switch off the torch, and point? Now close your right eye.
observe her pupil once again. Do Look at the round mark now and
you notice any change in the size repeat the activity. Does the cross
of the pupil? In which case was the disappear? The disappearance of the
pupil larger? Why do you think it cross or the round mark shows that
was so? there is a point on the retina which
In which case do you need to cannot send messages to the brain
allow more light in the eye, when when light falls on it.
the light is dim or bright?

Behind the pupil of the eye is a lens

which is thicker in the centre. What
kind of lens is thicker at the centre?
Fig. 16.15 : Demonstration of blind spot
Recall what you learnt about lenses in
206 SCIENCE
 The impression of an image does not Nature has provided eyes with
vanish immediately from the retina. It eyelids to prevent any object from
persists there for about 1/16th of a entering the eye. Eyelids also shut out
second. So, if still images of a moving light when not required.
object are flashed on the eye at a rate Eye is such a wonderful instrument
faster than 16 per second, then the eye that it (normal) can clearly see distant
perceives this object as moving. objects as well as objects nearby. The
minimum distance at which the eye can
Activity 16.10 see objects distinctly varies with age. The
most comfortable distance at which one
Get a square piece of cardboard of can read with a normal eye is about
size 6-8 cm. Make two holes as 25 cm.
shown in Fig. 16.16. Thread a Some persons can see objects close
string through the two holes. Draw/ to them clearly but cannot see distant
paste a cage on one side of the
objects so clearly. On the other hand,
cardboard and a bird on the other
some persons cannot see objects close
side. Twist the string and make the
by clearly but they can see distant
card twirl rapidly. Do you see the
objects quite well. With suitable
bird in the cage?
corrective lenses, these defects of the
eye can be corrected.
Sometimes, particularly in old age,
eyesight becomes foggy. It is due to the
Reverse side Front side of eye lens becoming cloudy. When it
of cardboard cardboard
happens, persons are said to have
cataract. There is a loss of vision,
sometimes extremely severe. It is
possible to treat this defect. The opaque
lens is removed and a new artificial
lens is inserted. Modern technology
has made this procedure simpler
and safer.

16.8 Care of the Eyes

It is necessary that you take proper care
Fig. 16.16 : Bird in cage
of your eyes. If there is any problem
you should go to an eye specialist. Have
The movies that we see are actually
a regular checkup—
a number of separate pictures in
l If advised, use suitable spectacles.
proper sequence. They are made to
move across the eye usually at the rate l Too little or too much light is bad
of 24 pictures per second (faster than for eyes. Insufficient light causes
16 per second). So, we see a moving eyestrain and headaches. Too much
picture. light, like that of the sun, a powerful

LIGHT 207
 Did you know?
Animals have eyes shaped in different ways. Eyes of a crab are quite small but
they enable the crab to look all around. So, the crab can sense even if the enemy
approaches from behind. Butterflies have large eyes that seem to be made up of
thousands of little eyes (Fig.
16.17). They can see not only in
the front and the sides but the Eyes
back as well.
A night bird (owl) can see very
well in the night but not during
the day. On the other hand, day
light birds (kite, eagle) can see
well during the day but not in the
night. The owl has a large cornea
and a large pupil to allow more
light in its eye. Also, it has on its
retina a large number of rods and
only a few cones. The day birds
on the other hand, have more Fig. 16.17 : Eyes of a butterfly
cones and fewer rods.

lamp or a laser torch can injure the Raw carrots, broccoli and green
retina. vegetables (such as spinach) and cod
l Do not look at the sun or a powerful
liver oil are rich in vitamin A. Eggs,
milk, curd, cheese, butter and fruits
light directly.
such as papaya and mango are also rich
l Never rub your eyes. If particles of in vitamin A.
dust go into your eyes, wash your
eyes with clean water. If there is no 16.9 Visually Challenged
improvement go to a doctor. Persons Can Read and
l Wash your eyes frequently with Write
clean water.
l Always read at the normal distance Some persons, including children, can
for vision. Do not read by bringing be visually handicapped. They have very
the book too close to your eyes or limited vision to see things. Some
keeping it too far. persons cannot see at all since birth.
You learnt about balanced diet in Some persons may lose their eyesight
Class VI. If food is deficient in some because of a disease. Such persons try
components, eyes may also suffer. Lack to identify things by touching and
of vitamin A in foodstuff is responsible listening to voices more carefully. They
for many eye troubles. Most common develop their other senses more sharply.
amongst them is night blindness. However, additional resources can
One should, therefore, include in the enable them to develop their capabilities
diet components which have vitamin A. further.
208 SCIENCE
 Resources can be of two types : Non-optical aids and optical aids.
Non-optical aids include visual aids, tactual aids (using the sense of touch),
auditory aids (using the sense of hearing) and electronic aids. Visual aids, can
magnify words, can provide suitable intensity of light and material at proper distances.
Tactual aids, including Braille writer slate and stylus, help the visually challenged
persons in taking notes, reading and writing. Auditory aids include cassettes, tape
recorders, talking books and other such devices. Electronic aids, such as talking
calculators, are also available for performing many computational tasks. Closed
circuit television, also an electronic aid, enlarges printed material with suitable
contrast and illumination. Nowadays, use of audio CDs and voice boxes with
computers are also very helpful for listening to and writing the desired text.
Optical aids include bifocal lenses, contact lenses, tinted lenses, magnifiers
and telescopic aids. While the lens combinations are used to rectify visual
limitations, telescopic aids are available to view chalkboard and class
demonstrations.

16.10 What is the Braille Braille system has 63 dot patterns or

System? characters. Each character
represents a letter, a combination of
The most popular resource for visually letters, a common word or a
challenged persons is Braille. grammatical sign. Dots are arranged
in cells of two vertical rows of three
Louis Braille, himself a visually dots each.
challenged person, developed a Patterns of dots to represent some
system for visually challenged persons English letters and some common
and published it in 1821. words are shown below.

Louis Braille Fig. 16.18 : Example of dot patterns used

in Braille System
The present system was adopted in These patterns when embossed on
1932. There is Braille code for common Braille sheets help visually
languages, mathematics and scientific challenged persons to recognise words
notation. Many Indian languages can by touching. To make them easier to
be read using the Braille system. touch, the dots are raised slightly.

LIGHT 209
 Visually challenged people learn the character has to be memorised. Braille
Braille system by beginning with texts can be produced by hand or by
letters, then special characters and machine. Typewriter-like devices and
letter combinations. Methods depend printing machines have now been
upon recognition by touching. Each developed.

Some visually challenged Indians have great achievements to their

credit. Diwakar, a child prodigy has given amazing performances
as a singer.
Ravindra Jain, born completely visually challenged, obtained
his Sangeet Prabhakar degree from Allahabad. He has shown his
excellence as a lyricist, singer and music composer.
Lal Advani, himself visually challenged, established an
Helen A. Keller Association for special education and rehabilitation of disabled
in India. Besides this, he represented India on Braille problems
in UNESCO.
Helen A. Keller, an American author and lecturer, is perhaps the most well-
known and inspiring visually challenged person. She lost her sight when she was
only 18 months old. But because of her resolve and courage she could complete
her graduation from a university. She wrote a number of books including The
Story of my Life (1903).

210 SCIENCE
KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ANGLE OF Ü Light is reflected from all surfaces.
INCIDENCE Ü Regular reflection takes place when light is
ANGLE OF incident on smooth, polished and regular
REFLECTION surfaces.

BLIND SPOT Ü Diffused/irregular reflection takes place from

rough surfaces.
BRAILLE
Ü Two laws of reflection are
CONES (i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle
CORNEA of reflection.
(ii) Incident ray, reflected ray and the normal
DIFFUSED/
drawn at the point of incidence to the
IRREGULAR
reflecting surface, lie in the same plane.
REFLECTION
Ü Image formed in a plane mirror undergoes
DISPERSION
lateral inversion.
INCIDENT RAYS Ü Two mirrors inclined to each other give multiple
IRIS images.
Ü Beautiful patterns are formed in a
KALEIDOSCOPE
kaleidoscope because of multiple reflections.
LATERAL INVERSION
Ü Sunlight, called white light, consists of seven
LAWS OF colours.
REFLECTION Ü Splitting of light into its constituent colours is
PUPIL known as dispersion.
Ü Important parts of the eye are cornea, iris,
REFLECTED RAYS
pupil, lens, retina and optic nerve.
REFLECTION
Ü A normal eye can see nearby and distant
REGULAR objects clearly.
REFLECTION Ü Visually challenged persons can read and
RETINA write using the Braille system.
Ü Visually challenged persons develop their
RODS
other senses more sharply to improve their
interaction with their environment.

LIGHT 211
 Exercises

1. Suppose you are in a dark room. Can you see objects in the room? Can
you see objects outside the room. Explain.
2. Differentiate between regular and diffused reflection. Does diffused
reflection mean the failure of the laws of reflection?

3. Mention against each of the following whether regular or diffused reflection

will take place when a beam of light strikes. Justify your answer in each
case.

(a) Polished wooden table (b) Chalk powder

(c) Cardboard surface (d) Marble floor with water
spread over it
(e) Mirror (f) Piece of paper
4. State the laws of reflection.
5. Describe an activity to show that the incident ray, the reflected ray and
the normal at the point of incidence lie in the same plane.
6. Fill in the blanks in the following.
(a) A person 1 m in front of a plane mirror seems to be _______________ m
away from his image.
(b) If you touch your ____________ ear with right hand in front of a plane
mirror it will be seen in the mirror that your right ear is touched with
____________.
(c) The size of the pupil becomes ____________ when you see in dim light.
(d) Night birds have ____________ cones than rods in their eyes.

Choose the correct option in Questions 7 – 8

7. Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
(a) Always (b) Sometimes
(c) Under special conditions (d) Never
8. Image formed by a plane mirror is
(a) virtual, behind the mirror and enlarged.
(b) virtual, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.
(c) real at the surface of the mirror and enlarged.
(d) real, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.
9. Describe the construction of a kaleidoscope.
10. Draw a labelled sketch of the human eye.
212 SCIENCE
 11. Gurmit wanted to perform Activity 16.8 using a laser torch. Her teacher
EXERCISES advised her not to do so. Can you explain the basis of the teacher’s advise?
12. Explain how you can take care of your eyes.
13. What is the angle of incidence of a ray if the reflected ray is at an angle of
90° to the incident ray?
14. How many images of a candle will be formed if it is placed between two
parallel plane mirrors separated by 40 cm?
15. Two mirrors meet at right angles. A ray of light is incident on one at an
angle of 30° as shown in Fig. 16.19. Draw the reflected ray from the second
mirror.

Fig. 16.19
16. Boojho stands at A just on the side of a plane mirror as shown in Fig.
16.20. Can he see himself in the mirror? Also can he see the image of
objects situated at P, Q and R?

Fig. 16.20

17. (a) Find out the position of the image of an object situated at A in the
plane mirror (Fig. 16.21).
(b) Can Paheli at B see this image?
(c) Can Boojho at C see this image?
(d) When Paheli moves from B to C, where does the image of A move?

Fig. 16.21

LIGHT 213
 Extended Learning — Activities and Project
1. Make your own mirror. Take a glass strip or glass slab. Clean it and
put it on a white sheet of paper. See yourself in the glass. Next put
the glass slab on a black sheet of paper. Again look into the glass.
In which case do you see yourself better and why?
2. Make friends with some visually challenged students. Enquire from
them how they read and write. Also find out how they are able to
recognise objects, hurdles and currency notes.
3. Meet an eye specialist. Get your eye sight checked and discuss how
to take care of your eyes.
4. Survey your neighbourhood. Find out how many children below
the age of 12 years use spectacles. Find out from their parents
what, in their view, could be the reason for the weak eyesight of
their children.

Did You Know?

Eyes can be donated by any person as an invaluable gift to visually
challenged persons suffering from corneal blindness, The person may be
(a) a male or female.
(b) of any age.
(c) of any social status.
(d) using spectacles.
(e) suffering from any normal disease but not AIDS, Hepatitis B or C,
rabies, leukemia, tetanus, cholera, encephalitis.
The eyes have to be donated within 4-6 hours after death at any
place, home or hospital.
A person who wants to donate the eyes has to pledge eyes during his/her
lifetime to any registered eye bank. He/she should also inform his/her
relatives about this pledge so that they can take necessary action after
his/her death.
You can also donate a Braille kit.
Contact
Give India, National Association for the Blind. [The cost of a Braille kit is
Rs. 750/-]

214 SCIENCE
 STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

P
aheli and Boojho visited their at a place where there are no bright lights
grandparents’ village during and the atmosphere is clear.
the summer break. After dinner, Look at the sky on a dark, clear night.
they went on to the roof of the house. It You see the entire sky dotted with
was a clear cloudless night. They were countless stars, some bright and some
surprised to see a large number of bright not so bright. Observe them carefully.
stars in the sky. They had never seen such Do all of them appear to twinkle? Do
a beautiful scene in their city (Fig. 17.1). you find any star-like object which does

Fig. 17.1: Night sky

Paheli wondered, why the village sky not twinkle? The objects which do not
was so different from the night sky in twinkle are planets.
big cities? Her grandfather explained that The moon is the brightest object in
due to bright light, smoke and dust, the the night sky. The stars, the planets,
sky in big cities is rarely clear. Night sky the moon and many other objects in the
watching can be a fascinating experience sky are called celestial objects.
 Are all celestial objects similar? Let size of the bright part of the moon
us find out. appears to become thinner and thinner.
On the fifteenth day the moon is not
17.1 The Moon visible. This day is known as the ‘new
moon day’. The next day, only a small
Activity 17.1 portion of the moon appears in the sky.
Observe the moon continuously for This is known as the crescent moon.
several nights, preferably from one Then again the moon grows larger every
full moon to the next. Make a sketch day. On the fifteenth day once again we
of the moon every night in your note get a full view of the moon.
book and note the day from the day The various shapes of the bright part
of the full moon. Also note everyday of the moon as seen during a month
the part of the sky (east or west) in are called phases of the moon (Fig. 17.2).
which the moon is seen.
The time period between one full moon
to the next full moon is slightly longer
Is there a change in the shape of the than 29 days. In many calendars this
moon everyday? Are there days when period is called a month.
the shape of the moon appears to be
perfectly round? Are there days when
the moon cannot be seen at all even if
the sky is clear?
The day on which the whole disc of Why does the moon change
the moon is visible is known as the full its shape every day?
moon day. Thereafter, every night the

Fig.17.2 : Phases of the moon

216 SCIENCE
 Let us try to understand why phases
of the moon occur. You have studied in
Chapter 16 that the moon does not
produce its own light, whereas the Sun
and other stars do. We see the moon
because the sunlight falling on it gets
reflected towards us (Fig. 17.3). We,
therefore, see only that part of the moon,
from which the light of the Sun is
reflected towards us.
Fig. 17.3 : Moon is visible due to reflected
sunlight
Activity 17.2
Take a big ball or a pitcher. Paint performed in the afternoon then the
half of it white and half black. white portion of the ball should be
Go out into the playground with kept towards the west. In each case
two of your friends. Draw a circle of the line dividing the white and
radius of about 2 m on the ground. black portions is kept vertical.
Divide the circle into eight equal Standing at the centre of the
parts as shown in Fig. 17.4. circle observe the visible white
Stand at the centre of the circle. portion of the ball while your friend
Ask a friend to hold the ball at stands at the points on the circle
different points of the circle. Ask her marked earlier. Draw the shape of
to keep the white portion of the ball the white portion as you see it.
always towards the Sun. If you are Compare your drawings with the
per forming this activity in the different phases of the moon as
morning then the white portion of shown in Fig. 17.5.
the ball should be kept towards the
east. If the activity is being

Fig. 17.4: The moon appears different at different positions in its orbit

STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 217

 Fig. 17.5: Positions of the moon in its orbit and its corresponding phases

Remember that the moon revolves these positions in your notebook. In

around the Earth. The Earth along which part of the sky would you look
with the moon, revolves around the for the full moon?
Sun (Fig. 17.6). The size of the illuminated part of
the moon visible from the Earth
increases each day after the new moon
day. After the full moon day, the sunlit
part of the moon visible from the Earth
decreases in size every day.

I have heard that we

never see the back side of
the moon from the Earth.
Is it true?
Fig. 17.6 : Earth accompanied by moon
revolving around the Sun Activity 17.3
Can you now guess the relative Draw a circle of about 1m diameter
positions of the Sun, moon and the on the ground. Ask one of your
Earth on the day of the full moon and friends to stand at the centre of this
on the day of the new moon? Sketch circle. You revolve around your

218 SCIENCE
 friend in such a manner that your
face always remains towards him.
Can your friend see your back? How Can we hear any sound
many rotations did you complete in on the moon?
one revolution? The moon revolves
around the Earth in a similar
manner.
The moon completes one rotation on We learnt in Chapter 13
its axis as it completes one revolution that sound cannot
around the Earth. travel when there is no
medium. Then, how can
The Moon’s Surface we hear any sound on
the moon?
The moon is a fascinating object for
poets and story-tellers. But when
astronauts landed on the moon, they Did you know?
found that the moon’s surface is dusty On July 21, 1969 (Indian time) the
and barren. There are many craters of American astronaut, Neil Armstrong,
different sizes. It also has a large number landed on the moon for the first time.
of steep and high mountains (Fig. 17.7). He was followed by Edwin Aldrin.
Some of these are as high as the highest
mountains on the Earth.

NASA

Fig. 17.8 : An astronaut on the moon

NASA 17.2 The Stars

Fig. 17.7 : Surface of the moon What other objects do you see in the
night sky? There is a large number of
The moon has no atmosphere. It has stars in the sky. Observe carefully on a
no water. Can any life exist on the dark night and from a place away from
moon? a big city. Are all the stars equally
STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 219
bright? Are they of the same colour? In In fact, the stars are present in the
fact, stars emit light of their own. The sky during the day-time also. However,
Sun is also a star. Why does it appear they are not visible then because of the
so large compared to the other stars? bright sunlight.
Which appears bigger, a football Observe some prominent star or a
placed near you, or a football placed at group of stars in the sky for about two
a distance of 100 m? The stars are hours or more. What do you find? Do
millions of times farther away than the you find any change in the positions of
Sun. Therefore, the stars appear to us stars in the sky?
like points. You will find that the stars appear
to move from east to west. A star which
The Sun is nearly 150,000,000 rises in the east in the evening, sets in
kilometres (150 million km) away from the west in the early morning.
the Earth. Why do stars appear to move from
The next nearest star is Alpha east to west? Let us find out.
Centauri. It is at a distance of about
40,000,000,000,000 km from the
Earth. Can you read this distance in
Activity 17.4
kilometres conveniently? Some stars Stand in the centre of a big room
are even further away. and start rotating. In which
Such large distances are direction will the objects in the room
expressed in another unit known as
appear to move? Do you see them
light year. It is the distance travelled
moving in the direction opposite to
by light in one year. Remember that
the speed of light is about 300,000 your motion?
km per second. Thus, the distance of
the Sun from the Earth may be said Paheli recalls that when she is in a
to be about 8 light minutes. The moving train the nearby trees and
distance of Alpha Centauri is about buildings appear to move in the
4.3 light years. backward direction.
If the stars appear to move from east
to west, could it mean that the Earth,
If light from stars takes rotates from west to east?
years to reach us, I
wonder if we are looking
into the past when we
look at stars.
Now I understand
why the Sun appears
to rise in the east and
I want to know why we do set in the west as the
not see the stars during Earth rotates from
the day. Why are they west to east on
visible only at night? its axis.

220 SCIENCE
 There is actually a star, the pole star,
which is situated in the direction of the
earth’s axis. It does not appear to move
My grandfather told me that (Fig. 17.10).
there is one star in the sky
which does not move at all.
How is it possible?

Activity 17.5
Take an umbrella and open it. Make
about 10-15 stars out of white
paper. Paste one star at the position
of the central rod of the umbrella
and others at different places on the
cloth near the end of each spoke
(Fig. 17.9).

Fig 17.10: The Pole star lies close to the axis of

rotation of the Earth

17.3 Constellations
Look at the sky for some time. Can you
see some stars forming groups with
shapes like those in Fig. 17.11.
The stars forming a group that has a
recognisable shape is called a
constellation.

Constellations were devised by

ancient people to be able to recognise
Fig. 17.9 : Pole star does not appear to move
stars in the sky. The shapes of
Now rotate the umbrella by holding constellations resemble objects
its central rod in your hand. Observe familiar to those people.
the stars on the umbrella. Is there
You can easily identify some
any star which does not appear to
constellations in the night sky. For this,
move? Where is this star located?
you should know what a particular
If there were a star located where the
constellation looks like and where to
axis of rotation of the Earth meets look for it in the night sky.
the sky, could this star also be One of the most famous
stationary? constellations which you can see during

STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 221

 (a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) Great Bear (b) Orion (c) Cassiopeia (d) Leo Major
Fig. 17.11 : Some constellations in the night sky

summer time in the early part of the Activity 17.6

night is Ursa Major [Fig.17.11 (a)].
It is also known as the Big Dipper, Observe this constellation for a few
the Great Bear or the Saptarshi. hours. Do you find any change in
There are seven prominent stars in its shape? Do you find any change
this constellation. It appears like a big in its position?
ladle or a question mark. There are three You will observe that the shape
stars in the handle of the ladle and four of the constellation remains the
in its bowl (Fig. 17.12). same.
You will also find that the
constellation appears to move in the
sky from east to west.

I have heard that we

can locate the Pole
Star with the help of
Ursa Major.

Activity 17.7
This activity should be performed
on a clear moonless night during
summer at about 9.00 pm. Look
towards the northern part of the sky
and identify Ursa Major. You may
Fig. 17.12: Dipper used for drinking water in
get help from elders in your family.
ancient times
222 SCIENCE
 Look at the two stars at the end of Pole star? Compare your
Ursa Major. Imagine a straight line observations with those in Fig.
passing through these stars as 17.14.
shown in Fig. 17.13. Extend this
imaginary line towards the north
direction. (About five times the
distance between the two stars.)
This line will lead to a star which is
not too bright. This is the Pole star.
Observe the Pole star for some time.
Note that it does not move at all as Pole star
other stars drift from east to west.

Fig. 17.14: Ursa Major moves around the

Pole star

In fact, all the stars appear to revolve

around the Pole star.

Note that the Pole star is not visible

from the southern hemisphere. Some
of the northern constellations like
Ursa Major may also not be visible
from some points in the southern
hemisphere.

Fig. 17.13: Locating the Pole star

Orion is another well-known
constellation that can be seen during
Activity 17.8 winter in the late evenings. It is one of
the most magnificent constellations in
During a summer night, observe the sky. It also has seven or eight bright
Ursa Major 3-4 times at an interval stars [Fig. 17.11(b)] Orion is also called
of 2 to 3 hours. Also locate the Pole the Hunter. The three middle stars
star each time. Does Ursa Major represent the belt of the hunter. The
appear to move from east to west? four bright stars appear to be arranged
Does it appear to revolve around the in the form of a quadrilateral.

STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 223

 The star Sirius, which is the
brightest star in the sky, is located
close to Orion. To locate Sirius, imagine
a straight line passing through the
three middle stars of Orion. Look along
this line towards the east. This line will
lead you to a very bright star. It is
Sirius. (Fig. 17.15).

Fig. 17.15: Locating - Sirius

Fig. 17.16
Cassiopeia is another prominent
constellation in the northern sky. It is
17.4 The Solar System
visible during winter in the early part
of the night. It looks like a distorted The Sun and the celestial bodies which
letter W or M [Fig. 17.11(c)]. revolve around it form the solar system.
It consists of large number of bodies
Did you know? such as planets, comets, asteroids and
meteors. The gravitational attraction
A constellation does not have between the Sun and these objects
only 5-10 stars. It has a large keeps them revolving around it.
number of stars (Fig. 17.16). The Earth, as you know, also
However, we can see only the bright revolves around the Sun. It is a member
stars in a constellation with our of the solar system. It is a planet. There
naked eye. are seven other planets that revolve
All the stars which make up a around the Sun. The eight planets in
constellation are not at the same their order of distance from the Sun
distance. They are just in the same are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
line of sight in the sky. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
224 SCIENCE
 Fig. 17.17 : The solar system (not to scale)

Figure 17.17 shows a schematic view of heat and light. The Sun is the source
of the solar system. of almost all energy on the Earth. In
fact, the Sun is the main source of heat
and light for all the planets.
I have read that there are nine
planets in the solar system
The Planets

Did you know? The planets look like stars, but they do
not have light of their own. They merely
Till 2006 there were nine planets in
the solar system. Pluto was the reflect the sunlight that falls on them.
farthest planet from the Sun. Can you distinguish between planets
In 2006, the International and stars?
Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted a The simplest method of identifying
new definition of a planet. Pluto does
planets from stars is that stars twinkle,
not fit this definition. It is no longer
a planet of the solar system. whereas planets do not. Also the planets
keep changing their positions with
Let us know about some members of respect to the stars.
the solar family. A planet has a definite path in which
it revolves around the Sun. This path is
The Sun called an orbit. The time taken by a
The Sun is the nearest star from us. It planet to complete one revolution is
is continuously emitting huge amounts called its period of revolution. The period
STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 225
of revolution increases as the distance Besides revolving around the Sun, a
of the planet increases from the sun. planet also rotates on its own axis like a
top (Fig. 17.19). The time taken by a
planet to complete one rotation is called
its period of rotation.
I wonder why the planets do
not collide while revolving
around the Sun.

Activity 17.9
Go out into the playground with
four or five of your friends. Draw
four circles of radii 1m, 1.8m, 2.5m
and 3.8m, all having a common
centre (Fig. 17.18).
Fig. 17.19 : A Planet rotates on its own axis
Ask one of your friends to stand like a top
in the centre and represent the
Some planets are known to have
Sun. Your other four friends may
moons/satellites revolving round them.
represent Mercury, Venus, Earth
Any celestial body revolving around
and Mars.
another celestial body is called its
Ask your friends to move around satellite.
the Sun in anti-clockwise direction
in their own orbits (Fig. 17.18). Do
they collide with one another?

The Earth revolves

around the Sun. Does it
make Earth a satellite
of the Sun?

The Earth can be said to be a satellite

of the Sun, though generally we call it a
planet of the Sun. We use the term
satellite for the bodies revolving around
planets. Moon is a satellite of the Earth.
There are many man-made satellites
revolving round the Earth. These are
Fig. 17.18 : Planets move in their own orbits called artificial satellites.

226 SCIENCE
 Activity 17.10
Find out from some newspaper or
from an almanac the time when
Venus is visible in the sky. You can
Mercury (Budh) easily recognise Venus by its
brightness. Remember that Venus
cannot be seen very high in the sky.
The planet mercury is nearest to the
You must try to observe Venus
Sun. It is the smallest planet of our
either 1-3 hours before sunrise or
solar system. Because Mercury is very 1-3 hours after sunset.
close to the Sun, it is very difficult to
observe it, as most of the time it is
hidden in the glare of the Sun. However,
it can be observed just before sunrise
or just after sunset, near the horizon.
Does it mean that on Venus,
So it is visible only at places where trees the Sun would rise in the
or buildings do not obstruct the view west and set in the east?
of the horizon. Mercury has no satellite
of its own. If you get a chance, try to observe
Venus through a telescope. You will
observe that Venus shows phases just
like the moon (Fig. 17.20).

Venus (Shukra)

Venus is earth’s nearest planetary

neighbour. It is the brightest planet in
Fig. 17.20 : Phases of Venus
the night sky.
Sometimes Venus appears in the
eastern sky before sunrise. Sometimes
it appears in the western sky just after
sunset. Therefore it is often called a
morning or an evening star, although it
is not a star. Try to locate Venus in the
night sky. The Earth (Prithvi)
Venus has no moon or satellite of its The Earth is the only planet in the solar
own. Rotation of Venus on its axis is system on which life is known to exist.
somewhat unusual. It rotates from east Some special environmental conditions
to west while the Earth rotates from west are responsible for the existence and
to east. continuation of life on the Earth. These
STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 227
include just the right distance from the You are familiar with the equator of
Sun, so that it has the right temperature the Earth. The plane of the equator
range, the presence of water and suitable is called the equatorial plane (Fig.
atmosphere and a blanket of ozone. 17.21). The plane in which the Earth
revolves round the Sun is called the
orbital plane of the Earth (Fig. 17.21).
These two planes are inclined to each
We must take special care to other at an angle of 23.5º. This
protect our environment so that means that the axis of the Earth is
life on Earth is not disturbed. inclined to its orbital plane at an
angle of 66.5º.
From space, the Earth appears blue-
green due to the reflection of light from
water and landmass on its surface.
The axis of rotation of the Earth is
not perpendicular to the plane of its
orbit. The tilt is responsible for the
change of seasons on the Earth. The
Earth has only one moon.

If I am 13 years old, how many

times have I gone round the sun?

Mars (Mangal)
Fig. 17.21 : Earth rotates on a tilted axis
The next planet, the first outside the
orbit of the Earth is Mars. It appears planet. However, the mass of Jupiter is
slightly reddish and, therefore, it is also about 318 times that of our Earth. It
called the red planet. Mars has two small rotates very rapidly on its axis.
natural satellites.

I have an idea! If you take a

large ball which can
Jupiter (Brihaspati) accommodate about 1300
Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar peas, then the ball will
system. It is so large that about 1300 represent Jupiter and one
pea will represent the Earth.
earths can be placed inside this giant
228 SCIENCE
 Fig. 17.22 : Jupiter and its four large satellites.

Jupiter has a large number of

satellites. It also has faint rings around
it. You can easily recognise Jupiter as it
appears quite bright in the sky. If you Saturn (Shani)
observe it with the help of a telescope, Beyond Jupiter is Saturn which appears
you can also see four of its large moons yellowish in colour. What makes it
(Fig. 17.22). unique in the solar system is its beautiful

Boojho has a
naughty idea! “If
we imagine Saturn
in a large pool of
water then it will
float (Fig. 17.23)

Fig. 17.23 : Saturn is less dense than water

STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 229

rings. These rings are not visible with the Sun than the other four planets.
the naked eye. You can observe them with They are called the inner planets. The
a small telescope. Saturn also has a large inner planets have very few moons.
number of satellites. The planets outside the orbit of Mars,
One interesting thing about Saturn namely Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
is that it is the least dense among all Neptune are much farther off than the
the planets. Its density is less than that inner planets. They are called the outer
of water. planets. They have a ring system around
them. The outer planets have large
Uranus and Neptune
number of moons.
These are the outermost planets of the
solar system. They can be seen only with 17.5 Some Other Members of
the help of large telescopes. Like Venus, the Solar System
Uranus also rotates from east to west.
The most remarkable feature of Uranus There are some other bodies which
is that it has highly tilted rotational axis revolve around the Sun. They are also
(Fig. 17.24). As a result, in its orbital members of the solar system. Let us
motion it appears to roll on its side. learn about some of them.

Asteroids
There is a large gap in between the orbits
of Mars and Jupiter (Fig. 17.25). This
gap is occupied by a large number of
small objects that revolve around the
Fig. 17.24 : Uranus in its orbital path
Sun. These are called asteroids .
The first four planets, Mercury, Asteroids can only be seen through large
Venus, Earth and Mars are much nearer telescopes.

Asteroids

Fig. 17.25 : The Asteroid belt

230 SCIENCE
Comets see bright streaks of light in the sky (Fig.
Comets are also members of our solar 17.27). These are commonly known as
shooting stars, although they are not
system. They revolve around the Sun
stars. They are called meteors. A meteor
in highly elliptical orbits. However, their
period of revolution round the Sun is is usually a small object that
usually very long. A Comet appears occasionally enters the earth’s
generally as a bright head with a long atmosphere. At that time it has a very
tail. The length of the tail grows in size high speed. The friction due to the
as it approaches the sun. The tail of a atmosphere heats it up. It glows and
comet is always directed away from the evaporates quickly. That is why the
sun (Fig. 17.26). bright steak lasts for a very short time.

Fig. 17.26 : Different position of a Comet

Many comets are known to appear

periodically. One such comet is Halley’s Fig. 17.27 : Streak of a Meteor
comet, which appears after nearly every Some meteors are large and so they
76 years. It was last seen in 1986. Can can reach the Earth before they
you tell, when Halley’s comet will be evaporate completely. The body that
visible again? reaches the Earth is called a meteorite.
Superstitions about the Comets Meteorites help scientists in
investigating the nature of the material
Some people think that comets are from which the solar system was formed.
messengers of disasters, such as
wars, epidemics and floods. But these Meteor Showers
are all myths and superstitions.
Appearance of a comet is a natural When the Earth crosses the tail of a
phenomenon. We have no reason to comet, swarms of meteors are seen.
be afraid of it. These are known as meteor showers.
Some meteor showers occur at
regular intervals each year. You can
Meteors and Meteorites
find the time of their appearance from
At night, when the sky is clear and the a scientific magazine or from the
moon is not there, you may sometimes internet.

STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 231

Artificial Satellites satellites are INSAT, IRS, Kalpana-1,
EDUSAT, etc. (Fig. 17.28).
You must have heard that there are a
Artificial satellites have many
number of artificial satellites which are
practical applications. They are used for
orbiting the Earth. You might wonder
forecasting weather, transmitting
how artificial satellites are different from
television and radio signals. They are
natural satellites. Artificial satellites are
also used for telecommunication and
man-made. They are launched from the
remote sensing.
Earth. They revolve around the Earth
much closer than earth’s natural
satellite, the moon. I want to tell you that by remote
India has built and launched several sensing we mean collecting
artificial satellites. Aryabhatta was the information from a distance.
first Indian satellite. Some other Indian

ISRO

Fig. 17.28 : Some Indian satellites

232 SCIENCE
KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ARTIFICIAL Ü The phases of the moon occur because we can
SATELLITES see only that part of the moon which reflects
the light of the Sun towards us.
ASTEROIDS
Ü Stars are celestial bodies that emit light of
CASSIOPEIA their own. Our sun is also a star.
Ü It is convenient to express distances of stars
CELESTIAL OBJECTS in light years.
Ü Stars appear to move from east to west.
COMETS
Ü The pole star appears to be stationary from
CONSTELLATIONS the Earth, because it is situated close to the
direction of the axis of rotation of the Earth.
LIGHT YEAR
Ü Constellations are groups of stars that appear
METEORITES to form recognisable shapes.
Ü The solar system consists of eight planets and
METEORS a host of asteroids, comets and meteors.
Ü A body revolving around another body is called
NATURAL SATELLITES
a satellite.
ORBIT Ü Moon is the natural satellite of the Earth.
Some planets also have natural satellites.
ORION
Ü Venus is the brightest planet in the night sky.
PHASES OF MOON Ü Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar
system.
PLANETS Ü The artificial satellites revolve around the
Earth. They are much closer than the moon.
POLE STAR
Ü Artificial satellites are used for weather
REMOTE SENSING forecasting, long distance communication and
remote sensing.
SOLAR SYSTEM

STARS

URSA MAJOR

STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 233

 Exercises

Choose the correct answer in Questions 1-3.

1. Which of the following is NOT a member of the solar system?

(a) An asteroid
(b) A satellite
(c) A constellation
(d) A comet
2. Which of the following is NOT a planet of the sun?
(a) Sirius
(b) Mercury
(c) Saturn
(d) Earth
3. Phases of the moon occur because
(a) we can see only that part of the moon which reflects light
towards us.
(b) our distance from the moon keeps changing.
(c) the shadow of the Earth covers only a part of the moon’s surface.

(d) the thickness of the moon’s atmosphere is not constant.

4. Fill in the blanks.
(a) The planet which is farthest from the Sun is ____________ .
(b) The planet which appears reddish in colour is ____________ .
(c) A group of stars that appear to form a pattern in the sky is known as
a ____________ .
(d) A celestial body that revolves around a planet is known as __________.
(e) Shooting stars are actually not ____________.
(f) Asteroids are found between the orbits of _________ and _________ .
5. Mark the following statements as true (T) or false (F).
(a) Pole star is a member of the solar system. ( F )
(b) Mercury is the smallest planet of the solar system. ( T )
(c) Uranus is the farthest planet in the solar system. ( F )
(d) INSAT is an artificial satellite. ( T )
(e) There are nine planets in the solar system. ( F )
(f) Constellation Orion can be seen only with a telescope. ( F )

234 SCIENCE
 6. Match items in column A with one or more items in column B.
EXERCISES A B
(i) Inner planets (a) Saturn
(ii) Outer planets (b) Pole star
(iii) Constellation (c) Great Bear
(iv) Satellite of the Earth (d) Moon
(e) Earth
(f) Orion
(g) Mars
7. In which part of the sky can you find Venus if it is visible as an evening star?
8. Name the largest planet of the solar system.
9. What is a constellation? Name any two constellations.
10. Draw sketches to show the relative positions of prominent stars in
(a) Ursa Major and (b) Orion
11. Name two objects other than planets which are members of the solar system.
12. Explain how you can locate the Pole Star with the help of Ursa Major.
13. Do all the stars in the sky move? Explain.
14. Why is the distance between stars expressed in light years? What do you
understand by the statement that a star is eight light years away from
the Earth?
15. The radius of Jupiter is 11 times the radius of the Earth. Calculate the
ratio of the volumes of Jupiter and the Earth. How many Earths can Jupiter
accomodate?
16. Boojho made the following sketch (Fig. 17.29) of the solar system. Is the
sketch correct? If not, correct it.

Fig. 17.29

STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 235

 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects
1. If possible, visit a planetarium. There are planetariums in many
cities. In a planetarium you can see the motion of the stars,
constellations and planets on a large dome.
2. On a moonless night observe the sky for a few hours. Look out for a
meteor, which appears as a streak of light. September-November is
a good time for observing meteors.
3. Learn to identify the planets visible to the naked eye and some
prominent constellations such as Great Bear (Saptarshi) and Orion.
Also try to locate the Pole Star and the star Sirius.
4. Select a convenient place on the roof of your house or in some
playground from where you can watch sunrise clearly. Remember
that you will have to do this activity for a few months. So, choose
the place carefully. On a sheet of chart paper draw the outline of
the eastern horizon indicating big trees, poles, etc. Mark the outline
of the sheet so that you can place it in the same position every
time. After every two weeks, note the position from where the Sun
rises and mark this on your chart paper (Fig. 17.30). Also note the
date of your observation. Repeat this for a few months.
It is advisable that you start observations in the month of
November or May.

Fig. 17.30 : Position of sunrise on different dates

Does the Sun always rise from the same direction? Discuss
your observations with your teacher, parents and elderly people in
your family or in the neighbourhood.

Only on two days in a year, March 21 and September 23, does the Sun
rise exactly in the east. On all other days, the Sun rises either north of
east or south of east.
From summer solstice (around June 21) the point of sunrise gradually
shifts towards the south. The Sun is then said to be in dakshinayan
(moving south). It keeps moving towards south till winter solstice (around
December 22). Thereafter, the point of sunrise changes direction and
starts moving towards north. The Sun is then said to be in uttarayan
(moving north).

236 SCIENCE
 5. Form a group of students. Prepare a model of the solar system
showing the planets, and their relative sizes. For this take a large
chart paper. Make spheres representing different planets according
to their relative size (Use Table 17.1). You may use newspaper, clay
or plasticine to make spheres. You can cover these spheres with
paper of different colours. Exhibit your models in the class.

Table 17.1
Name Approximate Approximate Period Period
of Planet radius distance of of
(assuming from the Sun revolution rotation
Earth as 1 unit) (assuming
distance of
the Earth
as 1 unit)
Mercury 0.40 0.39 88 days 59 days
Venus 0.95 0.72 225 days 243 days
Earth 1.00 1.00 365.25 days 24 hours

Mars 0.55 1.50 687 days 24 hours 37 min

Jupiter 11.00 5.20 12 years 9 hours 55 min
Saturn 9.00 9.50 29.46 years 10.66 hours

Uranus 4.00 19.20 84 years 17.2 hours

Neptune 3.90 30.00 165 years 16.1 hours

6. Try to make a scale model of the solar system showing distances of

the planets from the Sun (Use Table 17.1). Did you face any
difficulty? Explain it.
7. Solve the following riddle and try to make similar riddles yourself:
My first is in VAN but not in PAN
My second is in EARTH and also in HEAVEN
My third is in ONE and not in TWO
My fourth is in BUN and also in FUN
My last is in STAR but not in RADAR
I am a planet that moves round the Sun.
You can read more on the following websites :
l http://www.nineplanets.org
l http://www.kidsastronomy.com

STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 237

 Did You Know ?
In ancient times, it was believed that the Earth was at the centre
of the universe and the moon, the planets, the Sun and stars
were orbiting around it. About 500 years ago, a Polish priest
and astronomer, named Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543),
stated that the Sun was at the centre of the solar system and
the planets revolved around it. It was a revolutionary idea. Even
Copernicus hesitated to publish his work. His work was
published in the year of his death in 1543.
In 1609, Galileo designed his own telescope. Through this
telescope Galileo observed moons of Jupiter, phases of Venus
and rings of Saturn. He argued that all the planets must orbit
the Sun and not the Earth.
Thus you can see that ideas and concepts grow and change.
How about your own ideas? Do you keep your mind open to
accept new ideas when there is good evidence to support it?

238 SCIENCE
 POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER

P
aheli and Boojho were very excited You already know that air consists
to hear the news that Taj of a mixture of gases. By volume, about
Mahal in Agra is now one of the 78% of this mixture is nitrogen and
seven wonders of the world. But they about 21% is oxygen. Carbon dioxide,
were disappointed to hear that the argon, methane, ozone and water
beauty of this monument in white vapour are also present in very small
marble is being threatened by air quantities.
pollution in the area surrounding the
Taj. They were eager to know if Activity 18.1
something can be done to fight the air You may have covered your nose
and water pollution. while passing a brick kiln emitting
We are all awar e that our smoke or started coughing while
environment is not what it used to be. walking on a busy road (Fig. 18.1).
Our elders talk about the blue sky, clean On the basis of your experience,
water and fresh air that was available compare the quality of air at the
in their times. Now the media regularly places given below:
reports on the falling quality of the
l A park and a busy road.
environment. We ourselves feel the
l A residential area and an
impact of the falling quality of air and
water in our lives. The number of people industrial area.
suffering from diseases of the respiratory l A busy traffic intersection at
system, for example, is steadily rising. different times of the day e.g.
early morning, afternoon and
We shudder to imagine a time when
clean air and water may no longer be evening.
available! You have learnt about the l A village and a town.
importance of air and water in your
previous classes. In this chapter, we will
study about the harmful changes taking
place in our surroundings and their
effects on our lives.

18.1 Air Pollution

We can survive for some time without food,
but we cannot survive even for a few
minutes without air. This simple fact tells
Fig. 18.1 : A congested road in a city
us how important clean air is to us.
 One of your observations in the Activity 18.2
above activity could be the differences
You might have read in the
in the amount of smoke in the
newspapers that respiratory
atmosphere. Do you know where the
problems amongst children
smoke could have come from? Addition
are rising day by day. Conduct a
of such substances to the atmosphere
survey of households in your
modifies it. When air is contaminated neighbourhood and among friends
by unwanted substances which have to find out how many children are
a harmful effect on both the living and suffering from respiratory problems.
the non-living, it is referred to as air
pollution. Many respiratory problems are
caused by air pollution. Let us now try
18.2 How does Air Get Polluted? to find out the substances or pollutants
which are present in the polluted air.
The substances which contaminate the
Have you noticed how rapidly the
air are called air pollutants. Sometimes,
number of vehicles is increasing in our
such substances may come from natural
cities?
sources like smoke and dust arising from
Vehicles produce high levels of
forest fires or volcanic eruptions. pollutants like carbon monoxide, carbon
Pollutants are also added to the dioxide, nitrogen oxides and smoke (Fig.
atmosphere by certain human activities. 18.3). Carbon monoxide is produced
The sources of air pollutants are from incomplete burning of fuels such
factories (Fig. 18.2), power plants, as petrol and diesel. It is a poisonous
automobile exhausts and burning of gas. It reduces the oxygen-carrying
firewood and dung cakes. capacity of the blood.

Fig. 18.3 : Air pollution due to automobiles

Do you know?
If the vehicles registered in Delhi are
lined up one after the other, the total
length would be nearly equal to the
combined lengths of the two longest
Fig. 18.2 : Smoke from a factory rivers in the world, Nile and Amazon!

240 SCIENCE
 Boojho remembers seeing a thick Activity 18.3
fog-like layer in the atmosphere,
especially during winters. This is smog Prepare a table using the pollutants
which is made up of smoke and fog. mentioned above. You may even add
Smoke may contain oxides of nitrogen more data to the following Table.
which combine with other air pollutants Table 18.1
and fog to form smog. The smog causes Air Pollutants Sources Effects
breathing difficulties such as asthma,
cough and wheezing in children.
Many industries are also responsible
for causing air pollution. Petroleum
refineries are a major source of gaseous 18.3 Case Study—
pollutants like sulphur dioxide and The Taj Mahal
nitrogen dioxide. Sulphur dioxide is Over the past 2 decades, India’s most
produced by combustion of fuels like famous tourist attraction, Taj Mahal
coal in power plants. It can cause located in Agra (Fig. 18.4), has become
respiratory problems, including a matter of concern. Experts have
permanent lung damage. You have warned that pollutants in air are
already studied about the burning of discolouring its white marble. So, it is
fossil fuels in Chapter 5. not only living organisms that get
Other kinds of pollutants are affected by polluted air but non-living
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are things like buildings, monuments and
used in refrigerators, air conditioners statues also get affected.
and aerosol sprays. CFCs damage the The industries located in and around
ozone layer of the atmosphere. Recall Agra like rubber processing, automobile,
that the ozone layer protects us from chemicals and especially the Mathura oil
harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. Have refinery, have been responsible for
you heard of the ozone hole? Try to find producing pollutants like sulphur
out about it. Thankfully, less harmful dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. These
chemicals are now being used in place gases react with the water vapour present
of CFCs. in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid
In addition to the above mentioned and nitric acid. The acids drop down with
gases, automobiles which burn diesel rain, making the rain acidic. This is
and petrol, also produce tiny particles called acid rain. Acid rain corrodes the
which remain suspended in air for long marble of the monument. The
periods (Fig. 18.3). They reduce phenomenon is also called “Marble
visibility. When inhaled, they cause cancer”. Suspended particulate matter,
diseases. Such particles are also such as the soot particles emitted by
produced during industrial processes Mathura oil refinery, has contributed
like steel making and mining. Power towards the yellowing of the marble.
plants give out tiny ash particles which The Supreme Court has taken
also pollute the atmosphere. several steps to save the Taj. It has

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 241

 Fig. 18.4 : Taj Mahal
ordered industries to switch to cleaner and a part is reflected back into space.
fuels like CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) A part of the reflected radiation is
and LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas). trapped by the atmosphere. The trapped
Moreover, the automobiles should radiations further warm the earth. If you
switch over to unleaded petrol in the Taj have seen a greenhouse in a nursery or
zone. elsewhere, recall that the sun’s heat is
Discuss with your elders and see allowed to get in but is not allowed to
what they have to say about the go out. The trapped heat warms the
condition of the Taj, 20 or 30 years ago! green house. The trapping of radiations
Try to procure a picture of the Taj Mahal by the earth’s atmosphere is similar.
for your scrap book. That is why it is called the greenhouse
effect. Without this process, life would
not have been possible on the earth. But
now it threatens life. CO2 is one of the
I am reminded of the gases responsible for this effect.
chapter on crops. I You know that CO2 is one of the
wonder whether acid rain components of air. You have also studied
affects the soil and
plants also.

18.4 Greenhouse Effect

But how does CO2 content
You know that the sun’s rays warm the
rise in the atmosphere and
earth’s surface. A part of the radiation become excessive?
that falls on the earth is absorbed by it
242 SCIENCE
the role of carbon dioxide in plants. But towards this effect. Like CO2, they are
if there is excess of CO2 in the air, it also called greenhouse gases.
acts as a pollutant. Global warming has become a major
Can you help Paheli find out the concern for governments worldwide.
answer to her question? Many countries have reached an
On the one hand, CO2 is continuously agreement to reduce the emission of
being released because of human greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol
activities. On the other hand, area under is one such agreement.
forests is decreasing. Plants utilise CO2 Boojho is surprised to hear that an
from the atmosphere for photosynthesis, increase in the earth’s temperature by
thereby decreasing the amount of CO2 even as little as 0.5 ºC can have such a
in the air. Deforestation leads to an serious effect! Paheli tells him that she
increase in the amount of CO2 in the air had read in the newspapers recently that
because the number of trees which the Gangotri glacier in the Himalayas
consume CO 2 is reduced. Human has started melting because of global
activities, thus, contribute to the warming.
accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere.
CO2 traps heat and does not allow it to 18.5 What can be Done?
escape into space. As a result, the average
What can we do to reduce air
temperature of the earth’s atmosphere
pollution?
is gradually increasing. This is called
There are many success stories in our
global warming.
fight against air pollution. For example,
Other gases like methane, nitrous
a few years ago, Delhi was one of the
oxide and water vapour also contribute
most polluted cities in the world. It was
being choked by fumes released from
Global Warming automobiles running on diesel and
A Serious Threat! petrol. A decision was taken to switch
Global warming can cause sea levels to fuels like CNG (Fig. 18.5) and
to rise dramatically. In many places,
coastal areas have already been
flooded. Global warming could result
in wide ranging effects on rainfall
patterns, agriculture, forests, plants
and animals. Majority of people living
in regions which are threatened by
global warming are in Asia. A recent
climate change report gives us only
a limited time to keep the greenhouse
gases at the present level. Otherwise,
the temperature may rise by more
than 2 degrees Celsius by the end of
the century, a level considered
dangerous.
Fig. 18.5 : A public transport bus powered by CNG
POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 243
unleaded petrol. These measures have fuels for our energy requirements. These
resulted in cleaner air for the city. You could be solar energy, hydropower and
might know of some other examples wind energy.
from your area regarding reduction of
air pollution. Share these with your Activity 18.4
friends. You have various options of
commuting to your school such as
Do you know about the “Say no to
walking, going by bicycle, travelling
crackers” campaign which was
by bus or other public transport,
organised by children from many
schools? This made a big difference using a car individually, travelling
to the air pollution levels around by car pool. Discuss in your class
Diwali. the impact of each of these options
on the quality of air.
The quality of air at various locations
is monitored regularly by government Small contributions on our part can
and other agencies. We can use this data make a huge difference in the state of
to generate awareness about air the environment. We can plant trees and
pollution among friends and nurture the ones already present in the
neighbours. neighbourhood. Do you know about Van
There is a need to switch over to Mahotsav, when lakhs of trees are
alternative fuels instead of the fossil planted in July every year (Fig. 18.6)?

Fig. 18.6 : Children planting saplings

244 SCIENCE
 Boojho and Paheli once happened to Activity 18.5
go to an area where some people were
burning dry leaves. They started Try to collect samples of water from
a tap, pond, river, well and lake.
coughing because the entire area was full
Pour each into separate glass
of smoke. Paheli thought it would be a
containers. Compare these for
better option to put them in a compost
smell, acidity and colour. Complete
pit rather than burning. What do you
the following Table.
think?
Table 18.2
18.6 Water Pollution Smell Acidity Colour
In Class VII you learnt that water is a Tap Water
precious resource. Think and list the
Pond Water
various activities in which we need
water. We saw that water is becoming River Water
scarce due to increase in population, Well Water
industries and agricultural activities.
You have also studied how water Lake Water
becomes “dirty” after we use it for
washing clothes, bathing, etc. This 18.7 How does Water Get
means that we are adding some
materials to the water, which spoil its
Polluted?
quality and change its smell and colour. Case Study
Whenever harmful substances such Ganga is one of the most famous rivers
as sewage, toxic chemicals, silt, etc., get of India (Fig. 18.7). It sustains most of
mixed with water, the water becomes the northern, central and eastern
polluted. The substances that pollute Indian population. Millions of people
water are called water pollutants. depend on it for their daily needs and
Gomukh
Gangotri
Haridwar

NEW UTTRAKHAND
DELHI UT NEPAL
TA BHUTAN
Kanpur RP
RA
DE BIHAR
SH Patna
Allahabad BANGLADESH
Varanasi
WEST
BENGAL

INDIA Kolkata

Bay of Bengal
Fig. 18.7 : Course of the river Ganga

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 245

livelihood. However, recently a study by and defecating in the river. They also
the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) throw garbage, flowers, idols of gods
found that Ganga is one of the ten most and goddesses and non-biodegradable
endangered rivers in the world. The polythene bags into the river.
pollution levels have been rising for At Kanpur the amount of water is
many years. We have reached this stage comparatively small and the flow of the
because the towns and cities, through river is very slow. In addition, Kanpur
which the river flows, throw large has more than 5000 industries. These
quantities of garbage, untreated sewage, include fertiliser, detergent, leather and
dead bodies, and many other harmful paint industries. These industrial units
things, directly into the river. In fact the discharge toxic chemical wastes into the
river is ‘dead’ at many places where the river.
pollution levels are so high that aquatic Based on the above information
life cannot survive. think of the answers to the following
An ambitious plan to save the river, questions –
called the Ganga Action Plan was
l What are the factors responsible for
launched in 1985. It aimed to reduce pollution of the river ?
the pollution levels in the river. However,
l What steps can be taken to restore
the increasing population and
the river Ganga to its past glory ?
industrialisation have already damaged
l How would the disposal of garbage,
this mighty river beyond repair.
etc., affect the living organisms in the
Let us take a specific example to
river ?
understand the situation. The Ganga
at Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh (U.P.), has Many industries discharge harmful
one of the most polluted stretches of chemicals into rivers and streams,
the river (Fig. 18.8). Kanpur is one of causing the pollution of water
the most populated towns in U.P. People (Fig. 18.9). Examples are oil refineries,
can be seen bathing, washing clothes paper factories, textile and sugar mills

Fig. 18.8 : A polluted stretch of the river Fig. 18.9 : Industrial waste discharged into
Ganga a river

246 SCIENCE
and chemical factories. These industries food wastes, detergents, microor -
cause chemical contamination of water. ganisms, etc. Can ground water get
The chemicals released include arsenic, polluted by sewage? How? Water
lead and fluorides which lead to toxicity contaminated with sewage may contain
in plants and animals. There are bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites
regulations to prevent this. Industries which cause diseases like cholera,
are supposed to treat the waste typhoid and jaundice.
produced before discharging it into The bacteria present in the faeces
waters, but quite often the rules are not of mammals are indicators of the
followed. The soil is also affected by quality of water. If water has these
impure water, causing changes in bacteria, it means that it has been
acidity, growth of worms, etc. contaminated by fecal matter. If such
We have learnt in Chapter 1 the water is used by us, it can cause various
importance of pesticides and weedicides infections.
for the protection of crops. However, all
these chemicals dissolve in water and Do you know?
are washed into water bodies from the Hot water can also be a pollutant !
fields. They also seep into the ground This is usually water from power
to pollute ground water. plants and industries. It is released
Have you seen ponds which look into the rivers. It raises the
green from a distance because they have temperature of the waterbody,
a lot of algae growing in them? This is adversely affecting the animals and
caused by excessive quantities of plants living in it.
chemicals which get washed from the
fields. These act as nutrients for algae 18.8 What is Potable Water
to flourish. Once these algae die, they and How is Water
serve as food for decomposers like Purified ?
bacteria. A lot of oxygen in the water
body gets used up. This results in a
decrease in the oxygen level which may Activity 18.7
kill aquatic organisms.
Let us construct a water filter with
simple, everyday materials.
Recall Activity 18.6
Take a plastic bottle and cut it
You had investigated the sewage into 2 halves at the centre. Use the
disposal system of your locality in upper half as a funnel by putting it
Class VII. upside down in the lower half. Make
Do you remember how the layers in it with paper napkin or a
sewage was collected from your fine cloth followed by, cotton, sand
home and where it went thereafter? and then gravel. Now pour dirty
water through the filter and observe
Sometimes untreated sewage is
thrown directly into rivers. It contains the filtered water.

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 247

 water. Boiling kills the germs present
Discuss the following questions
in the water.
amongst yourselves and with your
l Chlorination is a commonly used
teacher:
chemical method for purifying water.
l Why do we need to filter water
It is done by adding chlorine tablets
before drinking ?
or bleaching powder to the water. We
l Where do you get your drinking
must be cautious. We should not
water from?
use more chlorine tablets than
l What will happen if we drink
specified.
polluted water?
18.9 What Can be Done?
Boojho is very upset. He tells Paheli
that he drank water which looked clear Activity 18.8
and was without any smell, but still he Investigate the level of awareness
fell sick ! about water pollution in your area.
Paheli explains that water which Collect data on the sources of
looks clean may still have disease- drinking water and the methods of
carrying microorganisms and dissolved sewage disposal.
impurities. So, it is essential to purify What are the common water-borne
water before drinking, for example, by diseases in the community? You can
boiling. consult your local doctor/health
Water which is suitable for drinking worker for this.
is called potable water. You have seen Which are the governmental and
how various physical and chemical non-governmental organisations
processes in the sewage treatment working in this field? What are the
plants help to clean water before measures being taken by them for
discharging it into water bodies. generating awareness?
Similarly, municipal bodies treat the
water before supplying it to households.
Laws for industrial units should be
Do you know? strictly implemented so that polluted
25% of the world’s population is
water is not disposed off directly into
without safe drinking water ! rivers and lakes. Water treatment plants
should be installed in all industrial
Let us see how water can be made areas (Fig. 18.10). At our individual
safe for drinking: levels we should consciously save water
l You have already seen how water is and not waste it. Reduce, reuse and
filtered. This is a physical method of recycle should be our mantra !
removing impurities. A popular Think of your daily routine – how
household filter is a candle type can you save water?
filter. We can think of creative ideas like
l Many households use boiling as a reusing water used for washing and for
method for obtaining safe drinking other household tasks. For example,

248 SCIENCE
 Fig. 18.10 : Water treatment plant
water used for washing vegetables may of our daily lives. Unless we all realise
be used to water plants in the garden. our responsibility and start using
Pollution is no longer a distant environment-friendly processes, the very
phenomenon. It is affecting the quality survival of our planet is in danger.

Do you know?
While brushing your teeth, leaving the tap running may waste several
litres of water. A tap that drips once every second wastes a few thousand
litres of water every year. Think about it !

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 249

KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
AIR POLLUTION Ü Air pollution is the contamination of air by

CHEMICAL impurities which may have a harmful impact

CONTAMINATION on the living organisms and the non-living

components.
GLOBAL WARMING Ü Pollutants are the substances which
contaminate air and water.
GREENHOUSE
Ü Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon
EFFECT
dioxide, methane and sulphur dioxide are the
POLLUTANTS major pollutants of air.
Ü Increasing levels of greenhouse gases like CO2
POTABLE WATER
are leading to global warming.
WATER POLLUTION Ü Water pollution is the contamination of water
by substances harmful to life.
Ü Sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial
waste are some of the major contaminants of
water.
Ü Water which is purified and fit for drinking is
known as potable water.
Ü Water is a precious natural resource. We must
learn to conserve it.

Exercises

1. What are the different ways in which water gets contaminated ?

2. At an individual level, how can you help reduce air pollution?
3. Clear, transparent water is always fit for drinking. Comment.

4. You are a member of the municipal body of your town.

Make a list of measures that would help your town to ensure the supply
of clean water to all its residents.

5. Explain the differences between pure air and polluted air.

6. Explain circumstances leading to acid rain. How does acid rain affect us?
7. Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas?

(a) Carbon dioxide

(b) Sulphur dioxide
250 SCIENCE
 (c) Methane
EXERCISES (d Nitrogen

8. Describe the ‘Green House Effect’ in your own words.

9. Prepare a brief speech on global warming. You have to deliver the speech
in your class.

10. Describe the threat to the beauty of the Taj Mahal.

11. Why does the increased level of nutrients in the water affect the survival
of aquatic organisms?

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. In some cities, a pollution check has been made compulsory for

vehicles. Visit a petrol pump in order to learn about the process of
conducting a pollution check. You may systematically record your
findings in the following areas:
l Average number of vehicles checked per month.
l Time taken to check each vehicle.

l Pollutants checked for.

l The process of testing.
l Permissible levels of emission of various gases.

l Measures taken if the emitted gases are above the

permissible limits.
l How frequently is a pollution check required ?

2. Conduct a survey in your school to investigate various environment

related activities that have been undertaken. The class can divide
itself into two groups, with each group looking at a different area.
For example, one group can find out whether there is an
environment club in the school. What are its objectives ? What is
its calendar of events ? How can you become a member ?

If your school does not have such a club, you even think of starting
one along with a few of your friends.
3. Organise a field visit to a river in or around your town with the help
of your teachers.

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 251

 Observations followed by discussion could focus on

l the history of the river.

l cultural traditions.
l role of the river in meeting the town’s water needs.

l pollution concerns.
l sources of pollution.
l effects of pollution on the people living by the riverside as well
as those living far away.
4. Find out with the help of your teachers and the internet (if possible),
whether there are any international agreements to control global
warming. Which are the gases covered under these agreements?

252 SCIENCE