SCIENCE

TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS VIII

2018-19
 ISBN 978-81-7450-812-6
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OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION
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 Foreword
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s life
at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a
departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system
and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and
textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic
idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp
boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us
significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined
in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to
pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space,
time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the
information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the
sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites
of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we
perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed
body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in
implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching days
are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation
will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at
school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus
designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring
and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child
psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance
this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for
contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups and activities requiring
hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates
the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this
book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in science and
mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisor for this book,
Professor V.B. Bhatia for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers
contributed to the development of this textbook. We are grateful to their principals
for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations
which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and
personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring
Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education,

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 iv

Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of

Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time
and contribution.
As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous
improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments
and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and
refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
30 November 2007 Research and Training

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 Preface
This book is the outcome of the efforts of the textbook development committee
appointed by the NCERT. The committee met a few times to interact with one
another to improve the draft. Then there was a review meeting in which many
experts and practicing school teachers were invited to review the draft and suggest
improvements.
By and large we have stuck to the format of the Class VII book. By now famous
characters, Boojho and Paheli, have been used to make the text interactive. Attempt
has been made to recall children’s own experiences and build concepts around
them. This is designed to connect science that they study in the school with their
everyday life.
Many activities have been suggested to clarify concepts. Some of these activities
are so simple that children can perform them on their own. The requirement of the
apparatus required for the activities is minimal. We performed all the activities
ourselves to ensure that there was no difficulty in performing them in the school
situation. The activities should also help children in developing skills such as
presentation of data in tabular and graphical forms, reasoning and drawing inference
from the given data.
The language of the book has been kept as simple as possible. A large number of
photographs, illustrations, cartoons, etc. have been included to make the book
attractive. To help teachers evaluate children effectively, a large number of exercises
have been given at the end of each chapter. The teachers are encouraged to frame
additional exercises to test children’s understanding. Some challenging exercises
have also been devised for those children who would like to appear for the National
Talent Search Examination conducted by the NCERT.
We are conscious of the fact that there is a paucity of additional reading material
for children. We have tried to address this problem by providing non-evaluative
boxes. These boxes, in light orange, contain additional information, anecdotes,
stories, strange facts and other such interesting materials.
We all know that children are mischievous and playful by nature. Therefore, in
order to prevent any untoward incident during the performance of the activities in
the school or outside, necessary cautions, in magenta, have been inserted at various
places in the book.
To prepare children to assume their roles as responsible citizens of tomorrow,
attempt has been made to sensitise them to the issues concerning gender, religion,
environment, health and hygiene, water scarcity and energy conservation. We have
sought to weave into the text the value of cooperation and the importance of peer
learning.
An important feature of the book is what we call Extended Learning. These are
totally non-evaluative, and purely voluntary activities and projects. Some of the
projects in this section have been designed to enhance children’s interaction with
the experts, teachers, even parents, and society at large. The children are required
to collect information of various kinds and draw conclusions of their own.
My request to teachers and parents is to use the book in the spirit in which it
has been written. Encourage children to perform activities and learn by doing, rather
than by rote. You can supplement, or even replace, the activities given here. If you

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 vi

feel that you have better alternatives, especially with your local/regional flavour,
please write to us so that these activities could be used in the future editions of
the book.
We have been able to include only a small subset of children’s experiences. You
have a better knowledge of their experiences because you are in touch with them.
Use them to illustrate the concepts being taught. Above all, please do not stifle
children’s natural curiosity. Encourage them to ask questions, even if sometimes
you feel uncomfortable. If you do not know the answer to a question on the spot, do
not feel embarrassed. You can promise them to find the answer and deal with it
later. Make a genuine attempt to get the answer from whatever resources are within
your reach, such as senior school or college teachers, experts, libraries, internet
etc. If, inspite of your efforts, you cannot get the answer to some question, you could
write to NCERT.
I must thank the NCERT for enabling us to talk to children through the medium
of this book. Every member of the NCERT has been courteous and helpful to us.
In the end, I must express my gratitude to the members of the Editing Team,
who worked tirelessly to help me bring the book to the present form. If you and your
students find this book useful and enjoy teaching/learning science through this
book, the Editing Team and I shall consider ourselves well-rewarded.

V.B. BHATIA
Chief Advisor
Textbook Development Committee

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Textbook Development Committee
CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY GROUP FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Inter University Centre for Astronomy and
Astrophysics (IUCCA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune
CHIEF ADVISOR
V.B. Bhatia, Professor (Retd.) (Physics), Delhi University, Delhi
MEMBERS
Bharati Sarkar, Reader (Retd.) (Zoology), Maitreyi College, Delhi University, Delhi
C. V. Shimray, Lecturer, Department of Education in Science and Mathematics,
(DESM), NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Gagandeep Bajaj, Lecturer, Department of Education, SPM College, Delhi
University, Delhi
H.C. Jain, Principal, (Retd.) Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer
Harsh Kumari, Headmistress, CIE Experimental Basic School, Department of
Education, Delhi University, Delhi
J. S. Gill, Professor (Retd.), DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Kanhiya Lal, Principal (Retd.), Directorate of Education, Delhi
Lalita S. Kumar, Reader (Chemistry), School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi National
Open University (IGNOU), Maidan Garhi, New Delhi
P.C. Agarwal, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer
P.S. Yadava, Professor, Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Imphal
Puranchand, Professor and Joint Director (Retd.), Central Institute of Educational
Technology (CIET), NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
R. Joshi, Lecturer (SG), DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Rachna Garg, Lecturer, Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET),
NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Rashmi Sharma, Lecturer, North-East Regional Institute of Education, Shillong
R.K. Parashar, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Bhubaneshwar
Ruchi Verma, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Shashi Prabha, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Sunila Masih, Teacher, Mitra GHS School, Suhagpur, P.O. Hoshangabad,
Madhya Pradesh

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
R. S. Sindhu, Professor, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi

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 Acknowledgements
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
acknowledges the valuable contribution of the individuals and
organisations involved in the development of this book. The Council
acknowledges the valuable contribution of the following academics for
reviewing and refining the manuscript of this book: K.C. Sharma, Reader
(Physics), Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer; Charu Verma, Lecturer
(Science), DIET, Pitampura, Delhi; Geeta Bajaj, TGT (Science), K.V. No. 3,
Delhi Cantt., New Delhi; K.D. Sharma, TGT (Science), R.P.V.V. Civil Lines,
Delhi; Manohar Lal Patel, Teacher, Govt. R.N.A. Higher Secondary School,
Pipariya, Madhya Pradesh; Reeta Sharma, Reader (Botany), Regional
Institute of Education, Bhopal; Kamal Deep Peter, OEI, Oracle India,
Bangalore; Puneeta Sharma, TGT (Science), L.D. Jain Girls Senior
Secondary School, Sadar Bazar, Delhi; M.C. Das, Teacher (Science), Govt.
Secondary School, Zoom, West Sikkim; Deepti Kohli, P.D. Public School,
Shalimar Bagh, Delhi; Sulekha Chandra, Reader (Chemistry), Zakir
Husain College, Delhi University, Delhi; R.S. Tomar, TGT (Science), J.N.V.
Mothuka, Faridabad (Haryana); Anjali Khirwadkar, Lecturer, Department
of Education, M.S. University, Baroda (Gujrat); Suresh Chand, TGT
(Science), J.N.V. Ghaziabad Uttar Pradesh; Satheesh H.L., TGT (Science),
Demonstration School, Regional Institute of Education, Mysore;
Simminder Kaur Thukral, NIIT, Kalkaji, New Delhi; M.M. Kapoor,
Professor (Retd.) (Chemistry), Delhi University, Delhi; Sarita Kumar,
Reader (Zoology), Acharya Narendra Dev College, Delhi University,
Delhi. The contributions of Pramila Tanvar and Ashish K. Srivastava,
Assistant Professors, are acknowledged for being a part of the review of
this textbook.
The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable suggestions received
from the National Monitoring Committee in the development of the
manuscript of this textbook.
The dynamic leadership of Professor Hukum Singh, Head, DESM, for
providing guidance at different stages of development of the textbook and
extending infrastructure facilities is highly acknowledged. Special thanks
are due to Shveta Uppal, Chief Editor and Shashi Chadha, Assistant
Editor for going through the manuscript and suggesting relevant changes.
The Council also acknowledges the efforts of Deepak Kapoor,
Incharge Computer Station, Inder Kumar, DTP Operator; K.T. Chitralekha,
Copy Editor and Ritu Jha, Proof Reader.
The contributions of APC-office, administration of DESM, Publication
Department and Secretariat of NCERT is also acknowledged.

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 A Note for the Students
The team of Paheli and Boojho will be with you as you journey through this
textbook. They love to ask questions. All kinds of questions come to their
minds and they collect them in their sacks. Sometimes, they may share some
of the questions with you, as you read through the chapters.
Paheli and Boojho are also on the lookout for answers to many
questions — sometimes the questions seem answered after they discuss them
with each other, sometimes through discussions with other classmates, teachers
or their parents. Answers to some questions do not seem available even after
all these. They might need to experiment on their own, read books in the library,
send questions to scientists. Just dig and dig and dig into all possibilities and
see if the questions can be answered. Perhaps, they would carry some of the
unanswered questions in their sacks to higher classes.
What will really thrill them would be your adding questions to their sacks
or answers to their questions. Sometimes, activities are suggested in the
textbook, results or findings of these by different groups of students would be
of interest to other students and teachers. You can complete the suggested
activities and send your results or findings to Paheli and Boojho. Do keep in
mind that activities that involve using blades, scissors or fire need to be done
strictly under the care of your teachers. Stick to the precautions given and
then enjoy doing all the suggested activities. Mind, the book will not be able to
help you much, if the activities are not completed!
We would like to advise you that you must make observations yourself
and record whatever results you get. Keen and true observations are necessary
for exploring any subject of study. For some reason your results may turn out
to be different from those of your classmates. Do not worry. Try to find out the
reason for these results instead of disregarding them. Do not ever copy results
from your classmate.
You can send your feedback for Paheli and Boojho at:

To
The Head
Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics,
NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg,
New Delhi 110016

2018-19
 THE CONSTITUTION OF
INDIA
PREAMBLE
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having
solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
1
[SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC] and to secure
to all its citizens :
JUSTICE, social, economic and
political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief,
faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of
the individual and the 2[unity and
integrity of the Nation];
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949 do
HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO
OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
1. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976, Sec.2,
for "Sovereign Democratic Republic" (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)
2. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976, Sec.2,
for "Unity of the Nation" (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)

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CONTENTS FOREWORD
PREFACE

Chapter 1
iii
v

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 1

Chapter 2
MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 17

Chapter 3
SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS 32

Chapter 4
MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS 44

Chapter 5
COAL AND PETROLEUM 56

Chapter 6
COMBUSTION AND FLAME 64

Chapter 7
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 77

Chapter 8
CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 90

Chapter 9
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 100

Chapter 10
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 113

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 xii

CONTENTS Chapter 11
FORCE AND PRESSURE

Chapter 12
127

FRICTION 146

Chapter 13
SOUND 157

Chapter 14
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 172

Chapter 15
SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA 184

Chapter 16
LIGHT 199

Chapter 17
STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 215

Chapter 18
POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 239

INDEX 253

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 CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

P
aheli and Boojho went to their
uncle’s house during the summer
vacation. Their uncle is a farmer.
One day they saw some tools like khurpi, Food has to be
produced on a large
sickle, shovel, plough, etc., in the field.
scale.

In order to provide food for a large

population— regular production, proper
I want to know management and distribution is
where and how we necessary.
use these tools.
1.1 Agricultural Practices
You have learnt that all living
organisms require food. Plants can make
T ill 10,000 B.C.E. people were
their food themselves. Can you recall
nomadic. They were wandering in
how green plants synthesise their own groups from place to place in search
food? Animals including humans can of food and shelter. They ate raw
not make their own food. So, where do fruits and vegetables and started
animals get their food from? hunting animals for food. Later, they
But, first of all why do we have to eat could cultivate land and produce rice,
food? wheat and other food crops. Thus,
You already know that energy from was born ‘Agriculture’.
the food is utilised by organisms for
carrying out their various body When plants of the same kind are
functions, such as digestion, respiration cultivated at one place on a large scale,
and excretion. We get our food from it is called a crop. For example, crop of
plants, or animals, or both. wheat means that all the plants grown
in a field are that of wheat.
You already know that crops are of
different types like cereals, vegetables
and fruits. These can be classified on the
Since we all need food, basis of the season in which they grow.
how can we provide India is a vast country. The climatic
food to a large number
conditions like temperature, humidity
of people in our
and rainfall vary from one region to
country?
another. Accordingly, there is a rich

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variety of crops grown in different parts to as agricultural practices which are
of the country. Despite this diversity, listed below:
two broad cropping patterns can be
(i) Preparation of soil
identified. These are:
(ii) Sowing
(i) Kharif Crops : The crops which are (iii) Adding manure and fertilisers
sown in the rainy season are called (iv) Irrigation
kharif crops. The rainy season in India (v) Protecting from weeds
is generally from June to September. (vi) Harvesting
Paddy, maize, soyabean, groundnut and
(vii) Storage
cotton are kharif crops.
(ii) Rabi Crops : The crops grown in the
1.3 Preparation of Soil
winter season (October to March) are
called rabi crops. Examples of rabi The preparation of soil is the first step
crops are wheat, gram, pea, mustard before growing a crop. One of the most
and linseed. important tasks in agriculture is to turn
Besides these, pulses and vegetables the soil and loosen it. This allows the
are grown during summer at many roots to penetrate deep into the soil. The
places. loose soil allows the roots to breathe
easily even when they go deep into the
1.2 Basic Practices of Crop soil. Why does the loosening of soil allow
Production the roots to breathe easily?
The loosened soil helps in the growth
of earthworms and microbes present in
the soil. These organisms are friends of
the farmer since they further turn and
loosen the soil and add humus to it.
Why paddy can not be
grown in the winter season? But why the soil needs to be turned and
loosened?
You have learnt in the previous
classes that soil contains minerals,
water, air and some living organisms.
Paddy requires a lot of In addition, dead plants and animals
water. Therefore, it is grown get decomposed by soil organisms. In
only in the rainy season. this way, various nutrients in the dead
organisms are released back into the
Cultivation of crops involves several soil. These nutrients are again absorbed
activities undertaken by farmers over a by plants.
period of time. You may find that these Since only a few centimetres of the
activities are similar to those carried out top layer of soil supports plant growth,
by a gardener or even by you when you turning and loosening of soil brings the
grow ornamental plants in your house. nutrient-rich soil to the top so that
These activities or tasks are referred plants can use these nutrients. Thus,
2 SCIENCE

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turning and loosening of soil is very Plough : This is being used since
important for cultivation of crops. ancient times for tilling the soil, adding
The process of loosening and turning fertilisers to the crop, removing the weeds
of the soil is called tilling or ploughing. and turning the soil. This is made of
This is done by using a plough. Ploughs wood and is drawn by a pair of bulls or
are made of wood or iron. If the soil is other animals (horses and camels). It
very dry, it may need watering before contains a strong triangular iron strip
ploughing. The ploughed field may have called ploughshare. The main part of the
big clumps of soil called crumbs. It is plough is a long log of wood which is
necessary to break these crumbs. called a ploughshaft. There is a handle
Levelling the field is beneficial for at one end of the shaft. The other end is
sowing as well as for irrigation. Levelling attached to a beam which is placed on
of soil is done with the help of a leveller. the bulls’ necks. One pair of bulls and a
Sometimes, manure is added to the man can easily operate the plough
soil before tilling. This helps in proper [Fig. 1.1 (a)].
mixing of manure with soil. The soil is
The indigenous wooden plough is
moistened before sowing.
increasingly being replaced by iron
Agricultural Implements ploughs nowadays.
Before sowing the seeds, it is necessary to Hoe : It is a simple tool which is used
break soil clumps to get better yield. This for removing weeds and for loosening
is done with the help of various tools. the soil. It has a long rod of wood or
The main tools used for this purpose are iron. A strong, broad and bent plate of
the plough, hoe and cultivator. iron is fixed to one of its ends and

beam

ploughshaft

ploughshare

Fig. 1.1 (a) : The plough

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 3

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works like a blade. It is pulled by Activity 1.1
animals [Fig. 1.1 (b)].
Take a beaker and fill half of it
grip beam with water. Put a handful of wheat
handle
seeds and stir well. Wait for some
time.
bent plate
Are there seeds which float on
rod
Fig. 1.1 (b) : A hoe water? Would those be lighter or
heavier than those which sink? Why
Cultivator : Nowadays ploughing is would they be lighter? Damaged seeds
done by tractor-driven cultivator. The become hollow and are thus lighter.
use of cultivator saves labour and time. Therefore, they float on water.
[Fig. 1.1 (c)]. This is a good method for
separating good, healthy seeds from
the damaged ones.
Before sowing, one of the important
tasks is to know about the tools used
for sowing seeds [Fig. 1.2 (a), (b)].
Traditional tool : The tool used
traditionally for sowing seeds is
shaped like a funnel [Fig. 1.2 (a)]. The
Fig. 1.1 (c) : Cultivator driven by a tractor seeds are filled into the funnel,
passed down through two or three
1.4 Sowing pipes having sharp ends. These
Sowing is an important part of crop ends pierce into the soil and place
production. Before sowing, good quality, seeds there.
clean and healthy seeds of a good
variety—are selected. Farmers prefer to
use seeds which give high yield.

Selection of Seeds

One day I saw my mother put

some gram seeds in a vessel
and pour some water on
them. After a few minutes
some seeds started to float
on top. I wonder why some
seeds float on water!
Fig. 1.2 (a) : Traditional method of sowing
4 SCIENCE

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 sufficient sunlight, nutrients and water
from the soil. At times a few plants
may have to be removed to prevent
overcrowding.

1.5 Adding Manure and

Fertilisers
The substances which are added to the
soil in the form of nutrients for the
healthy growth of plants are called
manure and fertilisers.
Fig. 1.2 (b) : A seed drill
Seed drill : Nowadays the seed drill [Fig. I saw a healthy crop growing
1.2 (b)] is used for sowing with the help in a farm. In the neighbouring
of tractors. This sows the seeds farm, the plants were weak.
uniformly at equal distance and depth. Why do some plants grow
It ensures that seeds get covered by the better than others?
soil after sowing. This protects seeds
from being eaten by birds. Sowing by Soil supplies mineral nutrients to the
using a seed drill saves time and labour. crop plants. These nutrients are
essential for the growth of plants. In
certain areas, farmers grow crop after
There is a nursery near my crop in the same field. The field is never
school. I found that little left uncultivated or fallow. Imagine what
plants were kept in small happens to the nutrients?
bags. Why are they Continuous cultivation of crops
kept like this? makes the soil poor in nutrients.
Therefore, farmers have to add manure
to the fields to replenish the soil with
nutrients. This process is called
Seeds of a few plants
such as paddy are first
manuring. Improper or insufficient
grown in a nursery. When manuring results in weak plants.
they grow into seedlings, Manure is an organic substance
they are transplanted to obtained from the decomposition of
the field manually. Some plant or animal wastes. Farmers dump
forest plants and flowering plant and animal waste in pits at open
plants are also grown in places and allow it to decompose. The
the nursery. decomposition is caused by some
microorganisms. The decomposed
Appropriate distance between the matter is used as organic manure.
seeds is necessary to avoid overcrowding You have alr eady learnt about
of plants. This allows plants to get vermicomposting in Class VI.
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 5

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Activity 1.2 better growth of plants? In which glass
was the growth fastest?
Take moong or gram seeds and Fertilisers are chemicals which are
germinate them. Select three equal
rich in a particular nutrient. How are
sized seedlings. Take three empty
they different from manure? Fertilisers
glasses or similar vessels. Mark them
are produced in factories. Some
A, B and C. To glass A add little
amount of soil mixed with a little cow examples of fertilisers are— urea,
dung manure. In glass B put the ammonium sulphate, super
same amount of soil mixed with a phosphate, potash, NPK (Nitrogen,
little urea. Take the same amount Phosphorus, Potassium).
of soil in glass C without adding The use of fertilisers has helped
anything [Fig. 1.3(a)]. Now pour the farmers to get better yield of crops
same amount of water in each glass such as wheat, paddy and maize. But
and plant the seedlings in them. excessive use of fertilisers has made
Keep them in a safe place and water the soil less fertile. Fertilisers have also
them daily. After 7 to 10 days become a source of water pollution.
observe their growth [Fig. 1.3(b)]. Therefore, in order to maintain the
fertility of the soil, we have to
substitute fertilisers with organic
manure or leave the field uncultivated
(fallow) in between two crops.
The use of manure improves soil
texture as well as its water retaining
capacity. It replenishes the soil with
nutrients.
Another method of replenishing
Fig. 1.3 (a) : Preparation of the experiment
the soil with nutrients is through crop
rotation. This can be done by growing
different crops alternately. Earlier,
farmers in northern India used to
grow legumes as fodder in one season
and wheat in the next season. This
helped in the replenishment of the soil
with nitrogen. Farmers are being
encouraged to adopt this practice.
In the previous classes, you have
Fig. 1.3 (b) : Growing seedlings with manure
and fertiliser
learnt about Rhizobium bacteria.
These are present in the nodules of
Did plants in all the glasses grow at roots of leguminous plants. They fix
the same pace? Which glass showed atmospheric nitrogen.
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 Table 1.1 : Differences between Fertiliser and Manure

S. No. Fertiliser Manure

1. Fertiliser is a man-made Manure is a natural substance obtained

inorganic salt. by the decomposition of cattle dung
and plant residues.

2. Fertiliser is prepared in Manure can be prepared in the fields.

factories.

3. Fertiliser does not provide Manure provides a lot of humus to the soil.
any humus to the soil.

4. Fertilisers are very rich in Manure is relatively less rich in plant

plant nutrients like nitrogen, nutrients.
phosphorus and potassium.

Table 1.1 gives the differences protects the crop from both frost and
between a fertiliser and manure. hot air currents. To maintain the
moisture of the soil for healthy crop
Advantages of Manure : The organic
growth, fields have to be watered
manure is considered better than
regularly.
fertilisers. This is because
The supply of water to crops at
l it enhances the water holding regular intervals is called irrigation. The
capacity of the soil. time and frequency of irrigation varies
l it makes the soil porous due to which from crop to crop, soil to soil and season
exchange of gases becomes easy. to season. In summer, the frequency of
l it increases the number of friendly watering is higher. Why is it so? Could
microbes. it be due to the increased rate of
l it improves the texture of the soil. evaporation of water from the soil and
the leaves?
1.6 Irrigation
All living beings need water to live.
Water is important for proper growth I am very careful this
and development. Water is absorbed by year about watering
the plant roots. Along with water, the plants. Last
minerals and fertilisers are also summer my plants
absorbed. Plants contain nearly 90% dried up and died.
water. Water is essential because
germination of seeds does not take place Sources of irrigation : The sources of
under dry conditions. Nutrients water for irrigation are— wells,
dissolved in water are transported to tubewells, ponds, lakes, rivers, dams
each part of the plant. Water also and canals.
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 Traditional Methods of
Irrigation
The water available in wells,
lakes and canals is lifted up
by different methods in
different regions, for taking it
to the fields.
Cattle or human labour is
used in these methods. So
these methods are cheaper,
but less efficient. The various
traditional ways are:
(i) moat (pulley -system)
(ii) chain pump

Fig. 1.4 (a) : Moat

Fig. 1.4 (b) : Chain pump Fig. 1.4 (c) : Dhekli

(iii) dhekli, and

(iv) rahat (Lever system)
[Figs. 1.4 (a)- (d)].
Pumps are commonly
used for lifting water. Diesel,
biogas, electricity and
solar energy is used to run
these pumps.

Fig. 1.4 (d) : Rahat

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Modern Methods of
Irrigation
Modern methods of irrigation
help us to use water
economically. The main
methods used are as follows:
(i) Sprinkler System: This
system is more useful on the
uneven land where sufficient
water is not available. The
perpendicular pipes, having
rotating nozzles on top, are
joined to the main pipeline
Fig. 1.5 (a) : Sprinkler system
at regular intervals. When
water is allowed to flow
through the main pipe under pressure (ii) Drip system : In this system, the
with the help of a pump, it escapes from water falls drop by drop directly near
the rotating nozzles. It gets sprinkled the roots. So it is called drip system. It
on the crop as if it is raining. is the best technique for watering fruit
Sprinkler is very useful for lawns, coffee plants, gardens and trees [Fig. 1.5(b)].
plantation and several other crops Water is not wasted at all. It is a boon in
[Fig. 1.5 (a)]. regions where availability of water is poor.

Fig. 1.5 (b) : Drip System

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1.7 Protection from Weeds
Boojho and Paheli went to a nearby
wheat field and saw that there were some
other plants in the field, growing along
with wheat plants.

Have these other

plants been planted
purposely?

In a field many other undesirable

plants may grow naturally along with Fig. 1.6 : Spraying weedicide
the crop. These undesirable plants are
called weeds.
The removal of weeds is called
weeding. Weeding is necessary since Do weedicides have any
weeds compete with the crop plants for effect on the person handling
the weedicide sprayer?
water, nutrients, space and light. Thus,
they affect the growth of the crop. Some
As already mentioned, the weedicides
weeds interfere even in harvesting and
are sprayed during the vegetative growth
may be poisonous for animals and
of weeds before flowering and seed
human beings.
formation. Spraying of weedicides may
Farmers adopt many ways to remove
affect the health of farmers. So they
weeds and control their growth. Tilling
should use these chemicals very carefully.
before sowing of crops helps in
They should cover their nose and mouth
uprooting and killing of weeds, which
with a piece of cloth during spraying of
may then dry up and get mixed with
these chemicals.
the soil. The best time for the removal
of weeds is before they produce flowers
1.8 Harvesting
and seeds. The manual removal includes
physical removal of weeds by uprooting Harvesting of a crop is an important
or cutting them close to the ground, task. The cutting of crop after it is
from time to time. This is done with the mature is called harvesting. In
help of a khurpi. A seed drill [Fig. 1.2(b)] harvesting, crops are pulled out or cut
is also used to uproot weeds. close to the ground. It usually takes 3
Weeds are also controlled by using to 4 months for a cereal crop to mature.
certain chemicals, called weedicides, Harvesting in our
like 2,4-D. These are sprayed in the country is either done
fields to kill the weeds. They do not manually by sickle
damage the crops. The weedicides are (Fig. 1.7) or by a machine
diluted with water to the extent required called harvester. In the
and sprayed in the fields with a sprayer. harvested crop, the grain Fig. 1.7 :
(Fig. 1.6). seeds need to be separated Sickle

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from the chaff. This process is called Harvest Festivals
threshing. This is carried out with the
help of a machine called ‘combine’ which After three or four months of hard
work there comes the day of the
is in fact a harvester as well as a thresher
harvest. The sight of golden fields
(Fig. 1.8). of standing crop, laden with grain,
fills the hearts of farmers with joy
a n d a s e n s e o f w e l l -b e i n g . T h e
efforts of the past season have
borne fruit and it is time to relax
and enjoy a little. The period of
harvest is, thus, of great joy and
happiness in all parts of India.
Men and women celebrate it with
great enthusiasm. Special
festivals associated with the
h a r v e s t s e a s o n are P o n g a l ,
Baisakhi, Holi, Diwali, Nabanya
Fig. 1.8 : Combine and Bihu.

1.9 Storage
After harvesting, sometimes
Storage of produce is an important task.
stubs are left in the field, which
are burnt by farmers. Paheli is If the harvested grains are to be kept
worried. She knows that it for longer time, they should be safe
causes pollution. It may also from moisture, insects, rats and
catch fire and damage the crops microorganisms. Harvested grains have
lying in the fields. more moisture. If freshly harvested
grains (seeds) are stored without drying,
Farmers with small holdings of land
they may get spoilt or attacked by
do the separation of grain and chaff by
organisms, making them unfit for use
winnowing (Fig. 1.9). You have already
studied this in Class VI. or for germination. Hence, before
storing them, the grains are properly
dried in the sun to reduce the moisture
in them. This prevents the attack by
insect pests, bacteria and fungi.

I saw my mother putting

some dried neem leaves
in an iron drum
containing wheat.
I wonder why?
Fig. 1.9 : Winnowing machine
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 Fig. 1.10 (a) : Silos for storage of grains 1.10 Food from Animals
Activity 1.3
Make the following Table in your
note book and complete it.
S.No. Food Sources

1. Milk Cow, Buffalo, She-

goat, She-camel . . .
2.
3.
4.
After completing this Table, you
must have seen that, like plants,
animals also provide us with different
kinds of food. Many people living in the
coastal areas consume fish as a major
Fig. 1.10 (b) : Storage of grains in part of their diet. In the previous classes
gunny bags in granaries you have learnt about the food that we
obtain from plants. We have just seen
Farmers store grains in jute bags or that the process of crop production
metallic bins. However, large scale involves a number of steps like selection
storage of grains is done in silos and of seeds, sowing, etc. Similarly, animals
granaries to protect them from pests reared at home or in farms, have to be
like rats and insects [Fig. 1.10 (a) provided with proper food, shelter and
and (b)]. care. When this is done on a large scale,
Dried neem leaves are used for it is called animal husbandry.
storing food grains at home. For storing
large quantities of grains in big
godowns, specific chemical treatments Fish is good for health.
are required to protect them from pests We get cod liver oil from fish
and microorganisms. which is rich in vitamin D.

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KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
AGRICULTURAL Ü In order to provide food to our growing
PRACTICES population, we need to adopt certain
agricultural practices.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Ü Same kind of plants cultivated at a place
CROP constitute a crop.
Ü In India, crops can be broadly categorised into
FERTILISER
two types based on seasons - rabi and kharif
GRANARIES crops.
Ü It is necessary to prepare soil by tilling and
HARVESTING levelling. Ploughs and levellers are used for
this purpose.
IRRIGATION
Ü Sowing of seeds at appropriate depths and
KHARIF distances gives good yield. Good variety of
seeds are sown after selection of healthy seeds.
MANURE Sowing is done by seed drills.
Ü Soil needs replenishment and enrichment
PLOUGH
through the use of organic manure and
RABI fertilisers. Use of chemical fertilisers has
increased tremendously with the introduction
SEEDS of new crop varieties.
Ü Supply of water to crops at appropriate
SILO
intervals is called irrigation.
SOWING Ü Weeding involves removal of unwanted and
uncultivated plants called weeds.
STORAGE Ü Harvesting is the cutting of the mature crop
manually or by machines.
THRESHING
Ü Separation of the grains from the chaff is called
WEEDS threshing.
Ü Proper storage of grains is necessary to protect
WEEDICIDE them from pests and microorganisms.
Ü Food is also obtained from animals for which
WINNOWING
animals are reared. This is called animal
husbandry.

Exercises
1. Select the correct word from the following list and fill in the blanks.
float, water, crop, nutrients, preparation
(a) The same kind of plants grown and cultivated on a large scale at a
place is called _____________.
(b) The first step before growing crops is _____________ of the soil.

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 (c) Damaged seeds would _____________ on top of water.

EXERCISES
(d) For growing a crop, sufficient sunlight and _____________ and
_____________ from the soil are essential.
2. Match items in column A with those in column B.
A B

(i) Kharif crops (a) Food for cattle

(ii) Rabi crops (b) Urea and super phosphate
(iii) Chemical fertilisers (c) Animal excreta, cow dung
urine and plant waste
(iv) Organic manure (d) Wheat, gram, pea
(e) Paddy and maize

3. Give two examples of each.

(a) Kharif crop
(b) Rabi crop

4. Write a paragraph in your own words on each of the following.

(a) Preparation of soil (b) Sowing
(c) Weeding (d) Threshing

5. Explain how fertilisers are different from manure.

6. What is irrigation? Describe two methods of irrigation which conserve water.

7. If wheat is sown in the kharif season, what would happen? Discuss.

8. Explain how soil gets affected by the continuous plantation of crops in

a field.

9. What are weeds? How can we control them?

10. Arrange the following boxes in proper order to make a flow chart of
sugarcane crop production.

Sending crop to
Irrigation Harvesting Sowing
sugar factory
1 2 3 4

Preparation of Ploughing the

Manuring
soil field

5 6 7

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 11. Complete the following word puzzle with the help of clues given below.
EXERCISES Down
1. Providing water to the crops.
2. Keeping crop grains for a long time under proper conditions.
5. Certain plants of the same kind grown on a large scale.

Across
3. A machine used for cutting the matured crop.
4. A rabi crop that is also one of the pulses.
6. A process of separating the grain from chaff.

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Sow some seeds in the soil and arrange to water them by drip
irrigation. Observe daily.
(i) Do you think it can save water?
(ii) Note the changes in the seed.
2. Collect different types of seeds and put them in small bags.
Label them.
3. Collect pictures of some other agricultural machines and paste them
in a file. Write their names and uses.
4. Project Work
Visit a farm, nursery or a garden nearby. Gather information about
(i) importance of seed selection.
(ii) method of irrigation.

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 (iii) effect of extreme cold and extreme hot weather on the plants.
(iv) effect of continuous rain on the plants.
(v) fertilisers/manure used.

An Example for Field Trip Work

Himanshu and his friends were very anxious and curious to go to Thikri village.
They went to Shri Jiwan Patel’s farmhouse. They had taken bags to collect some
seeds and other things.
Himanshu : Sir namaskar, I am Himanshu. Here are my friends Mohan, David
and Sabiha. We want some information about crops. Please guide
us.
Shri Patel : Namaskar and welcome all of you. What are your queries?
Sabiha : When did you start this work and what are the main crops that
you grow?
Shri Patel : About 75 years ago, my grandfather started this work. The main
crops that we grow are wheat, gram, soyabean and moong.
David : Sir, can you tell us the difference between traditional and modern
agricultural practices?
Shri Patel : Earlier we used traditional tools like sickle, bullock plough, trowel,
etc., and depended on rain water for irrigation. But now we use
modern methods of irrigation. We use implements like tractors,
cultivators, seed drill and harvester. We get good quality seeds.
We carry out soil testing and use manure and fertilisers. New
information about agriculture is obtained through radio, T.V. and
other sources. As a result we are able to get good crops on a large
scale. This year we got 9 to 11 quintals of gram crop/acre and 20
to 25 quintals of wheat/acre. In my opinion awareness of new
technology is important for better crop yield.
Mohan : Sabiha, come here and see some earthworms. Are they helpful to
the farmers?
Sabiha : Oh Mohan! we learnt about it in Class VI.
Shri Patel : Earthworms turn the soil and loosen it for proper aeration, so
they help the farmer.
David : Can we have some seeds of the crops you grow here?
[They put some seeds, fertilisers and soil sample in the bags.]
Himanshu : Sir, we are thankful to you for making this visit pleasant and for
providing useful information.

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 MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE

Y
ou have seen several kinds of These observations show that water
plants and animals. However, and soil are full of tiny organisms,
there are other living organisms though not all of them fall into the
around us which we normally cannot category of microbes. These
see. These are called microorganisms microorganisms or microbes are so
small in size that they cannot be seen
or microbes. For example, you might
with the unaided eye. Some of these,
have observed that during the rainy
such as the fungus that grows on bread,
season moist bread gets spoilt and its can be seen with a magnifying glass.
surface gets covered with greyish white Others cannot be seen without the help
patches. Observe these patches through of a microscope. That is why these are
a magnifying glass. You will see tiny, called microorganisms or microbes.
black rounded structures. Do you know Microorganisms are classified into
what these structures are and where do four major groups. These groups are
these come from? bacteria, fungi, protozoa and some
algae. Some of these common
2.1 Microorganisms microorganisms are shown in
Figs. 2.1 - 2.4.
Activity 2.1 Viruses are also microscopic but are
Collect some moist soil from the different from other microorganisms.
field in a beaker and add water to They, however, reproduce only inside the
it. After the soil particles have cells of the host organism, which may be
a bacterium, plant or animal. Some of the
settled down, observe a drop of
viruses are shown in Fig. 2.5. Common
water from the beaker under a
ailments like cold, influenza (flu) and
microscope. What do you see ?
most coughs are caused by viruses.
Serious diseases like polio and chicken
Activity 2.2 pox are also caused by viruses.
Diseases like dysentery and malaria
Take a few drops of water from a are caused by protozoa(protozoans)
pond. Spread on a glass slide and whereas typhoid and tuberculosis (TB)
observe through a microscope. are bacterial diseases.
You have lear nt about some of
Do you find tiny organisms moving these microorganisms in Classes VI
around? and VII.

2018-19
 Fig. 2.1: Bacteria

Amoeba

Chlamydomonas Spirogyra Paramecium

Fig. 2.2 : Algae Fig. 2.3 : Protozoa

Bread mould Penicillium Aspergillus

Fig. 2.4 : Fungi

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 Friendly Microorganisms
Microorganisms are used for various
purposes. They are used in the
preparation of curd, bread and cake.

Microorganisms have been used for

the production of alcohol since ages.

They are also used in cleaning up

of the environment. For example, the
organic wastes (vegetable peels, remains
of animals, faeces, etc.) are broken
down into harmless and usable
substances by bacteria. Recall that
bacteria are also used in the
preparation of medicines. In agriculture
they are used to increase soil fertility
by fixing nitrogen.
Fig. 2.5 : Viruses
Making of Curd and Bread
You have learnt in Class VII that milk is
2.2 Where do Microorganisms turned into curd by bacteria.
Live?
Microorganisms may be single-celled
like bacteria, some algae and protozoa, I saw that my mother
or multicellular, such as many algae and added a little curd to warm
fungi. They live in all types of milk to set curd for the
environment, ranging from ice cold next day. I wonder why?
climate to hot springs; and deserts to
marshy lands. They are also found Curd contains several micro-
inside the bodies of animals including organisms. Of these, the bacterium,
humans. Some microorganisms Lactobacillus promotes the formation
grow on other organisms while others of curd. It multiplies in milk and
exist freely. converts it into curd. Bacteria are also
involved in the making of cheese,
2.3 Microorganisms and Us pickles and many other food items. An
Microorganisms play an important role important ingredient of rava (sooji )
in our lives. Some of them are beneficial idlis and bhaturas is curd. Can you
in many ways whereas some others are guess why? Bacteria and yeast are also
harmful and cause diseases. Let us helpful for fermentation of rice idlis
study about them in detail. and dosa batter.
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Activity 2.3 spoon of yeast powder to the sugar
Take ½ kg flour (atta or maida), solution. Keep it covered in a warm
add some sugar and mix with place for 4-5 hours. Now smell the
warm water. Add a small amount solution. Can you get a smell?
of yeast powder and knead to
This is the smell of alcohol as sugar
make a soft dough. What do you
has been converted into alcohol by yeast.
observe after two hours? Did you
This process of conversion of sugar into
find the dough rising?
alcohol is known as fermentation.

Louis Pasteur
discovered
Maida with yeast powder
fermentation
in 1857.

Medicinal Use of Microorganisms

Raised maida
Whenever you fall ill the doctor may
Fig. 2.6 give you some antibiotic tablets,
Yeast r eproduces rapidly and capsules or injections such as of
produces carbon dioxide during penicillin. The source of these
respiration. Bubbles of the gas fill the medicines is microorganisms. These
dough and increase its volume (Fig. 2.6). medicines kill or stop the growth of the
This is the basis of the use of yeast in disease-causing microorganisms. Such
the baking industry for making breads, medicines are called antibiotics. These
pastries and cakes. days a number of antibiotics are being
produced from bacteria and fungi.
Commercial Use of Microorganisms Streptomycin, tetracycline and
Microorganisms are used for the large scale erythromycin are some of the
production of alcohol, wine and acetic acid
(vinegar). Yeast is used for commercial
production of alcohol and wine. For this In 1929, Alexander
Fleming was working
purpose yeast is grown on natural sugars
on a culture of disease-
present in grains like barley, wheat, rice,
causing bacteria.
crushed fruit juices, etc. Suddenly he found the
spores of a little green mould in one of
Activity 2.4 his culture plates. He observed that
the presence of mould prevented the
Take a 500 mL beaker filled upto
growth of bacteria. In fact, it also killed
¾ with water. Dissolve 2-3 many of these bacteria. From this the
teaspoons of sugar in it. Add half a mould penicillin was prepared.

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commonly known antibiotics which are from the disease-causing microbes for
made from fungi and bacteria. The ever. This is how a vaccine works.
antibiotics are manufactured by Several diseases, including cholera,
growing specific microorganisms and tuberculosis, smallpox and hepatitis can
are used to cure a variety of diseases. be prevented by vaccination.
Antibiotics are even mixed with the
feed of livestock and poultry to check
microbial infection in animals. They are Edward Jenner
also used to control many plant discovered the
vaccine for small-
diseases.
pox in 1798.
It is important to remember that
antibiotics should be taken only on
the advice of a qualified doctor. Also In your childhood, you must have
you must complete the course been given injections to protect
prescribed by the doctor. If you take yourself against several diseases.
antibiotics when not needed or in Can you prepare a list of these
wrong doses, it may make the drug diseases? You may take help from
less effective when you might need
your parents.
it in future. Also antibiotics taken
unnecessarily may kill the beneficial It is essential to protect all children
bacteria in the body. Antibiotics, against these diseases. Necessary
however, are not effective against vaccines are available in the nearby
cold and flu as these are caused by hospitals. You might have seen the
viruses. advertisement on TV and newspapers
regarding protection of children against
Vaccine polio under the Pulse Polio Programme.
Polio drops given to children are
actually a vaccine.
A worldwide campaign against
Why are children/infants smallpox has finally led to its eradication
given vaccination? from most parts of the world.
These days vaccines are made on a
When a disease-carrying microbe enters large scale from microorganisms to
our body, the body produces antibodies protect humans and other animals from
to fight the invader. The body also several diseases.
remembers how to fight the microbe if
it enters again. If dead or weakened Increasing Soil Fertility
microbes are introduced into a healthy Some bacteria (Fig. 2.7) are able to fix
body, the body fights and kills nitrogen from the atmosphere to enrich
the invading bacteria by producing soil with nitrogen and increase its
suitable antibodies. The antibodies fertility. These microbes are commonly
remain in the body and we are protected called biological nitrogen fixers.
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 Fig. 2.7 : The Nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria (blue green algae)

Cleaning the Environment released in the process can be used by

Boojho and Paheli had observed the the plants again.
school gardener making manure. Along Did you notice that in pot B, the
with their friends, they collected wastes polythene bags, empty glasses, bottles
of plants, vegetables and fruits from and broken toy parts did not undergo
nearby houses and gardens. They put any such change? The microbes could
them in a pit meant for waste disposal. not ‘act’ on them and convert them into
After some time, it decomposed and got manure.
converted to manure. Boojho and You often see large amounts of
Paheli wanted to know how this had dead organic matter in the form of
happened. decaying plants and sometimes dead
animals on the ground. You find
Activity 2.5 that they disappear after some time.
This is because the microorganisms
Take two pots and fill each pot half
decompose dead organic waste of plants
with soil. Mark them A and B. Put
plant waste in pot A and things like and animals converting them into
polythene bags, empty glass bottles simple substances. These substances
and broken plastic toys in pot B. are again used by other plants and
Put the pots aside. Observe them animals. Thus, microorganisms can
after 3-4 weeks. be used to degrade the harmful and
smelly substances and thereby clean
Do you find any difference in the up the environment.
contents of the two pots? If so, what is
the difference? You will find that plant 2.4 Harmful Microorganisms
waste in pot A, has been decomposed. Microorganisms are harmful in many
How did this happen? The plant waste ways. Some of the microorganisms
has been converted into manure by the cause diseases in human beings, plants
action of microbes. The nutrients and animals. Such disease-causing

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microorganisms are called pathogens. There are some insects and animals
Some microorganisms spoil food, which act as carriers of disease-
clothing and leather. Let us study more causing microbes. Housefly is one such
about their harmful activities. carrier. The flies sit on the garbage and
animal excreta. Pathogens stick to their
Disease causing Microorganisms bodies. When these flies sit on uncovered
in Humans food they may transfer the pathogens.
Pathogens enter our body through the Whoever eats the contaminated food is
air we breathe, the water we drink or likely to get sick. So, it is advisable to
the food we eat. They can also get always keep food covered. Avoid
transmitted by direct contact with an consuming uncovered items of food.
infected person or carried by an animal. Another example of a carrier is the
Microbial diseases that can spread from female Anopheles mosquito (Fig. 2.8),
an infected person to a healthy person which carries the parasite of malaria
through air, water, food or physical (Plasmodium). Female Aedes mosquito
contact are called communicable acts as carrier of dengue virus.
diseases. Examples of such diseases How can we control the spread of malaria
include cholera, common cold, chicken or dengue?
pox and tuberculosis.
When a person suffering from
common cold sneezes, fine droplets of
moisture carrying thousands of viruses
are spread in the air. The virus may enter
the body of a healthy person while
breathing and cause infection.
Fig. 2.8 : Female Anopheles mosquito

Then how do you

prevent the spread of Why does the teacher
communicable keep telling us not
diseases? to let water collect
anywhere in the
neighbourhood?

All mosquitoes breed in water. Hence,

one should not let water collect
We should keep a anywhere, in coolers, tyres, flower pot,
handkerchief on the etc. By keeping the surroundings clean
nose and mouth while and dry we can prevent mosquitoes from
sneezing. It is better to
breeding. Try to make a list of measures
keep a distance from
which help to avoid the spread of
infected persons.
malaria.
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 Table 2.1: Some Common Human Diseases caused by Microorganisms
Human Disease Causative Mode of Preventive Measures
Microorganism Transmission (General)

Tuberculosis Bacteria Air Keep the patient in complete

isolation. Keep the personal
Measles Virus Air
belongings of the patient away
from those of the others.
Chicken Pox Virus Air/Contact
Vaccination to be given at
Polio Virus Air/Water suitable age.

Cholera Bacteria Water/Food Maintain personal hygiene

and good sanitary habits.
Typhoid Bacteria Water Consume properly cooked food
and boiled drinking water.
Vaccination.

Hepatitis A Virus Water Drink boiled drinking water.

Vaccination.

Use mosquito net and

Malaria Protozoa Mosquito
repellents. Spray insecticides
and control breeding of
mosquitoes by not allowing
water to collect in the
surroundings.

Some of the common diseases in other animals. For example, anthrax

affecting humans, their mode of is a dangerous human and cattle
transmission and few general methods disease caused by a bacterium. Foot
of prevention are shown in Table 2.1. and mouth disease of cattle is caused
by a virus.
Disease causing Microorganisms
in Animals Disease causing Microorganisms
Several microorganisms not only cause in Plants
diseases in humans and plants, but also Several microorganisms cause
diseases in plants like wheat, rice, potato,
Robert Köch (1876) sugarcane, orange, apple and others.
discovered the bacterium The diseases reduce the yield of crops.
(Bacillus anthracis) which See Table 2.2 for some such plant
causes anthrax disease.
diseases. They can be controlled by the
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 Table 2.2: Some Common Plant Diseases caused by Microorganisms

Plant Micro- Mode of

Diseases organism Transmission

Citrus Bacteria Air

canker

Rust of Fungi Air,

wheat seeds

Yellow vein Virus Insect

mosaic of
bhindi (Okra)

use of certain chemicals which kill the make the food poisonous causing
microbes. serious illness and even death. So, it
is very important that we preserve
Food Poisoning food to prevent it from being spoilt.
Boojho was invited by his friend to a
party and he ate a variety of foodstuff. 2.5 Food Preservation
On reaching home he started vomiting In Chapter 1, we have learnt about the
and had to be taken to a hospital. The methods used to preserve and store food
doctor said that this condition could be grains. How do we preserve cooked food
due to food poisoning. at home? You know that bread left
unused under moist conditions is
attacked by fungus. Microorganisms
spoil our food. Spoiled food emits bad
Paheli wonders how smell and has a bad taste and changed
food can become a colour. Is spoiling of food a chemical
‘poison’. reaction?
Paheli bought some mangoes but she
Food poisoning could be due to the could not eat them for a few days. Later
consumption of food spoilt by some she found that they were spoilt and
microorganisms. Microorganisms rotten. But she knows that the mango
that grow on our food sometimes pickle her grandmother makes does not
produce toxic substances. These spoil for a long time. She is confused.
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 Let us study the common methods Similarly, we keep our food in the
of preserving food in our homes. We refrigerator. Low temperature inhibits
have to save it from the attack of the growth of microbes.
microorganisms.

Chemical Method
Salts and edible oils are the common Why does the milk that
chemicals generally used to check the comes in packets not spoil?
growth of microorganisms. Therefore My mother told me that the
they are called preservatives. We add milk is ‘pasteurised’. What
salt or acid preservatives to pickles to is pasteurisation?
prevent the attack of microbes. Sodium
benzoate and sodium metabisulphite are Pasteurised milk can be consumed
common preservatives. These are also without boiling as it is free from harmful
used in jams and squashes to check microbes. The milk is heated to about
their spoilage. 700C for 15 to 30 seconds and then
suddenly chilled and stored. By doing
Preservation by Common Salt so, it prevents the growth of microbes.
Common salt has been used to preserve This process was discovered by Louis
meat and fish for ages. Meat and fish Pasteur. It is called pasteurisation.
are covered with dry salt to check
the growth of bacteria. Salting is also Storage and Packing
used to preserve amla, raw mangoes, These days dry fruits and even
tamarind, etc. vegetables are sold in sealed air tight
packets to prevent the attack of
Preservation by Sugar microbes.
Jams, jellies and squashes are preserved
by sugar. Sugar reduces the moisture 2.6 Nitrogen Fixation
content which inhibits the growth of You have learnt about the bacterium
bacteria which spoil food. Rhizobium in Classes VI and VII. It is
involved in the fixation of nitrogen in
Preservation by Oil and Vinegar
leguminous plants (pulses). Recall that
Use of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage Rhizobium lives in the root nodules of
of pickles because bacteria cannot live leguminous plants (Fig. 2.9), such as
in such an environment. Vegetables, beans and peas, with which it has a
fruits, fish and meat are often preserved symbiotic relationship. Sometimes
by this method. nitrogen gets fixed through the action
of lightning. But you know that the
Heat and Cold Treatments
amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere
You must have observed your mother remains constant. You may wonder
boiling milk before it is stored or used. how? Let us understand this in the next
Boiling kills many microorganisms. section.
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 nitrogen cannot be taken directly by
plants and animals. Certain bacteria and
blue green algae present in the soil fix
nitrogen from the atmosphere and
convert it into compounds of nitrogen.
Once nitrogen is converted into these
usable compounds, it can be utilised by
plants from the soil through their root
system. Nitrogen is then used for the
synthesis of plant proteins and other
compounds. Animals feeding on plants
get these proteins and other nitrogen
compounds (Fig. 2.10).
When plants and animals die,
Fig. 2.9 : Roots of a leguminous plant with root bacteria and fungi present in the soil
nodules convert the nitrogenous wastes into
nitrogenous compounds to be used by
2.7 Nitrogen cycle plants again. Certain other bacteria
Our atmosphere has 78% nitrogen gas. convert some part of them to nitrogen
Nitrogen is one of the essential gas which goes back into the
constituents of all living organisms as atmosphere. As a result, the percentage
part of proteins, chlorophyll, nucleic of nitrogen in the atmosphere remains
acids and vitamins. The atmospheric more or less constant.

Fig. 2.10 : Nitrogen cycle

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KEYWORDS WHA
WHAT OU HA
YOU
T Y VE LEARNT
HAVE
ALGAE Ü Microorganisms are too small and are not
ANTIBIOTICS visible to the unaided eye.
Ü They can live in all kinds of environment,
ANTIBODIES ranging from ice cold climate to hot springs

BACTERIA and deserts to marshy lands.

Ü Microorganisms are found in air, water and
CARRIER in the bodies of plants and animals.
Ü They may be unicellular or multicellular.
COMMUNICABLE
Ü Microorganisms include bacteria, fungi,
DISEASES
protozoa and some algae. Viruses, though
FERMENTATION different from the above mentioned living
organisms, are considered microbes.
FUNGI
Ü Viruses are quite different from other
LACTOBACILLUS microorganisms. They reproduce only inside
the host organism: bacterium, plant or ani-
MICROORGANISM
mal cell.
NITROGEN CYCLE Ü Some microorganisms are useful for
commercial production of medicines and
NITROGEN FIXATION
alcohol.

PASTEURISATION Ü Some microorganisms decompose the organic

waste and dead plants and animals into simple
PATHOGEN substances and clean up the environment.
Ü Protozoans cause serious diseases like
PRESERVATION
dysentery and malaria.
PROTOZOA Ü Some of the microorganisms grow on our food
and cause food poisoning.
RHIZOBIUM
Ü Some microorganisms reside in the root
VACCINE nodules of leguminous plants. They can fix
nitrogen from air into soil and increase the
VIRUS
soil fertility.
YEAST Ü Some bacteria present in the soil fix nitrogen
from the atmosphere and convert into
nitrogenous compounds.
Ü Certain bacteria convert compounds of nitro-
gen present in the soil into nitrogen gas which
is released to the atmosphere.

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 Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Microorganisms can be seen with the help of a ____________.

(b) Blue green algae fix __________ directly from air and enhance fertility
of soil.
(c) Alcohol is produced with the help of __________.

(d) Cholera is caused by __________.

2. Tick the correct answer.
(a) Yeast is used in the production of

(i) sugar (ii) alcohol (iii) hydrochloric acid (iv) oxygen

(b) The following is an antibiotic
(i) Sodium bicarbonate (ii) Streptomycin (iii) Alcohol (iv) Yeast

(c) Carrier of malaria-causing protozoan is

(i) female Anopheles mosquito (ii) cockroach
(iii) housefly (iv) butterfly

(d) The most common carrier of communicable diseases is

(i) ant (ii) housefly (iii) dragonfly (iv) spider
(e) The bread or idli dough rises because of

(i) heat (ii) grinding (iii) growth of yeast cells (iv) kneading
(f) The process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is called
(i) nitrogen fixation (ii) moulding (iii) fermentation (iv) infection

3. Match the organisms in Column A with their action in

Column B.
A B
(i) Bacteria (a) Fixing nitrogen
(ii) Rhizobium (b) Setting of curd
(iii) Lactobacillus (c) Baking of bread
(iv) Yeast (d) Causing malaria
(v) A protozoan (e) Causing cholera
(vi) A virus (f) Causing AIDS
(g) Producing antibodies
4. Can microorganisms be seen with the naked eye? If not, how can they be
seen?
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 5. What are the major groups of microorganisms?
EXERCISES 6. Name the microorganisms which can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.
7. Write 10 lines on the usefulness of microorganisms in our lives.
8. Write a short paragraph on the harmful effects of microorganisms.

9. What are antibiotics? What precautions must be taken while taking

antibiotics?

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Pull out a gram or bean plant from the field. Observe its roots. You
will find round structures called root nodules on the roots. Draw a
diagram of the root and show the root nodules.
2. Collect the labels from the bottles of jams and jellies. Write down
the list of contents printed on the labels.
3. Visit a doctor. Find out why antibiotics should not be overused.
Prepare a short report.
4. Project : Requirements – 2 test tubes, marker pen, sugar, yeast
powder, 2 balloons and lime water.
Take two test tubes and mark them A and B. Clamp these tubes in
a stand and fill them with water leaving some space at the top. Put
two spoonfuls of sugar in each
of the test tubes. Add a spoonful
of yeast in test tube B. Inflate the
two balloons incompletely. Now
tie the balloons on the mouths
of each test tube. Keep them in
a warm place, away from
sunlight. Watch the setup every
day for next 3-4 days. Record A B
your observations and think of
an explanation.
Now take another test tube
filled 1/4 with lime water.
Remove the balloon from test
tube B in such a manner that
gas inside the balloon does not
escape. Fit the balloon on the
test tube and shake well.
Observe and explain.

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 Did You Know?
Bacteria have lived on the earth for much longer than human beings.
They are such hardy organisms that they can live under extreme conditions.
They have been found living in boiling mudpots and extremly cold icy waters.
They have been found in lakes of caustic soda and in pools of concentrated
sulphuric acid. They can survive at depths of several kilometres. They
probably can survive in space, too. A kind of bacterium was recovered
from a camera which stood on the moon for two years.There is probably no
environment in which bacteria cannot survive.

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 SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS

T
he clothes which we wear are 3.1 What are Synthetic
made of fabrics. Fabrics Fibres?
are made from fibres obtained
from natural or artificial sources. Can Try to recall the uniform pattern found
you name some natural fibres? Fibres in a necklace of beads joined with the
are also used for making a large variety help of a thread [Fig. 3.1(a)]. Or, try to
of household articles. Make a list of some join a number of paper clips together to
common articles made from fibres. Try make a long chain, as in Fig. 3.1 (b). Is
to separate them into those made from there any similarity between the two?
natural fibres and those made from
artificial fibres. Make entries in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 : Natural and Artificial

Fibres

S. No. Name of Type of Fibre

Article (Natural/
artificial)

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.1 : (a) Beads and (b) Paper clips

joined to form long chains

Why did you label some fibres as A synthetic fibre is also a chain of
artificial? small units joined together. Each small
You have read in your previous unit is actually a chemical substance.
classes that natural fibres like cotton, Many such small units combine to form
wool, silk, etc., are obtained from plants a large single unit called a polymer. The
or animals. The synthetic fibres, on the word ‘polymer’ comes from two Greek
other hand, are made by human beings. words; poly meaning many and mer
That is why these are called synthetic meaning part/unit. So, a polymer is made
or man-made fibres. of many repeating units.

2018-19
 Polymers occur in nature also. Cotton, Nylon
for example, is a polymer called Nylon is another man-made fibre. In
cellulose. Cellulose is made up of a 1931, it was made without using any
large number of glucose units. natural raw material (from plant or
animal). It was prepared from coal, water
3.2 Types of Synthetic Fibres and air. It was the first fully synthetic
Rayon fibre.
Nylon fibre was strong, elastic and
You have read in Class VII that silk fibre light. It was lustrous and easy to wash.
obtained from silkworm was discovered So, it became very popular for making
in China and was kept as a closely clothes.
guarded secret for a long time. Fabric We use many articles made from
obtained from silk fibre was very costly. nylon, such as socks, ropes, tents,
But its beautiful texture fascinated toothbrushes, car seat belts, sleeping
everybody. Attempts were made to make bags, curtains, etc. (Fig. 3.3). Nylon is
silk artificially. Towards the end of the
nineteenth century, scientists were
successful in obtaining a fibre having
properties similar to that of silk. Such a
fibre was obtained by chemical
treatment of wood pulp. This fibre was
called rayon or artificial silk. Although
rayon is obtained from a natural source,
wood pulp, yet it is a man-made fibre. It
is cheaper than silk and can be woven
like silk fibres. It can also be dyed in a
wide variety of colours. Rayon is mixed
with cotton to make bed sheets or mixed
with wool to make carpets. (Fig. 3.2.)

Fig. 3.3: Various articles made from nylon

Is nylon fibre
really so strong
that we can make
nylon parachutes
and ropes for rock
climbing?
Fig. 3.2 : Articles made of rayon
SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS 33

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 a pan so that weight can be placed
in it. Add weight one by one till the
thread breaks. Note down the total
weight required to break the thread.
This weight indicates the strength
of the fibre. Repeat the same activity
with threads of wool, polyester, silk
and nylon. Tabulate the data as
shown in Table 3.2. Arrange the
threads in order of their increasing
strength.

Fig. 3.4: Use of nylon Fibres

also used for making parachutes and Observation Table 3.2
ropes for rock climbing (Fig. 3.4). A S. No. Type of Total Weight required
nylon thread is actually stronger than Thread/Fibre to break the Thread
a steel wire. 1. Cotton
Let us find out. 2. Wool
3. Silk
Activity 3.1 4. Nylon
Take an iron stand with a clamp.
Take a cotton thread of about 60 You may use a hook or a nail on
cm length. Tie it to the clamp so the wall for hanging the fibres and
that it hangs freely from it as shown a polythene bag at the other end.
in Fig. 3.5. At the free end suspend In place of weights you may
use marbles (or pebbles) of
similar size.

(Precaution : Note that all threads

should be of the same length and
almost of the same thickness.)

Polyester and Acrylic

Polyester is another synthetic fibre.
Fabric made from this fibre does not get
wrinkled easily. It remains crisp and is
easy to wash. So, it is quite suitable for
making dress material. You must have
seen people wearing polyester shirts and
other dresses. Terylene is a popular
Fig. 3.5: An iron stand with a thread hanging
from the clamp
polyester. It can be drawn into very fine

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fibres that can be woven like any You have already perfor med an
other yarn. activity of burning natural and
synthetic fibres (Activity 3.6 of Class
VII). What did you observe? When you
My mother always burn synthetic fibres you find that
buys PET bottles and their behaviour is different from
PET jars for storing that of the natural fibres. You must
rice and sugar. I have noticed that synthetic fibres
wonder what PET is ! melt on heating. This is actually a
disadvantage of synthetic fibres. If the
clothes catch fire, it can be disastrous.
PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is The fabric melts and sticks to the body
a very familiar form of polyester. It is
of the person wearing it. We should,
used for making bottles, utensils, films,
wires and many other useful products. therefore, not wear synthetic clothes
while working in in the kitchen or in
Look around and make a list of a laboratory.
things made of polyester.

Polyester (Poly+ester) is actually made

up of the repeating units of a chemical Oh! Now I understand why
called an ester. Esters are the my mother never wears
chemicals which give fruits their smell. polyester clothes while
Fabrics are sold by names like polycot, working in the kitchen.
polywool, terrycot, etc. As the name
suggests, these are made by mixing two
types of fibres. Polycot is a mixture of
polyester and cotton. Polywool is a All the synthetic fibres are prepared
mixture of polyester and wool. by a number of processes using raw
materials of petroleum origin, called
We wear sweaters and use shawls petrochemicals.
or blankets in the winter. Many of these
are actually not made from natural
wool, though they appear to resemble 3.3 Characteristics of
wool. These are prepared from another Synthetic Fibres
type of synthetic fibre called acrylic. Imagine that it is a rainy day. What kind
T h e w o ol obtai n ed from na tur a l of umbrella would you use and why?
sources is quite expensive, whereas Synthetic fibres possess unique
clothes made from acrylic are relatively characteristics which make them
cheap. They are available in a variety popular dress materials. They dry up
of colours. Synthetic fibres are quickly, are durable, less expensive,
more durable and affordable which readily available and easy to maintain.
makes them more popular than Perform the following activity and learn
natural fibres. for yourself.
SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS 35

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 Plastic is also a polymer like the
Activity 3.2 synthetic fibre. All plastics do not
Take two cloth pieces of the same have the same type of arrangement of
size, roughly half a metre square units. In some it is linear, whereas in
each. One of these should be from others it is cross-linked. (Fig. 3.6).
natural fibre. The other could be a Plastic articles are available in all
synthetic fibre. You can take help possible shapes and sizes as you can
of your parents in selecting these see in Fig. 3.7. Have you ever
pieces. Soak the pieces in different wondered how this is possible? The
mugs each containing the same fact is that plastic is easily mouldable
amount of water. Take the pieces i.e. can be shaped in any form. Plastic
out of the containers after five can be recycled, reused, coloured,
minutes and spread them in the sun melted, rolled into sheets or made into
for a few minutes. Compare the wires. That is why it finds such a
volume of the water remaining in variety of uses.
each container.

Do synthetic fabrics soak less/more

water than the natural fabrics? Do they
take less/more time to dry?
What does this activity tell you about
the characteristics of the synthetic fabrics?
Find out from your parents about the
durability, cost and maintenance of these
fabrics, compared to the natural fabrics.

3.4 Plastics
You must be familiar with many plastic
articles used everyday. Make a list of
such items and their uses.
Fig. 3.7 : Various articles made of plastics

(a) Polythene (Poly+ethene) is an example

of a plastic. It is used for making
commonly used polythene bags.

Now, try to bend a piece of plastic

yourself. Can all the plastic articles be
bent easily?
(b)
You will observe that some plastic
Fig. 3.6 : (a) Linear (b) Cross-linked articles can bend easily while some
arrangements break when forced to bend. When we
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add hot water to a plastic bottle, it gets 3.5 Plastics as Materials of
deformed. Such plastic which Choice
gets deformed easily on heating and
can be bent easily are known as Today if we think of storing a food
thermoplastics. Polythene and PVC are item, water, milk, pickles, dry food
some of the examples of thermoplastics. etc., plastic containers seem most
These are used for manufacturing toys, convenient. This is because of their
combs and various types of containers. light weight, lower price, good strength
On the other hand, there are some and easy handling. Being lighter as
plastics which when moulded once, can compared to metals, plastics are used
not be softened by heating. These are in cars, aircrafts and spacecrafts, too.
called thermosetting plastics. Two The list is endless if we start counting
examples are bakelite and melamine. articles like slippers, furniture,
Bakelite is a poor conductor of heat and decoration pieces, etc.
electricity. It is used for making Now, let us discuss the characteristic
electrical switches, handles of various
properties of plastics.
utensils, etc. Melamine is a versatile
material. It resists fire and can tolerate Plastic is Non-reactive
heat better than other plastics. It is used
for making floor tiles, kitchenware and You know that metals like iron get
fabrics which resist fire. Fig. 3.8 shows rusted when left exposed to moisture
the various uses of thermoplastics and and air. But plastics do not react with
thermosetting plastics. water and air. They are not corroded
easily. That is why they are used to store
various kinds of material, including
many chemicals.

Plastic is Light, Strong and Durable

Talk to your parents or grandparents
about the types of buckets that were
used in the past. What is the material
of the buckets or mugs you are using
today? What are the advantages of using
Articles made of thermosetting plastics
a plastic container? Since plastic is very
light, strong, durable and can be
moulded into different shapes and sizes,
it is used for various purposes. Plastics
are generally cheaper than metals. They
are widely used in industry and for
household articles. Make a list of
Articles made of thermoplastics different kinds of plastic containers that
Fig. 3.8 : Some articles made of plastic you use in daily life.
SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS 37

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Plastics are Poor Conductors
Ü Fire-proof plastics: Although
You have learnt above that plastics are synthetic fibre catches fire easily,
poor conductors of heat and electricity. it is interesting to know that the
That is why electrical wires have plastic uniforms of firemen have coating
covering, and handles of screw drivers of melamine plastic to make them
are made of plastic. As mentioned above, flame resistant.
handles of frying pans are also made
of plastic. 3.6 Plastics and the
Environment
Did You Know? When we go to the market, we usually
Ü Plastics find extensive use in the
get things wrapped in plastic or packed
healthcare industry. Some
examples of their use are the in polythene bags. That is one reason
packaging of tablets, threads used why plastic waste keeps getting
for stitching wounds, syringes, accumulated in our homes. Ultimately,
doctors’ gloves and a number of plastic finds its way to the garbage.
medical instruments. Disposal of plastic is a major problem.
Ü Special plastic cookware is used
Why?
in microwave ovens for cooking
food. In microwave ovens, the heat A material which gets decomposed
cooks the food but does not affect through natural processes, such
the plastic vessel. as action by bacteria, is called
Ü Teflon is a special plastic on which biodegradable. A material which is not
oil and water do not stick. It is easily decomposed by natural processes
used for non-stick coating on
is termed non-biodegradable.
cookwares.
Look at Table 3.3.
Table 3.3

Type of Waste Approximate Time Nature of Material

taken to Degenerate
Peels of vegetable and fruits, 1 to 2 weeks Biodegradable
leftover foodstuff, etc.
Paper 10 to 30 days Biodegradable
Cotton cloth 2 to 5 months Biodegradable
Wood 10 to15 years Biodegradable
Woollen clothes About a year Biodegradable
Tin, aluminium, and other 100 to 500 years Non-biodegradable
metal cans
Plastic bags Several years Non-biodegradable
l Source: http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/solwaste/types.htm

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 Since plastic takes several years to Avoid the use of plastics as far as
decompose, it is not environment possible. Make use of bags made of
friendly. It causes environmental cotton or jute when you go for shopping.
pollution. Besides, the burning process The biodegradable and non-
in the synthetic material is quite slow biodegradable wastes should be
and it does not get completely burnt collected separately and disposed off
easily. In the process it releases lots of separately. Practise this in your homes.
poisonous fumes into the atmosphere Can you suggest some other ways in
causing air pollution. How can this which you can contribute towards
problem be solved? reducing the use of plastic materials?
It is better to recycle plastic waste.
Have you ever seen a garbage dump Most of the thermoplastics can be
where animals are eating garbage? In recycled. Make a list of items that can
the process of eating the food waste be recycled. However, during recycling
they swallow materials like polythene certain colouring agents are added.
bags and wrappers of food. Can you This limits its usage especially for
imagine the consequences? The storage of food.
plastic material chokes the respiratory As a responsible citizen remember
system of these animals, or forms a the 5 R principle. Reduce, Reuse,
lining in their stomachs and can be
Recycle, Recover and Refuse. Develop
the cause of their death.
habits which are environment friendly.
The polybags carelessly thrown here
and there are responsible for clogging Fibre-wise
the drains, too. Sometimes we are very
careless and throw the wrappers of Ü Do not throw plastic bags in the
chips, biscuits and other eatables on water bodies or on the road.
the road or in parks or picnic places. Ü Take a cotton carry bag or a jute
Should we not think twice before doing bag while going for shopping.
so ? As a responsible citizen what Ü Try to minimise the use of plastic
measures do you suggest to keep public materials e.g., use a steel lunch
places clean and free of plastic? box instead of a plastic one.

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KEYWORDS WHA
WHAT OU HA
YOU
T Y VE LEARNT
HAVE
ACRYLIC Ü Synthetic fibres and plastics, like natural fi-
bres, are made of very large units called poly-
ARTIFICIAL SILK
mers. Polymers are made up of many smaller
NYLON units.
Ü While natural fibres are obtained from plants
PLASTIC
and animals, synthetic fibres are obtained by
POLYESTER chemical processing of petrochemicals. Like
natural fibres, these fibres can also be woven
POLYMER into fabrics.
POLYTHENE Ü Synthetic fibres find uses ranging from
many household articles like ropes,
RAYON buckets, furniture, containers, etc., to highly
specialised uses in aircrafts, ships, space-
SYNTHETIC FIBRES
crafts, healthcare, etc.
TERYLENE Ü Depending upon the types of chemicals used
for manufacturing synthetic fibres, they are
THERMOPLASTICS
called Rayon, Nylon, Polyester and Acrylic.
THERMOSETTING Ü The different types of fibres differ from one
PLASTICS another in their strength, water absorbing
capacity, nature of burning, cost, durability
etc.
Ü Today, life without plastics cannot be imagined.
Be it home, or outside, plastic is everywhere.
Ü The waste created by plastics is not
environment friendly. On burning, plastics
release poisonous gases. On dumping in the
ground they may take years to degenerate.
This is because of their non-biodegradable
nature.
Ü We need to use synthetic fibres and plastics
in such a manner that we can enjoy their good
qualities and at the same time minimise the
environmental hazards for the living
communities.

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 Exercises

1. Explain why some fibres are called synthetic.

2. Mark (ü ) the correct answer.

Rayon is different from synthetic fibres because

(a) it has a silk-like appearance.

(b) it is obtained from wood pulp.

(c) its fibres can also be woven like those of natural fibres.

3. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.

(a) Synthetic fibres are also called __________ or __________ fibres.

(b) Synthetic fibres are synthesised from raw material called __________ .

(c) Like synthetic fibres, plastic is also a __________ .

4. Give examples which indicate that nylon fibres are very strong.

5. Explain why plastic containers are favoured for storing food.

6. Explain the difference between thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics.

7. Explain why the following are made of thermosetting plastics.

(a) Saucepan handles

(b) Electric plugs/switches/plug boards

8. Categorise the materials of the following products into ‘can be recycled’

and ‘cannot be recycled’.

Telephone instruments, plastic toys, cooker handles, carry bags, ball point
pens, plastic bowls, plastic covering on electrical wires, plastic chairs,
electrical switches.

9. Rana wants to buy shirts for summer. Should he buy cotton shirts or
shirts made from synthetic material? Advise Rana, giving your reason.

10. Give examples to show that plastics are noncorrosive in nature.

11. Should the handle and bristles of a tooth brush be made of the same
material? Explain your answer.

12. ‘Avoid plastics as far as possible’. Comment on this advice.

SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS 41

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 13. Match the terms of column A correctly with the phrases given in

EXERCISES
column B.

A B
(i) Polyester (a) Prepared by using wood pulp
(ii) Teflon (b) Used for making parachutes and stockings
(iii) Rayon (c) Used to make non-stick cookwares
(iv) Nylon (d) Fabrics do not wrinkle easily
14. ‘Manufacturing synthetic fibres is actually helping conservation of forests’.
Comment.
15. Describe an activity to show that thermoplastic is a poor conductor of
electricity.

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Have you heard of the campaign : ‘‘Say No To Plastics”. Coin a few

more slogans of this kind. There are certain governmental and non-
governmental organisations who educate the general public on how
to make wise use of plastics and develop environment friendly
habits. Find out organisations in your area which are carrying out
awareness programmes. If there is none, form one.
2. Organise a debate in the school. Children may be given an option
to role play as manufacturers of synthetic fabrics or those of fab-
rics from natural sources. They can then debate on the topic ‘My
Fabric is Superior’.
3. Visit five families in your neighbourhood and enquire about the
kind of clothes they use, the reason for their choice and advantages
of using them in terms of cost, durability and maintenance. Make a
short report and submit it to your teacher.
4. Devise an activity to show that organic waste is biodegradable while
plastic is not.

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 Did You Know?
Nylon appears like silk. It is strong and flexible. These endearing qualities of
nylon created a public sensation, or nylon mania, when it was introduced in
1939. Women’s stockings made from this new fibre were in great demand. But,
unfortunately, most of the nylon production had to be diverted to making
parachutes during the Second World War (1939-1945). After the war, when
production of stockings resumed, supply did not match the demand. There was
a huge black market for this product. Women had to wait for hours in queues to
get a pair. Often there were nylon riots.

SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS 43

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 MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS

Y
ou are familiar with a number of a similar change if we try to beat a
materials like iron, aluminium, piece of coal ?
copper, etc. Some materials have Let us find out.
been given in Table 4.1.
Activity 4.1
Table 4.1 : Appearance and
Hardness of Materials Take a small iron nail, a coal piece,
a piece of thick aluminium wire and
Object/ Appearance Hardness
a pencil lead. Beat the iron nail with
Material (Shiny/Dull) (Very hard/
a hammer (Fig. 4.1). (But take care
Not very
hard) that you don’t hurt yourself in the
process.) Try to hit hard. Hit hard
Iron
Coal
Sulphur
Aluminium
Copper
----- Fig. 4.1 : Beating an iron nail with hammer
the aluminium wire also. Then
Can you name the materials which repeat the same kind of treatment
are metals? The rest of the materials in on the coal piece and pencil
Table 4.1 are non-metals. Metals can be lead. Record your observations in
distinguished from non-metals on the Table 4.2.
basis of their physical and chemical
properties. Recall that lustre and Table 4.2 : Malleability of Materials
hardness are physical properties. Object/ Change in Shape
Material (Flattens/Breaks
4.1 Physical Properties of into pieces)
Metals and Non-metals Iron nail
Have you ever seen a blacksmith beating Coal piece
an iron piece or an article made up of Aluminium wire
iron, like a spade, a shovel, an axe ? Do
you find a change in the shape of these Pencil lead
articles on beating ? Would you expect

2018-19
 You saw that the shape of the iron nail
and the aluminium wire changed on the activity with various objects in
beating. If they were beaten harder these Class VI. Now, repeat the activity
could be changed into sheets. You might with the materials mentioned in
be familiar with silver foil used for Table 4.3. Observe and group these
decorating sweets. You must also be materials into good conductors and
familiar with the aluminium foil used for poor conductors.
wrapping food. The property of metals by Table 4.3 : Electrical Conductivity
which they can be beaten into thin sheets of Materials
is called malleability. This is a
characteristic property of metals. As you S.No. Materials Good Conductor /
Poor Conductor
must have noticed, materials like coal and
pencil lead do not show this property. Can 1. Iron rod/nail
we call these metals?
2. Sulphur
Can you hold a hot metallic pan which
is without a plastic or a wooden handle 3. Coal piece
and not get hurt? Perhaps not! Why? Try 4. Copper wire
to list some other experiences in which a
wooden or plastic handle protects you You observe that iron rod, nail and
from being hurt while handling hot copper wire are good conductors while
things. On the basis of these experiences rolled sulphur piece and coal piece are
what can you say about the conduction poor conductors.
of heat by wood and plastic?
You must have seen an electrician
using his screw driver. What kind of
handle does it have? Why? Oh! The meaning of recalling
Let us find out. our experiences and then of
this activity was to show that
Activity 4.2 metals are good conductors of
heat and electricity. We learnt
Recall how to make an electric this in Class VI.
circuit to test whether electricity can
pass through an object or not
Where do you find the use of
(Fig. 4.2). You might have performed
aluminium and copper wires? Have you
seen wires of coal? Definitely not!
The property of metal by which it can
be drawn into wires is called ductility.
Have you ever noticed the difference
in sound on dropping an iron sheet/
plate, a metal coin, and a piece of coal
on the floor? If not, you can try it now.
Do you note any difference in the sound
Fig. 4.2 : Electric tester produced?
MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS 45

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 Have you seen wooden bells in which rust is formed. You had also
temples? Can you give a reason? performed in Class VII an activity of
The things made of metals produce burning a magnesium ribbon in air. You
a ringing sound when struck hard. had learnt that in both the processes
Suppose you have two boxes similar in oxide formation takes place. Complete
appearance, one made of wood and the the following reactions of iron and
other of metal. Can you tell which box magnesium with oxygen.
is made of metal by striking both the Iron (Fe) + Oxygen (O2) + Water (H2O) → ?
boxes?
Magnesium (Mg) + Oxygen (O2) → ?
Since metals produce ringing
sounds, they are said to be sonorous. Activity 4.3
The materials other than metals are not
sonorous. Let us check the nature of rust
After performing the above activities, formed as a result of the reaction
we can say that some materials are hard, between iron, oxygen and water.
lustrous, malleable, ductile, sonorous Collect a spoonful of rust and
and good conductors of heat and dissolve it in a very little amount of
electricity. The materials which water. You will find that the rust
generally possess these properties are remains suspended in water. Shake
called metals. The examples of metals the suspension well. Test the
are iron, copper, aluminium, calcium, solution with red and blue litmus
magnesium, etc. In contrast, materials papers (Fig. 4.3). What do you
like coal and sulphur are soft and dull observe? Is the solution acidic or
in appearance. They break down into a basic?
powdery mass on tapping with a
hammer. They are not sonorous and are
poor conductors of heat and electricity. Rust
These materials are called non-metals. suspension
The examples of non-metals are sulphur,
carbon, oxygen, phosphorus, etc.
Red litmus
paper
Metals like sodium and potassium are
soft and can be cut with a knife.
Mercury is the only metal which is
found in liquid state at room
temperature. These are exceptions.

4.2 Chemical Properties of

Metals and Non-metals
Rust
Reaction with Oxygen
You are familiar with the phenomenon
Fig. 4.3 : Testing the nature of rust
of rusting of iron. Recall the reaction by
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 As soon as sulphur starts burning,
Does copper also get
rusted? I have seen
introduce the spoon into a gas jar/
a greenish deposit glass tumbler [Fig. 4.4 (a)]. Cover the
on the surface of tumbler with a lid to ensure that
copper vessels. the gas produced does not escape.
Remove the spoon after some time.
Add a small quantity of water into
When a copper vessel is exposed to the tumbler and quickly replace the
moist air for long, it acquires a dull lid. Shake the tumbler well. Check
green coating. The green material is
the solution with red and blue
a mixture of copper hydroxide
(Cu(OH) 2 ) and copper carbonate
litmus papers [Fig. 4.4 (b)].
(CuCO3). The following is the reaction
2Cu+H2O+CO2+O2→Cu (OH)2 + CuCO3
moist air
Improvised
deflagrating
Now recall the activity of burning spoon
magnesium ribbon. The ash obtained
on burning magnesium ribbon is
dissolved in water and tested for its
acidic/basic nature.
Is the solution acidic or basic? How
do you ascertain this?
You must have observed that the red
litmus turns blue. So, oxide of magnesium Fig. 4.4 (a) : Burning of sulphur powder
is also basic in nature. In general, metallic
oxides are basic in nature.
Let us now observe the reaction of
non-metals with oxygen.
Activity 4.4
(To be demonstrated by the teacher
in the class)
Take a small amount of powdered
sulphur in a deflagrating spoon and
heat it. If deflagrating spoon is not
available, you may take a metallic cap
of any bottle and wrap a metallic wire
around it and give it the shape
shown in Fig. 4.4 (a). Fig. 4.4 (b) : Testing of solution with litmus
papers

MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS 47

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 Table 4.4 : Metals and Non-metals in Acids and Bases

S.No. Name of the Base Metal Name of the Acid Non-metal

1. Calcium hydroxide Calcium Sulphuric acid Sulphur

2.

3.

4.

5.

The name of the product formed in Activity 4.5

the reaction of sulphur and oxygen is
(To be demonstrated by the teacher.
sulphur dioxide gas. When sulphur
During demonstration special care
dioxide is dissolved in water sulphurous should be taken that the size of the
acid is formed. The reaction can be given sodium metal piece is roughly the size
as follows: of a wheat grain. It should be held
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) + Water (H2O) → with a pair of tongs.)
Sulphurous acid (H2SO3) Take a 250 mL beaker/glass tumbler.
Fill half of it with water. Now
The sulphurous acid turns blue carefully cut a small piece of sodium
litmus paper red. Generally, oxides of metal. Dry it using filter paper and
non-metals are acidic in nature. wrap it in a small piece of cotton.
Recall the name of some of the Put the sodium piece wrapped in
laboratory acids and bases you have read cotton into the beaker. Observe
in Class VII. Note down their names in carefully. (During observation keep
Table 4.4. Identify the metal or non- away from the beaker). When
reaction stops touch the beaker.
metal present in them which forms
What do you feel? Has the beaker
oxides with oxygen.
become hot? Test the solution with
red and blue litmus papers. Is the
Reaction with Water solution acidic or basic?
Let us see how metals and non-metals
react with water.

Sodium metal is very reactive. It

reacts vigorously with oxygen and
water. A lot of heat is generated in
the reaction. It is, therefore, stored
in kerosene. Fig. 4.5 : Reaction of sodium with water

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 You observed that sodium reacts phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal.
vigorously with water. Some other metals It catches fire if exposed to air. To prevent
do not do so. For example, iron reacts the contact of phosphorus with
with water slowly. atmospheric oxygen, it is stored in water.
Generally, non-metals do not react
with water though they may be very Reactions with Acids
reactive in air. Such non-metals are Let us see how metals and non-metals
stored in water. For example, behave with acids.

Activity 4.6
(Warning : Keep the mouth of the test tube away from your face. Use test tube
holder to hold the test tube.)
Take samples of metals and non-metals listed in Table 4.5 in separate test
tubes and label them as A, B, C, D, E, and F. With the help of a dropper add 5
mL of dilute hydrochloric acid to each test tube one by one. Observe the
reactions carefully. If no reaction occurs in the cold solution, warm the test
tube gently. Bring a burning matchstick near the mouth of each test tube.
Repeat the same activity using dilute sulphuric acid instead of the dilute
hydrochloric acid. Record your observations in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5 : Reaction of Metals and Non-metals with Acids

Test Metal/ Reaction with Dilute Reaction with Dilute

tube Non-metal Hydrochloric Acid Sulphuric Acid
Label Room Warm Room Warm
Temperature Temperature
A Magnesium
(ribbon)

B Aluminium (foil)

C Iron (filings)

D Copper (peeled
flexible wire)

E Charcoal (powder)

F Sulphur (powder)

MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS 49

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 Is there a difference in the way metals performed in Class VII. Let us observe
and non-metals react with acids? What some more reactions of that kind.
could the ‘pop’ sound in some cases be
due to when a burning match stick is Activity 4.8
brought near the mouth of the test tubes?
Take five 100 mL beakers and label
You must have found that non-
them A, B, C, D and E. Take about
metals generally do not react with acids
50 mL of water in each beaker.
but metals react with acids and produce
Dissolve in each beaker a
hydrogen gas that burns with a ‘pop’
teaspoonful of each substance as
sound. You must have noticed that
indicated in Fig. 4.6 (a).
copper does not react with dilute
 Keep the beakers undisturbed for
hydrochloric acid even on heating but
some time.
it reacts with sulphuric acid.
 Record your observations in your
Reactions with Bases note book.

Activity 4.7
(To be demonstrated by the teacher.
During the preparation of sodium
A B C D E
hydroxide solution, care should be
taken that pellets of sodium hydroxide
are handled with a plastic spatula). (a)

Prepare a fresh solution of sodium ZnSO4 FeSO4

hydroxide in a test tube by
dissolving 3-4 pellets of it in 5 mL
of water. Drop a piece of aluminium
foil into it. Bring a burning match
stick near the mouth of the test A B C D E
tube. Observe carefully.
Cu Cu
What does the ‘pop’ sound indicate? No Change
As before, the ‘pop’ sound indicates the (b)
presence of hydrogen gas.
Beaker A : Copper sulphate (CuSO4) + Zinc granule (Zn)
Metals react with sodium hydroxide
to produce hydrogen gas. Beaker B : Copper sulphate (CuSO4) + Iron nail (Fe)
Reactions of non-metals with bases
Beaker C : Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) + Copper turnings (Cu)
are complex.
Beaker D : Iron sulphate (FeSO4) + Copper turnings (Cu)
Displacement Reactions
Beaker E : Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) + Iron nail (Fe)
Recall the activity of the reaction between
copper sulphate and iron that you Fig. 4.6 (a) and (b) : Displacement reactions

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 What changes do you observe in the arbitrary. It follows definite rules
various beakers? You have read that one based on facts. And the rule here is
metal displaces another metal from its that zinc is more reactive than copper
compound in aqueous solution. In and iron. A more reactive metal can
beaker ‘A’ zinc (Zn) replaces copper (Cu) replace a less reactive metal, but a less
from copper sulphate (CuSO4). That is reactive one cannot replace a more
why the blue colour of copper sulphate reactive metal. Now you can
disappears and a powdery red mass of understand why there are no
displacement reactions in beakers D
copper is deposited at the bottom of the
and E also. Can you guess the
beaker. The reaction can be represented
sequence of metals from more reactive
as follows:
to less reactive among zinc, iron and
Copper Sulphate (CuSO4) + Zinc (Zn) copper?
(Blue)
4.3 Uses of Metals and
→ Zinc Sulphate (ZnSO4) + Copper (Cu)
(Colourless) (Red)
Non-metals
You should be able to guess why metals
You can write down the reaction are used in making machinery,
taking place in beaker ‘B’ in a similar automobiles, aeroplanes, trains,
manner. satellites, industrial gadgets, cooking
utensils, water boilers, etc. You are also
familiar with the uses of some non-
metals. Here are some interesting ones.
We are sure that you will guess them
I have understood the reactions right:
taking place in beakers ‘A’ and
‘B’. But I am still confused why  Non-metal is essential for our life
there is no change in beakers which all living beings inhale during
‘C’, ‘D’ and ‘E’? breathing,
 Non-metals used in fertilisers to
enhance the growth of plants,
There could have been displacement
of zinc by copper in beaker ‘C’ and by  Non-metal used in water purification
iron in beaker ‘E’. Similarly iron could process,
be displaced by copper in beaker ‘D’.  Non-metal used in the purple
Since we do not see any change in coloured solution which is applied
beaker C, we can infer that copper is on wounds as an antiseptic,
not able to replace zinc from zinc
sulphate. But why? When zinc can  Non-metals used in crackers.
replace copper in beaker ‘A’ why You may add some more uses of
cannot copper replace zinc in beaker metals and non-metals from your
‘C’? Remember that science is not experiences.

MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS 51

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 I heard that magnesium is The doctor reported iron
found in plants. In what deficiency in my body.
form is it found in them? Where is iron in my body?

In Class VII, you have learnt that in a chemical reaction, new substances are
formed. These substances are different from those which underwent the reaction.
Now, if a substance cannot be broken down further by chemical reactions, by
cooling, heating, or by electrolysis, it is called ‘element’. Sulphur is an element.
So is iron. Carbon, too, is an element. The smallest unit of an element is atom. A
sample of an element contains only one kind of atom. The atom of an element
remains unaffected by physical changes in the element. For example, an atom of
liquid sulphur would be exactly the same as the atom of solid or vapour sulphur.
Although we have an infinite variety of substances in the universe, the number
of elements forming these substances is limited. There are no more than 94
naturally occurring elements. An important classification of elements is in terms
of metals and non-metals. Most of the elements are metals. The remaining are
either non-metals or metalloids. Metalloids possess character of both metals and
non-metals.

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   

   
  

ATOM  Metals are lustrous whereas non-metals have
no lustre.
CONDUCTOR
 Generally, metals are malleable and ductile.
DISPLACEMENT Non-metals do not have these properties.
REACTION  Generally, metals are good conductors of heat
and electricity but non-metals are poor
DUCTILITY
conductors.
ELEMENTS  On burning, metals react with oxygen to
produce metal oxides which are basic in
HARDNESS
nature. Non-metals react with oxygen to
MALLEABILITY produce non- metallic oxides which are acidic
in nature.
METALS
 Some metals react with water to produce metal
METALLOIDS hydroxides and hydrogen gas. Generally, non-
metals do not react with water.
NON-METALS
 Metals react with acids and produce metal
SONOROUS salts and hydrogen gas. Generally, non-metals
do not react with acids.
 Some metals react with bases to produce
hydrogen gas.
 More reactive metals displace less reactive
metals from their compounds in aqueous
solutions.
 Metals and non-metals are used widely in
every day life.

Exercises

1. Which of the following can be beaten into thin sheets?

(a) Zinc (b) Phosphorus (c) Sulphur (d) Oxygen
2. Which of the following statements is correct?

(a) All metals are ductile.

(b) All non-metals are ductile.
(c) Generally, metals are ductile.

(d) Some non-metals are ductile.

MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS 53

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 3. Fill in the blanks.

EXERCISES (a) Phosphorus is a very non-metal.

(b) Metals are conductors of heat and .
(c) Iron is reactive than copper.
(d) Metals react with acids to produce gas.
4. Mark ‘T’ if the statement is true and ‘F’ if it is false.
(a) Generally, non-metals react with acids. ( )
(b) Sodium is a very reactive metal. ( )
(c) Copper displaces zinc from zinc sulphate solution. ( )
(d) Coal can be drawn into wires. ( )
5. Some properties are listed in the following Table. Distinguish between
metals and non-metals on the basis of these properties.

Properties Metals Non-metals

1. Appearance
2. Hardness
3. Malleability
4. Ductility
5. Heat Conduction
6. Conduction of Electricity

6. Give reasons for the following.

(a) Aluminium foils are used to wrap food items.
(b) Immersion rods for heating liquids are made up of metallic substances.
(c) Copper cannot displace zinc from its salt solution.
(d) Sodium and potassium are stored in kerosene.
7. Can you store lemon pickle in an aluminium utensil? Explain.

8. Match the substances given in Column A with their uses given in

Column B.

A B
(i) Gold (a) Thermometers
(ii) Iron (b) Electric wire
(iii) Aluminium (c) Wrapping food
(iv) Carbon (d) Jewellery
(v) Copper (e) Machinery
(vi) Mercury (f) Fuel

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 9. What happens when
EXERCISES (a) Dilute sulphuric acid is poured on a copper plate?
(b) Iron nails are placed in copper sulphate solution?
Write word equations of the reactions involved.
10. Saloni took a piece of burning charcoal and collected the gas evolved in a
test tube.
(a) How will she find the nature of the gas ?
(b) Write down word equations of all the reactions taking place in this
process.
11. One day Reeta went to a jeweller’s shop with her mother. Her mother gave
an old gold jewellery to the goldsmith to polish. Next day when they brought
the jewellery back, they found that there was a slight loss in its weight.
Can you suggest a reason for the loss in weight?

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Prepare Index Cards for any four metals and four non-metals. The
card should have information like name of metal/non-metal; its
physical properties, chemical properties and its uses.
2. Visit a blacksmith and observe how metals are moulded.

3. Suggest an experiment to compare the conductivity of electricity by

iron, copper, aluminium and zinc. Perform the experiment and
prepare a short report on the results.

4. Find out the locations of the deposits of iron, aluminium and zinc
in India. Mark these in an outline map of India. In which form are
the deposits found? Discuss in the class.

5. Discuss with your parents/neighbours/goldsmiths why gold is

preferred for making jewellery.
6. Visit the following websites and enjoy the quiz on metals and
non-metals:
 chemistry.about.com/od/testsquizzes/Chemistry_Tests_
Quizzes.htm
 www.gcsescience.com/q/qusemet.html
 www.corrosionsource.com/handbook/periodic/metals.htm

MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS 55

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 COAL AND PETROLEUM

W
e use various materials for our Can air, water and soil be exhausted
basic needs. Some of them are by human activities? You have already
found in nature and some studied about water in Class VII. Is water
have been made by human efforts. a limitless resource?
In the light of the availability of
Activity 5.1 various resources in nature, natural
resources can be broadly classified
Make a list of various materials used
into two kinds:
by us in daily life and classify them
as natural and man-made. (i) Inexhaustible Natural Resources:
These resources are present in unlimited
Natural Man-made
quantity in nature and are not likely to
be exhausted by human activities.
Examples are: sunlight, air.
(ii) Exhaustible Natural Resources: The
amount of these resources in nature is
limited. They can be exhausted by
human activities. Examples of these
resources are forests, wildlife, minerals,
coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.

Activity 5.2

(It is a group activity)

Does this list include air, water, soil
and minerals? Since all these are Take some containers. Fill them
obtained from nature, they are called with popcorn/peanuts/roasted
natural resources. gram/toffees. Divide students into
groups of seven each. Further divide
each group into three subgroups
containing 1, 2 and 4 students.
Can we use all our Label them as first, second
natural resources and third generation respectively.
forever ?

2018-19
 These sub-groups represent the 5.1 Coal
consumers. As population is You may have seen coal or heard about
growing, second and third it (Fig. 5.1). It is as hard as stone and is
generations have larger number of black in colour.
consumers.
Put one full container for each
group on a table. Ask consumers of
the first generation from each group
to consume eatables from the
container of their group. Now, ask
the second generation consumers
from each group to do the same. Ask
students to observe carefully the Fig. 5.1: Coal
availability of eatables in each
Coal is one of the fuels used to cook
container. If some thing is left in the
food. Earlier, it was used in railway
containers, ask third generation
engines to produce steam to run the
from each group to consume it. Now,
engine. It is also used in thermal power
finally observe whether all the
plants to produce electricity. Coal is also
consumers of the third generation
used as a fuel in various industries.
got the eatables or not. Also observe
if anything is still left in any of the Story of Coal
containers.

Assume that the eatables in the Where do we get

coal from and how
container represent the total
is it formed?
availability of an exhausible natural
resource like coal, petroleum or About 300 million years ago the
natural gas. Each group may have a earth had dense forests in low lying
different consumption pattern. Are wetland areas. Due to natural processes,
the earlier generations of any group like flooding, these forests got buried
too greedy? It may be that the earlier under the soil. As more soil deposited
generations in some groups were over them, they were compressed. The
concerned about the coming temperature also rose as they sank
generation(s) and left something for deeper and deeper. Under high pressure
them. and high temperature, dead plants got
In this chapter we will learn about slowly converted to coal. As coal
some exhaustible natural resources contains mainly carbon, the slow
like coal, petroleum and natural gas. process of conversion of dead vegetation
These were formed from the dead into coal is called carbonisation. Since
remains of living organisms (fossils). it was formed from the remains of
So, these are all known as fossil vegetation, coal is also called a fossil fuel.
fuels. A coal mine is shown in Fig. 5.2.
COAL AND PETROLEUM 57

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 Fig. 5.2: A coal mine

When heated in air, coal burns and about 200 substances. Products
produces mainly carbon dioxide gas. obtained from coal tar are used as
Coal is processed in industry to get starting materials for manufacturing
some useful products such as coke, coal various substances used in everyday
tar and coal gas. life and in industry, like synthetic
dyes, drugs, explosives, per fumes,
Coke plastics, paints, photographic materials,
It is a tough, porous and black roofing materials, etc. Interestingly,
substance. It is an almost pure form of naphthalene balls used to repel moths
carbon. Coke is used in the manufacture and other insects are also obtained from
of steel and in the extraction of many coal tar.
metals.
These days, bitumen, a petroleum
Coal Tar product, is used in place of coal-tar
for metalling the roads.
It is a black, thick liquid (Fig. 5.3) with
an unpleasant smell. It is a mixture of Coal Gas
Coal gas is obtained during the
processing of coal to get coke. It is used

Coal gas was used for street lighting

for the first time in London in 1810
and in New York around 1820. Now a
days, it is used as a source of heat
Fig. 5.3: Coal tar rather than light.

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as a fuel in many industries situated transformed the dead organisms into
near the coal processing plants. petroleum and natural gas.
Look at Fig. 5.4. It shows the deposits
5.2 Petroleum of petroleum and natural gas. You see
You know that petrol is used as a fuel in that the layer containing petroleum oil
light automobiles such as motor cycles/ and gas is above that of water. Why is it
scooters and cars. Heavy motor vehicles so? Recall that oil and gas are lighter
like trucks and tractors run on diesel. than water and do not mix with it.
Petrol and diesel are obtained from a
natural resource called petroleum. The The world’s first oil well was drilled
word petroleum is derived from petra in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1859. Eight
(rock) and oleum (oil) as it is mined years later, in 1867, oil was struck
from between the rocks under Earth as at Makum in Assam. In India, oil is
found in Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai
shown in Fig. 5.4.
High and in the river basins of
Do you know how petroleum is
Godavari and Krishna.
formed?
Petroleum was formed from
Refining of Petroleum
organisms living in the sea. As these
organisms died, their bodies settled at Petroleum is a dark oily liquid. It has
the bottom of the sea and got covered an unpleasant odour. It is a mixture of
with layers of sand and clay. Over various constituents such as petroleum
millions of years, absence of air, high gas, petrol, diesel, lubricating oil,
temperature and high pressure paraffin wax, etc. The process of

Wells

Impervious Gas
rock
Oil

Reservoir rock
Water

Fig. 5.4 : Petroleum and natural gas deposits

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 Various constituents of petroleum
and their uses are given in Table 5.1.

Many useful substances are obtained

from petroleum and natural gas.
These are termed as ‘Petrochemicals’.
These are used in the manufacture
of detergents, fibres (polyester, nylon,
acrylic etc.), polythene and other
man-made plastics. Hydrogen gas
obtained from natural gas, is used in
the production of fertilisers (urea).
Due to its great commercial
importance, petroleum is also called
‘black gold’.

5.3 Natural Gas

Fig. 5.5: A petroleum refinery Natural gas is a very important fossil
fuel because it is easy to transport
separating the various constituents/ through pipes. Natural gas is stored
fractions of petroleum is known as under high pressure as compressed
refining. It is carried out in a petroleum natural gas (CNG). CNG is used for
refinery (Fig. 5.5). power generation. It is now being used

Table 5.1 Various Constituents of Petroleum and their Uses

S.No. Constituents of Petroleum Uses

1. Petroleum Gas in Liquid form Fuel for home and industry

(LPG)

2. Petrol Motor fuel, aviation fuel, solvent for

dry cleaning

3. Kerosene Fuel for stoves, lamps and for jet aircrafts

4. Diesel Fuel for heavy motor vehicles, electric

generators

5. Lubricating oil Lubrication

6. Paraffin wax Ointments, candles, vaseline etc.

7. Bitumen Paints, road surfacing

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as a fuel for transport vehicles because 5.4 Some Natural Resources
it is less polluting. It is a cleaner fuel. are Limited
The great advantage of CNG is that
it can be used directly for burning in You have studied in the beginning of
homes and factories where it can be the chapter that some natural resources
supplied through pipes. Such a network are exhaustible like fossil fuels, forests,
of pipelines exists in Vadodara (Gujarat), minerals etc.
some parts of Delhi and other places. You know that coal and petroleum
Natural gas is also used as a starting are fossil fuels. It required the dead
organisms millions of years to get
material for the manufacture of a number
converted into these fuels. On the
of chemicals and fertilisers. India has vast
other hand, the known reserves of
reserves of natural gas. In our country,
these will last only a few hundred
natural gas has been found in Tripura,
years. Moreover, burning of these
Rajasthan, Maharashtra and in the
fuels is a major cause of air pollution.
Krishna Godavari delta. Their use is also linked to global
warming. It is therefore necessary that
we use these fuels only when
absolutely necessary. This will result
Can coal, petroleum
in better environment, smaller risk of
and natural gas be
global warming and their availability
prepared in the
laboratory from dead
for a longer period of time.
organisms? In India, the Petroleum Conservation
Research Association (PCRA) advises
people how to save petrol/diesel while
driving. Their tips are
l drive at a constant and moderate
speed as far as possible,
No. Their
formation is a very l switch off the engine at traffic lights
slow process and or at a place where you have to wait,
conditions for
l ensure correct tyre pressure.
their formation
cannot be created l ensure regular maintenance of the
in the laboratory. vehicle.

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KEYWORDS WHA
WHAT OU HA
YOU
T Y VE LEARNT
HAVE
COAL Ü Coal, petroleum and natural gas are fossil
COAL GAS fuels.
Ü Fossil fuels were formed from the dead remains
COAL TAR of living organisms millions of years ago.
COKE Ü Fossil fuels are exhaustible resources.
Ü Coke, coal tar and coal gas are the products
FOSSIL FUEL of coal.
NATURAL GAS Ü Petroleum gas, petrol, diesel, kerosene,
paraffin wax, lubricating oil are obtained by
PETROLEUM
refining petroleum.
PETROLEUM Ü Coal and petroleum resources are limited. We
REFINERY should use them judiciously.

Exercises

1. What are the advantages of using CNG and LPG as fuels?

2. Name the petroleum product used for surfacing of roads.

3. Describe how coal is formed from dead vegetation. What is this process
called?
4. Fill in the blanks.

(a) Fossil fuels are , and .

(b) Process of separation of different constituents from petroleum is
called .

(c) Least polluting fuel for vehicle is .

5. Tick True/False against the following statements.
(a) Fossil fuels can be made in the laboratory. (T/F)

(b) CNG is more polluting fuel than petrol. (T/F)

(c) Coke is almost pure form of carbon. (T/F)
(d) Coal tar is a mixture of various substances. (T/F)

(e) Kerosene is not a fossil fuel. (T/F)

6. Explain why fossil fuels are exhaustible natural resources.

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 7. Describe characteristics and uses of coke.
EXERCISES 8. Explain the process of formation of petroleum.

9. The following Table shows the total power shortage in India from
1991–1997. Show the data in the form of a graph. Plot shortage percentage
for the years on the Y-axis and the year on the X-axis.

S. No. Year Shortage (%)

1 1991 7.9

2 1992 7.8

3 1993 8.3

4 1994 7.4

5 1995 7.1

6 1996 9.2

7 1997 11.5

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Get an outline map of India. Mark the places in the map where
coal, petroleum and natural gas are found. Show the places where
petroleum refineries are situated.
2. Choose any five families of your neighbourhood. Enquire whether
their energy consumption (coal, gas, electricity, petrol, kerosene)
has increased or decreased in the last five years. Enquire also about
the measures they adopt to conserve energy.
3. Find out the location of major thermal power plants in India. What
could be the reasons for their being located at those places?
For more information, visit:
l www.energyarchive.ca.gov
l web.ccsd.k12.wy.us
l web.pcra.org

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 COMBUSTION AND FLAME

W
e use different kinds of fuel for
various purposes at home, in
industry and for running
automobiles. Can you name a few fuels
used in our homes? Name a few fuels
used in trade and industry. What fuels
are used for running automobiles? Your
list will contain fuels like cowdung,
wood, coal, charcoal, petrol, diesel,
compressed natural gas (CNG), etc.
You are familiar with the burning of a
candle. What is the difference between the
burning of a candle and the burning of a
fuel like coal? May be you were able to
guess right: candle burns with a flame
whereas coal does not. Similarly, you will
find many other materials burning
Fig. 6.1 : Burning of magnesium
without a flame. Let us study the chemical
process of burning and the types of flame A chemical process in which a
produced during this process. substance reacts with oxygen to give
off heat is called combustion. The
6.1 What is Combustion? substance that undergoes combustion
Recall the activity of burning of is said to be combustible. It is also called
magnesium ribbon per for med in a fuel. The fuel may be solid, liquid or
Class VII. We learnt that magnesium gas. Sometimes, light is also given off
burns to form magnesium oxide and during combustion, either as a flame or
produces heat and light (Fig. 6.1). as a glow.
We can perform a similar activity with In the reactions mentioned
a piece of charcoal. Hold the piece with above magnesium and charcoal are
a pair of tongs and bring it near the combustible substances.
flame of a candle or a Bunsen burner.
What do you observe?
We find that charcoal burns in air.
We know that coal, too, burns in air We were told that
food is a fuel for
producing carbon dioxide, heat and
our body.
light.

2018-19
 Activity 6.2
(Caution : Be careful while handling
Rightly so. In our body burning candle).
food is broken down by
Fix a lighted candle on a table. Put
reaction with oxygen and
a glass chimney over the candle and
heat is produced. We
learnt that in Class VII. rest it on a few wooden blocks in
such a way that air can enter the
Activity 6.1
Collect some materials like straw,
matchsticks, kerosene oil, paper,
iron nails, stone pieces, glass etc.
Under the supervision of your
teacher try to burn each of these
materials one by one. If combustion
takes place mark the material
(a) (b) (c)
combustible, otherwise mark it
Fig. 6.2: Experiment to show that air is
non-combustible (Table 6.1). essential for burning
Table 6.1 : Combustible and Non- chimney [Fig. 6.2(a)]. Observe what
combustible Substances
happens to the flame. Now remove
Material Combustible Non-
the blocks and let the chimney rest
combustible on the table [Fig. 6.2(b)]. Again
observe the flame. Finally, put a
Wood glass plate over the chimney [Fig.
Paper 6.2(c)]. Watch the flame again. What
happens in the three cases? Does
Iron nails
the flame flicker off? Does it flicker
Kerosene oil and give smoke? Does it burn
Stone piece
unaffected? Can you infer anything
at all about the role played by air in
Straw the process of burning?
Charcoal
We find that for combustion, air is
Matchsticks necessary. The candle burns freely in
Glass case (a) when air can enter the
chimney from below. In case (b), when
Can you name some more air does not enter the chimney from
substances which are combustible? You below, the flame flickers and produces
can add those to Table 6.1. smoke. In case (c), the flame finally
Let us investigate conditions under goes off because the air is not
which combustion takes place. available.
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 is covered with a blanket to extinguish
fire (Fig. 6.3). Can you guess why?
We have read that the sun
produces its own heat and
light. Is it also some kind of
combustion?

In the sun, heat and light are

produced by nuclear reactions. You
will learn about this process in higher
classes.
Fig. 6.3 : Blanket wrapped around a person
whose clothes caught fire
Activity 6.3 Now recall some of your experiences.
Place a piece of burning wood or Does a matchstick burn by itself?
charcoal on an iron plate or Tawa. How does it burn?
Cover it with a glass jar or a You must have had an experience of
tumbler, or a transparent plastic jar. burning a piece of paper. Does it burn
Observe what happens. Does when a burning matchstick is brought
charcoal stop burning after near it?
sometime? Can you think of the Can you burn a piece of wood by
reason why it stops burning? bringing a lighted matchstick near it?
Why do you have to use paper or
You might have heard that when the kerosene oil to start fire in wood or coal?
clothes of a person catch fire, the person Have you heard of forest fires?

During extreme heat

of summer, at some
places dry grass
catches fire. From
the grass, it spreads
to trees, and very
soon the whole forest
is on fire (Fig. 6.4). It
is very difficult to
control such fires.

Fig. 6.4 : Forest fire

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 Do these experiences tell you that We find that a combustible substance
different substances catch fire at cannot catch fire or burn as long as its
different temperatures? temperature is lower than its ignition
The lowest temperature at which a temperature. Have you ever seen
substance catches fire is called its cooking oil catching fire when a frying
ignition temperature. pan is kept for long on a burning stove?
Can you tell now why a matchstick Kerosene oil and wood do not catch fire
does not catch fire on its own at room on their own at room temperature. But,
temperature? Why does the matchstick if kerosene oil is heated a little, it will
start burning on rubbing it on the side catch fire. But if wood is heated a little,
of the matchbox? it would still not catch fire. Does it mean
that ignition temperature of kerosene oil
The history of the matchstick is very is lower than that of wood? Does it mean
old. More than five thousand years that we need to take special care in
ago small pieces of pinewood dipped storing kerosene oil? The following
in sulphur were used as matches in
activity shows that it is essential for a
ancient Egypt. The modern safety
substance to reach ignition temperature
match was developed only about two
hundred years ago.
to burn.
A mixture of antimony trisulphide,
potassium chlorate and white Activity 6.4
phosphorus with some glue and
starch was applied on the head of a (Caution : Be careful while handling
match made of suitable wood. When burning candle).
struck against a rough surface, white
phosphorus got ignited due to the heat Make two paper cups by folding a
of friction. This started the sheet of paper. Pour about 50 mL of
combustion of the match. However, water in one of the cups. Heat both
white phosphorus proved to be the cups separately with a candle
dangerous both for the workers (Fig. 6.5). What do you observe?
involved in the manufacturing of
matches and for the users.
These days the head of the safety
match contains only antimony
trisulphide and potassium chlorate. water
The rubbing surface has powdered
paper
glass and a little red phosphorus
cups
(which is much less dangerous).
When the match is struck against
the rubbing surface, some red
phosphorus gets converted into white Fig. 6.5 : Heating water in a paper cup
phosphorus. This immediately reacts
with potassium chlorate in the What happens to the empty paper
matchstick head to produce enough cup? What happens to the paper cup
heat to ignite antimony trisulphide with water? Does water in this cup
and start the combustion.
become hot?
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 If we continue heating
the cup, we can even boil
water in the paper cup.
Can you think of an
explanation for this
phenomenon?
The heat supplied to
the paper cup is
transferred to water by
conduction. So, in the
presence of water, the
ignition temperature of
paper is not reached.
Hence, it does not burn.
The substances which
have very low ignition
temperature and can
easily catch fire with Fig. 6.6: Firemen extinguish the fire by throwing water under pressure
a flame are called
inflammable substances. Examples of Does your city/town have a fire
inflammable substances are petrol, brigade station?
alcohol, Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) When a fire brigade arrives, what
etc. Can you list some more inflammable does it do? It pours water on the fire
substances? (Fig. 6.6). Water cools the combustible
material so that its temperature is
6.2 How Do We Control Fire? brought below its ignition
temperature. This prevents the fire
You must have seen or heard of fire from spreading. Water vapours also
breaking out in homes, shops and surround the combustible material,
factories. If you have seen such an helping in cutting off the supply of air.
accident, write a short description in So, the fire is extinguished.
your note book. Also, share the You have learnt that there are three
experience with your classmates. essential requirements for producing
fire. Can you list these requirements?
Find out the telephone number of the
These are: fuel, air (to supply
fire service in your area. If a fire
breaks out in your house or in your oxygen) and heat (to raise the
neighbourhood, the first thing to do temperature of the fuel beyond the
is to call the fire service. ignition temperature). Fire can be
controlled by removing one or more of
these requirements. The job of a fire
It is important that all of us extinguisher is to cut off the supply of
know the telephone numbers
air, or to bring down the temperature
of the fire service.
of the fuel, or both. Notice that the fuel
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 The most common fire
extinguisher is water. But
water works only when
things like wood and paper
are on fire. If electrical
equipment is on fire, water
may conduct electricity
and harm those trying to
douse the fire. Water is
also not suitable for fires
involving oil and petrol. Do
you recall that water is
heavier than oil? So, it Fig. 6.7 : Fire extinguisher
sinks below the oil, and oil
keeps burning on the top.
For fires involving electrical equipment and inflammable materials like
petrol, carbon dioxide (CO2) is the best extinguisher. CO 2, being heavier than
oxygen, covers the fire like a blanket. Since the contact between the fuel and
oxygen is cut off, the fire is controlled. The added advantage of CO2 is that in
most cases it does not harm the electrical equipment.
How do we get the supply of carbon dioxide? It can be stored at high pressure
as a liquid in cylinders. In what form is the LPG stored in cylinders? When
released from the cylinder, CO2 expands enormously in volume and cools down.
So, it not only forms a blanket around the fire, it also brings down the
temperature of the fuel. That is why it is an excellent fire extinguisher. Another
way to get CO 2 is to release a lot of dry powder of chemicals like sodium
bicarbonate (baking soda) or potassium bicarbonate. Near the fire, these
chemicals give off CO2.

in most cases cannot be eliminated. We find that the gas burns rapidly
If, for instance, a building catches fire, and produces heat and light. Such
the whole building is the fuel. combustion is known as rapid
6.3 Types of Combustion combustion.
There are substances like
Bring a burning matchstick or a gas
phosphorus which burn in air at room
lighter near a gas stove in the kitchen.
temperature.
Turn on the knob of the gas stove. What
The type of combustion in which
do you observe?
a material suddenly bursts into
CAUTION : Do not handle the gas flames, without the application of any
stove yourself. Ask your parents apparent cause is called spontaneous
to help. combustion.
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 Spontaneous combustion of coal dust
has resulted in many disastrous fires
in coal mines. Spontaneous forest
fires are sometimes due to the heat
of the sun or due to lightning strike.
However, most forest fires are due to
the carelessness of human beings. It
is important to remember that the Fig. 6.8: Colours of a candle flame and the
campfires must be completely flame of a kitchen stove
extinguished before leaving a forest
after a picnic, or a visit.

We generally have fireworks on

festival days. When a cracker is ignited,
a sudden reaction takes place with the
evolution of heat, light and sound. A
large amount of gas formed in the
reaction is liberated. Such a reaction is
called explosion. Explosion can also take
place if pressure is applied on the
cracker.

6.4 Flame
Observe an LPG flame. Can you tell the
colour of the flame. What is the colour
of a candle flame?
Fig. 6.9 : Flames of kerosene lamp, candle and
Recall your experience of burning a Bunsen burner
magnesium ribbon in Class VII. If you
do not have experience of burning the Record your observations and
remaining items in Table 6.2 you can mention whether on burning the
do that now. material forms a flame or not.

Table 6.2 Materials forming Flame on Burning

S.No. Material Forms flame Does not form flame
1. Candle
2. Magnesium
3. Camphor
4. Kerosene Stove
5. Charcoal

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6.5 Structure of a Flame
Activity 6.5
Light a candle (Caution : Be careful).
Hold a 4-5 cm long thin glass tube
with a pair of tongs and introduce
its one end in the dark zone of a
non-flickering candle flame (Fig.
6.10). Bring a lighted matchstick Fig. 6.11
near the other end of the glass tube.
Do you see a flame caught at this When the candle flame is steady,
end of the glass tube after a while? introduce a clean glass plate/slide into
If so, what is it that produces a the luminous zone of the flame
flame? Notice that the wax near the (Fig. 6.11). Hold it there with a pair of
heated wick melts quickly. tongs for about 10 seconds. Then
remove it. What do you observe?

Fig. 6.12

Fig. 6.10 A circular blackish ring is formed on

the glass plate/slide. It indicates the
The substances which vapourise deposition of unburnt carbon particles
during burning, give flames. For present in the luminous zone of the
example, kerosene oil and molten wax flame.
rise through the wick and are vapourised Hold a thin long copper wire just
during burning and form flames. inside the non-luminous zone of flame
Charcoal, on the other hand, does not for about 30 seconds (Fig. 6.12).
vapourise and so does not produce a Notice that the portion of the copper
flame. In Activity 6.5, could the vapours wire just outside the flame gets red hot.
of wax coming out of the glass tube be Does it indicate that the non-luminous
the cause of the flame produced? zone of the flame has a high
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temperature? In fact, this part of the 6.6 What is a Fuel?
flame is the hottest part (Fig. 6.13).
Recall that the sources of heat energy
outer zone of for domestic and industrial purposes
hottest complete are mainly wood, charcoal, petrol,
part combustion (blue) kerosene etc. These substances are
moderately called fuels. A good fuel is one which is
hot middle zone of readily available. It is cheap. It burns
partial combustion easily in air at a moderate rate. It
least (yellow) produces a large amount of heat. It does
hot
not leave behind any undersirable
innermost zone of
substances.
wax candle unburnt wax
vapours (black) There is probably no fuel that could
be considered as an ideal fuel. We
Fig. 6.13 : Different zones of candle flame should look for a fuel which fulfils most
of the requirements for a particular use.
Goldsmiths blow the outermost zone Fuels differ in their cost. Some fuels
of a flame with a metallic blow-pipe for are cheaper than others.
melting gold and silver (Fig. 6.14). Why Make a list of fuels familiar to you.
do they use the outermost zone of the Group them as solid, liquid and gaseous
flame? fuels as in Table 6.3.

6.7 Fuel Efficiency

Suppose you were asked to boil a given
quantity of water using cow dung, coal
and LPG as fuel. Which fuel would you
prefer? Give your reason. You may take
the help of your parents. Do these three
fuels produce the same amount of heat?
The amount of heat energy produced on
complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is
Fig. 6.14 : Goldsmith blowing through a called its calorific value. The calorific
metallic pipe value of a fuel is expressed in a unit

Table 6.3 : Types of Fuels

S. No. Solid Fuels Liquid Fuels Gaseous Fuels

1. Coal Kerosene oil Natural gas

2.
3.

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called kilojoule per kg (kJ/kg). particles. These fine particles are
Calorific values of some fuels are given dangerous pollutants causing
in Table 6.4. respiratory diseases, such as asthma.
2. Incomplete combustion of these
Table 6.4 : Calorific Values of different fuels gives carbon monoxide gas. It is a
Fuels
very poisonous gas. It is dangerous to
Fuel Calorific Value burn coal in a closed room. The carbon
(kJ/kg)
monoxide gas produced can kill persons
sleeping in that room.
Cow dung cake 6000-8000
Wood 17000-22000 Oh! So, that is why we are
Coal 25000-33000 advised never to sleep in a
Petrol 45000 room with burning or
smouldering coal fire in it.
Kerosene 45000
Diesel 45000 3. Combustion of most fuels releases
Methane 50000 carbon dioxide in the environment.
CNG 50000 Increased concentration of carbon
LPG 55000 dioxide in the air is believed to cause
Biogas 35000-40000 global warming.
Hydrogen 150000 Global warming is the rise in
temperature of the atmosphere of the
Burning of Fuels Leads to Harmful earth. This results, among other things,
Products in the melting of polar glaciers, which
leads to a rise in the sea level, causing
The increasing fuel consumption has floods in the coastal areas. Low lying
harmful effects on the environment. coastal areas may even be permanently
1. Carbon fuels like wood, coal, submerged under water.
petroleum release unburnt carbon
4. Burning of coal and diesel releases
For centuries, wood was used as
sulphur dioxide gas. It is an extremely
domestic and industrial fuel. But now
it has been replaced by coal and other suffocating and corrosive gas. Moreover,
fuels like LPG. In many rural parts of petrol engines give off gaseous oxides of
our country, people still use wood as a nitrogen. Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen
fuel because of its easy availability and dissolve in rain water and form acids.
low cost. However, burning of wood gives Such rain is called acid rain. It is very
a lot of smoke which is very harmful for
harmful for crops, buildings and soil. You
human beings. It causes respiratory
problem. Also, trees provide us with have already learnt about it in Class VII.
useful substances which are lost when The use of diesel and petrol as fuels
wood is used as fuel. Moreover cutting in automobiles is being replaced by
of trees leads to deforestation which is CNG (Compressed Natural Gas), because
quite harmful to the environment, as CNG produces the harmful products in
you learnt in Class VII.
very small amounts. CNG is a cleaner fuel.
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KEYWORDS WHA
WHAT OU HA
YOU
T Y VE LEARNT
HAVE
ACID RAIN Ü The substances which burn in air are called
combustible.
CALORIFIC VALUE
Ü Oxygen (in air) is essential for combustion.
COMBUSTION Ü During the process of combustion, heat and
light are given out.
DEFORESTATION Ü Ignition temperature is the lowest temperature
at which a combustible substance catches
EXPLOSION fire.
Ü Inflammable substances have very low
FLAME
ignition temperature.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER Ü Fire can be controlled by removing one or more
requirements essential for producing fire.
FUEL Ü Water is commonly used to control fires.
Ü Water cannot be used to control fires involving
FUEL EFFICIENCY
electrical equipment or oils.
GLOBAL WARMING Ü There are various types of combustions such
as rapid combustion, spontaneous
IDEAL FUEL combustion, explosion, etc.
Ü There are three different zones of a flame -
IGNITION
dark zone, luminous zone and non-luminous
TEMPERATURE
zone.
INFLAMMABLE Ü An ideal fuel is cheap, readily available, readily
SUBSTANCES combustible and easy to transport. It has high
calorific value. It does not produce gases or
residues that pollute the environment.
Ü Fuels differ in their efficiency and cost.
Ü Fuel efficiency is expressed in terms of its
calorific value which is expressed in units of
kilojoule per kg.
Ü Unburnt carbon particles in air are dangerous
pollutants causing respiratory problems.
Ü Incomplete combustion of a fuel gives
poisonous carbon monoxide gas.
Ü Increased percentage of carbon dioxide in air
has been linked to global warming.
Ü Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen produced by
the burning of coal, diesel and petrol cause
acid rain which is harmful for crops, buildings
and soil.

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 Exercises

1. List conditions under which combustion can take place.

2. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Burning of wood and coal causes of air.
(b) A liquid fuel, used in homes is .
(c) Fuel must be heated to its before it starts
burning.
(d) Fire produced by oil cannot be controlled by .
3. Explain how the use of CNG in automobiles has reduced pollution in
our cities.
4. Compare LPG and wood as fuels.
5. Give reasons.
(a) Water is not used to control fires involving electrical equipment.
(b) LPG is a better domestic fuel than wood.
(c) Paper by itself catches fire easily whereas a piece of paper wrapped
around an aluminium pipe does not.
6. Make a labelled diagram of a candle flame.
7. Name the unit in which the calorific value of a fuel is expressed.
8. Explain how CO2 is able to control fires.
9. It is difficult to burn a heap of green leaves but dry leaves catch fire easily.
Explain.
10. Which zone of a flame does a goldsmith use for melting gold and silver
and why?
11. In an experiment 4.5 kg of a fuel was completely burnt. The heat produced
was measured to be 180,000 kJ. Calculate the calorific value of the fuel.
12. Can the process of rusting be called combustion? Discuss.
13. Abida and Ramesh were doing an experiment in which water was to be
heated in a beaker. Abida kept the beaker near the wick in the yellow part
of the candle flame. Ramesh kept the beaker in the outermost part of the
flame. Whose water will get heated in a shorter time?

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 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects
1. Survey the availability of various fuels in your locality. Find out
their cost per kg and prepare a tabular chart showing how many
kJ of various fuels you can get for every rupee.
2. Find out the number, type and location of fire extinguishers available
in your school, nearby shops and factories. Write a brief report about
the preparedness of these establishments to fight fire.
3. Survey 100 houses in your area. Find the percentage of households
using LPG, kerosene, wood and cattle dung as fuel.
4. Talk to people who use LPG at home. Find out what precautions
they take in using LPG.
5. Make a model of a fire extinguisher. Place a short candle and a
slightly taller candle in a small dish filled with baking soda. Place
the dish at the bottom of a large bowl. Light both the candles. Then
pour vinegar into the dish of baking soda. Take care. Do not pour
vinegar on the candles. Observe the foaming reaction. What happens
to the candles? Why? In what order?

baking soda +
vinegar

Fig. 6.15

For more information, visit:

l www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem03/chem03767.htm
l http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/combustion

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 CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

W
e saw in Class VII that Some natural causes of deforestation
Paheli and Boojho had visited are forest fires and severe droughts.
the forest along with Professor
Ahmad and Tibu. They were eager to Activity 7.1
share their experiences with their
Add more causes of deforestation to
classmates. Other children in the class
your list and classify them into
were also eager to share their experiences
natural and man-made.
as some of them had visited Bharatpur
Sanctuary. Some others had heard
about Kaziranga National Park, 7.2 Consequences of
Lockchao Wildlife Sanctuary, Great Deforestation
Nicobar Biosphere Reserve and Tiger Paheli and Boojho recalled the
Reserve, etc. consequences of deforestation. They
remembered that deforestation increases
the temperature and pollution level on
What is the purpose of the earth. It increases the level of carbon
making national parks, dioxide in the atmosphere. Ground water
wildlife sanctuaries and level also gets lowered. They know that
biosphere reserves? deforestation disturbs the balance in
nature. They were told by Professor
7.1 Deforestation and Its Ahmad that if cutting of trees continues,
Causes rainfall and the fertility of the soil will
A great variety of plants and animals
exist on earth. They are essential for the
well-being and survival of mankind. How does deforestation reduce
Today, a major threat to survival of these rainfall on the one hand and
organisms is deforestation. We know lead to floods on the other?
that deforestation means clearing of
forests and using that land for other decr ease. Moreover, there will be
purposes. Trees in the forest are cut for increased chances of natural calamities
some of the purposes mentioned below: such as floods and droughts.
l Procuring land for cultivation. Recall that plants need carbon
l Building houses and factories. dioxide for photosynthesis. Fewer trees
l Making furniture or using wood as would mean that less carbon dioxide will
fuel. be used up resulting in its increased

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amount in the atmosphere. This will lead Biosphere is that part of the earth in
to global warming as carbon dioxide which living organisms exist or which
traps the heat rays reflected by the earth. supports life. Biological diversity or
The increase in temperature on the earth biodiversity, refers to the variety of
disturbs the water cycle and may reduce organisms existing on the earth, their
rainfall. This could cause droughts. interrelationships and their
Deforestation is a major cause which relationship with the environment.
leads to the change in soil properties.
Physical properties of the soil get affected Professor Ahmad organises a visit to
by plantation and vegetation. Recall from a biosphere reserve for Paheli, Boojho and
Class VII how trees prevent soil erosion. their classmates. He selects a place
Fewer trees result in more soil erosion. named Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve. He
Removal of the top layer of the soil exposes knows that the plants and animals found
the lower, hard and rocky layers. This soil here are similar to those of the upper
has less humus and is less fertile. Himalayan peaks and to those belonging
Gradually the fertile land gets converted to the lower western ghats. Professor
into deserts. It is called desertification. Ahmad believes that the biodiversity
Deforestation also leads to a decrease found here is unique. He requests
in the water holding capacity of the soil. Madhavji, a forest employee, to guide the
The movement of water from the soil children inside the biosphere reserve. He
explains that preserving areas of such
surface into the ground (infiltration rate)
biological importance make them a part
is reduced. So, there are floods. The
of our national heritage.
other properties of the soil like nutrient
Madhavji explains to the children
content, texture etc., also change
that apart from our personal efforts and
because of deforestation.
efforts of the society, government
We have studied in Class VII that we
get many products from forests. List these To protect our flora and fauna and their
products. Will we face shortage of these habitats, protected areas called
products if we continue cutting trees? wildlife sanctuaries, national parks
and biosphere reserves have been
Activity 7.2 earmarked. Plantation, cultivation,
grazing, felling trees, hunting and
Animal life is also affected by poaching are prohibited there.
deforestation. How? List the points Wildlife Sanctuary : Areas where
and discuss them in your class. animals are protected from any
disturbance to them and their habitat.
National Park : Areas reserved for
7.3 Conservation of Forest
wild life where they can freely use the
and Wildlife habitats and natural resources.
Having become aware of the effects of Biosphere Reserve : Large areas of
deforestation, Paheli and Boojho are protected land for conservation of wild
worried. They go to Professor Ahmad life, plant and animal resources and
traditional life of the tribals living in
and ask him how forests and wildlife
the area.
can be saved.
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agencies also take care of the forests and 7.4 Biosphere Reserve
animals. The government lays down
rules, methods and policies to protect Children along with Professor Ahmad
and conserve them. Wildlife sanctuaries, and Madhavji enter the biosphere
national parks, biosphere reserves etc., reserve area. Madhavji explains that
are protected areas for conservation biosphere reserves are the areas meant
of plants and animals present in for conservation of biodiversity. As you
that area. are aware that biodiversity is the variety
of plants, animals and microorganisms
Activity 7.3 generally found in an area. The
biosphere reserves help to maintain the
Find out the number of national biodiversity and culture of that area. A
parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserve may also contain
biosphere reserves in your district, other protected areas in it. The
state and country. Record in Table Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve consists
of one national park named Satpura and
7.1. Show these areas in an outline
two wildlife sanctuaries named Bori and
map of your state and India.
Pachmarhi (Fig. 7.1).

Table 7.1 : Protected Areas for Conservation

Protected Areas — National Park Wildlife Sanctuary Biosphere Reserve

In my district

In my state

In my country

↑N PACHMARHI SANCTUARY
TAWA
TO PIPARIYA
RESERVIOR
NEEMGHAN
PANARPANI GATE
SATPURA NATIONAL PARK
CHURNA PACHMARHI
DHAIN BORI
BORI SANCTUARY

Fig. 7.1 : Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve

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Activity 7.4 green wealth of the forest. They are
very happy to see tall teak trees and
List the factors disturbing the animals inside the forest. Suddenly,
biodiversity of your area. Some of Paheli finds a rabbit and wants to
these factors and human activities catch it. She starts running after it.
may disturb the biodiversity P r o f e s s o r A h m a d s t o p s h e r. H e
unknowingly. List these human
explains that animals are comfortable
activities. How can these be checked?
and happy in their own habitat. We
Discuss in your class and write a
should not disturb them. Madhavji
brief report in your notebook.
explains that some animals and plants
typically belong to a particular area.
7.5 Flora and Fauna The plants and animals found in a
As the children walk around the particular area are termed flora and
biosphere reserve they appreciate the fauna respectively of that area.

Sal, teak, mango, jamun, silver ferns, arjun, etc., are the flora and chinkara, blue-
bull, barking deer, cheetal, leopard, wild dog, wolf, etc. are examples of the fauna
of the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve (Fig. 7.2).

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 7.2 : (a) Wild dog (b) Cheetal (c) Wolf (d) Leopard (e) Fern (f) Jamun tree

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Activity 7.5
Try to identify the flora and fauna
of your area and list them.
I have heard that some of the
endemic species may vanish.
7.6 Endemic Species Is it true?
Soon the group quietly enters the deep
endemic flora of the Pachmarhi
forest. Children are surprised to see a
very big squirrel. This squirrel has a big Biosphere Reserve. Bison, Indian giant
fluffy tail. They are very curious to know squirrel [Fig. 7.3 (b)] and flying squirrel
about it. Madhavji tells them that this are endemic fauna of this area. Professor
is known as the giant squirrel and is Ahmad explains that the destruction of
endemic to this area. their habitat, increasing population and
Endemic species are those species introduction of new species may affect
of plants and animals which are found the natural habitat of endemic species
exclusively in a particular area. They are and endanger their existence.
not naturally found anywhere else. A
particular type of animal or plant may
be endemic to a zone, a state or a country.
Madhavji shows sal and wild mango
(Fig. 7.3 (a)] as two examples of the

Fig. 7.3 (b) : Giant squirrel

Species is a group of population

which are capable of interbreeding.
This means that the members of a
species can reproduce fertile offspring
only with the members of their own
species and not with members of
other species. Members of a species
have common characteristics.

Activity 7.6
Find out the endemic plants and
animals of the region where you live.
Fig. 7.3 (a) : Wild Mango
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7.7 Wildlife Sanctuary instead of their natural habitat? In
Soon Paheli sees a board with ‘Pachmarhi your opinion, will the animals be
Wildlife Sanctuary’ written on it. comfortable in a zoo or in their
Professor Ahmad explains that killing natural habitat?
(poaching) or capturing animals in general
is strictly prohibited and punishable 7.8 National Park
by law in all such places. Wildlife On the roadside there was another
Sanctuaries like reserve forests provide board on which was written ‘Satpura
protection and suitable living conditions National Park’.
to wild animals. He also tells them that Children are now eager to go there.
people living in wildlife sanctuaries are Madhavji tells them that these reserves
allowed to do certain activities such as are large and diverse enough to protect
grazing by their livestock, collecting whole sets of ecosystems. They preserve
medicinal plants, firewood, etc. flora, fauna, landscape and historic
objects of an area. Satpura National
Some of the threatened wild animals
Park is the first Reserve Forest of India.
like black buck, white eyed buck,
elephant, golden cat, pink headed
The finest Indian teak is found in this
duck, gharial, marsh crocodile, forest. There are more than one hundred
python, rhinoceros, etc., are National Parks in India.
protected and preserved in our wild
life sanctuaries. Indian sanctuaries Rock shelters are also found inside
have unique landscapes—broad level the Satpura National Park. These are
forests, mountain forests and bush evidences of prehistoric human life
lands in deltas of big rivers. in these jungles. These give us an
idea of the life of primitive people.
It is a pity that even protected forests Rock paintings are found in these
are not safe because people living in the shelters. A total of 55 rock shelters
neighbourhood encroach upon them have been identified in Pachmarhi
and destroy them. Biosphere Reserve.
Children are reminded of their visit Figures of animals and men
fighting, hunting, dancing and
to the zoo. They recall that zoos are also
playing musical instruments are
places where animals receive protection. depicted in these paintings. Many
tribals still live in the area.

What is the difference between As children move ahead, they see a

a zoo and a wildlife sanctuary? board with ‘Satpura Tiger Reserve’
written on it. Madhavji explains that
Activity 7.7 Project Tiger was launched by the
government to protect the tigers in the
Visit a nearby zoo. Observe the
country. The objective of this project
conditions provided to the animals.
was to ensure the survival and
Were they suitable for the animals?
maintenance of the tiger population in
Can animals live in artificial setting
the country.
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 Are tigers still found in this
forest? I hope I can see a tiger!

Tiger (Fig. 7.4) is one of the many

species which are slowly disappearing
from our forests. But, the Satpura Tiger
Reserve is unique in the sense that a
significant increase in the population of
tigers has been seen here. Once upon a
Fig. 7.6 : Barasingha
time, animals like lions, elephants, wild
animals has become difficult because of
disturbances in their natural habitat.
Professor Ahmad tells them that in order
to protect plants and animals strict rules
are imposed in all National Parks.
Human activities such as grazing,
poaching, hunting, capturing of animals
or collection of firewood,
mdicinal plants, etc. are
not allowed
Fig. 7.4 : Tiger
buffaloes (Fig. 7.5) and barasingha (Fig. Are only big animals
facing extinction?
7.6) were also found in the Satpura
National Park. Animals whose numbers Madhavji tells Paheli that small
are diminishing to a level that they might animals are much more in danger of
face extinction are known as the becoming extinct than the bigger
endangered animals. Boojho is animals. At times, we kill snakes,
reminded of the dinosaurs which became frogs, lizards, bats and owls ruthlessly
extinct a long time ago. Survival of some without realising their importance in
the ecosystem. By killing them we are
harming ourselves. They might be
small in size but their role in the
ecosystem cannot be ignored. They
form part of food chains and food
webs, about which you learnt in
Class VII.
An ecosystem is made of all the
plants, animals and microorganisms in
an area along with non-living
components such as climate, soil,
Fig. 7.5 : Wild buffalo river deltas etc.
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 Reservoir to relax for some time. Paheli
observes some of the birds near the
river. Madhavji tells the children that
these are migratory birds. These birds
I wonder if there is
any record of all have flown here from other parts of
endangered species! the world.
Migratory birds fly to far away areas
every year during a particular time
because of climatic changes. They fly
7.9 Red Data Book for laying eggs as the weather in their
natural habitat becomes very cold and
Professor Ahmad explains about Red inhospitable. Birds who cover long
Data Book to the children. He tells distances to reach another land are
them that Red Data Book is the known as migratory birds as Paheli
source book which keeps a record of learnt in Class VII.
all the endangered animals and
plants. Red Data Book is maintained 7.11 Recycling of Paper
internationally by an organisation.
India also maintains Red Data Book Professor Ahmad draws attention of
for plants and animals found the children to another cause of
deforestation. He tells them that it
in India.
takes 17 full grown trees to make one
7.10 Migration tonne of paper. Therefore, we should
save paper. Professor Ahmad also tells
The excursion party then enters deeper that paper can be recycled five to seven
into the forest under the guidance of times for use. If each student saves at
Madhavji. They sit near the Tawa least one sheet of paper in a day, we
can save many trees in a year. We
should save, reuse used paper and
recycle it. By this we not only save
trees but also save energy and water
needed for manufacturing paper.
What would happen if we
Moreover, the amount of har mful
had no wood? Is there
chemicals used in paper making will
any alternative
available to wood? also be reduced.
I know that paper is one
of the important products
we get from forests.
I wonder whether Is there any permanent
there are any alternatives solution to the problem
available for paper! of deforestation?

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7.12 Reforestation retain our green wealth for future
generations, plantation of more trees is
Professor Ahmad suggests that the the only option.
answer to deforestation is reforestation. Professor Ahmad told them that in
Reforestation is restocking of the India we have the Forest (Conservation)
destroyed forests by planting new trees. Act. This act is aimed at preservation
The planted trees should generally be and conservation of natural forests and
of the same species which were found meeting the basic needs of the people
in that forest. We should plant at least living in or near the forests.
as many trees as we cut. Reforestation After some rest Madhavji asks the
can take place naturally also. If the children to start heading back because
deforested area is left undisturbed, it re- it is not advisable to stay in the
establishes itself. In natural reforestation jungle after sunset. On getting back,
there is no role of human beings. We Professor Ahmad and the children
have already caused tremendous thank Madhavji for guiding them
damage to our forests. If we have to through this exciting experience.

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KEYWORDS WHA
WHAT OU HA
YOU
T Y VE LEARNT
HAVE
BIODIVERSITY Ü Wildlife sanctuary, national park and bio-
BIOSPHERE RESERVE sphere reserve are names given to the areas
meant for conservation and preservation of
DEFORESTATION
forest and wild animals.
DESERTIFICATION Ü Biodiversity refers to the variety of living
organisms in a specific area.
ECOSYSTEM
Ü Plants and animals of a particular area are
ENDANGERED known as the flora and fauna of that area.
SPECIES Ü Endemic species are found only in a particular
area.
ENDEMIC SPECIES
Ü Endangered species are those which are facing
EXTINCT the danger of extinction.
Ü Red Data Book contains a record of
FAUNA
endangered species.
FLORA Ü Migration is the phenomenon of movement of

MIGRATORY BIRDS a species from its own habitat to some other

habitat for a particular time period every year
NATIONAL PARK for a specific purpose like breeding.

RED DATA BOOK Ü We should save, reuse and recycle paper to

save trees, energy and water.
REFORESTATION Ü Reforestation is the restocking of destroyed
forests by planting new trees.
SANCTUARY

Exercises

1. Fill in the blanks.

(a) A place where animals are protected in their natural habitat is
called .
(b) Species found only in a particular area is known as .
(c) Migratory birds fly to far away places because of changes.
2. Differentiate between the following.
(a) Wildlife sanctuary and biosphere reserve
(b) Zoo and wildlife sanctuary
(c) Endangered and extinct species
(d) Flora and fauna
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 3. Discuss the effects of deforestation on the following.
EXERCISES
(a) Wild animals

(b) Environment

(c) Villages (Rural areas)

(d) Cities (Urban areas)

(e) Earth

(f) The next generation

4. What will happen if.

(a) we go on cutting trees.

(b) the habitat of an animal is disturbed.

(c) the top layer of soil is exposed.

5. Answer in brief.

(a) Why should we conserve biodiversity?

(b) Protected forests are also not completely safe for wild animals. Why?

(c) Some tribals depend on the jungle. How?

(d) What are the causes and consequences of deforestation?

(e) What is Red Data Book?

(f) What do you understand by the term migration?

6. In order to meet the ever-increasing demand in factories and for shelter,

trees are being continually cut. Is it justified to cut trees for such projects?
Discuss and prepare a brief report.

7. How can you contribute to the maintenance of green wealth of your locality?
Make a list of actions to be taken by you.

8. Explain how deforestation leads to reduced rainfall.

9. Find out about national parks in your state. Identify and show their location
on the outline map of India.

10. Why should paper be saved? Prepare a list of ways by which you can save
paper.

CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 87

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 11. Complete the word puzzle.

EXERCISES
Down
1. Species on the verge of extinction.
2. A book carrying information about endangered species.
5. Consequence of deforestation.
Across
1. Species which have vanished.
3. Species found only in a particular habitat.
4. Variety of plants, animals and microorganisms found in an area.

Extended Learning - Activities and Projects

1. Plant at least five different plants in your locality during this
academic year and ensure their maintenance till they grow.
2. Promise yourself that this year you will gift at least 5 plants to your
friends and relatives on their achievements, or on occasions like
birthdays. Ask your friends to take proper care of these plants and
encourage them to gift plants to their friends on such occasions. At
the end of the year count the plants that have been gifted through
this chain.

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 3. Is it justified to prevent tribals from staying in the core area of the
forest? Discuss the matter in your class and note down the points for
and against the motion in your notebook.
4. Study the biodiversity of a park nearby. Prepare a detailed report with
photographs and sketches of the flora and fauna.

5. Make a list of the new information you have gathered from this chapter.
Which information did you find the most interesting and why?
6. Make a list of various uses of papers. Observe currency notes carefully.
Do you find any difference between a currency paper and paper of your
notebook? Find out where currency paper is made.
7. Karnataka Government had launched ‘Project Elephant’ to save Asian
elephants in the state. Find out about this and other such campaigns
launched to protect threatened species.

Did You Know?

1. India has more than half of the world’s wild tigers, 65% of the Asian
elephants, 85% of the great one-horned rhinoceros and 100% of the
Asian lions.
2. India is sixth on a list of 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the world. It
contains two of the 34 biodiversity hotspots of the world – Eastern
Himalayas and the Western Ghats. These areas are very rich in
biodiversity.
3. One of the most important factors that threatens wildlife today is habitat
destruction due to encroachment.
4. India contains 172 species of animals considered globally threatened
or 2.9% of the world’s total number of threatened species. Eastern
Himalayas hotspot has merely 163 globally threatened species
including several animal and plant species. India contains globally
important population of some of Asia’s rarest animals such as the
Bengal fox, Marbled cat, Asiatic lion, Indian elephant, Asiatic wild ass,
Indian rhinoceros, gaur, Wild asiatic water buffalo, etc.
For knowing more, you may contact:
l Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Govt. of India
Environment, Forest and Wildlife Department
Indira Paryavaran Bhavan, Jor Bagh Road, New Delhi -110003
Website: http://envfor.nic.in

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 CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Y
ou have already learnt that things These boxes appeared like a honey-
around us are either living or comb. He also noticed that one box was
non-living. Further, you may separated from the other by a wall or
recall that all living organisms carry out partition. Hooke coined the term ‘cell’
certain basic functions. Can you list for each box. What Hooke observed as
these functions? boxes or cells in the cork were actually
Different sets of organs perform the dead cells.
various functions you have listed. In this Cells of living organisms could be
chapter, you shall learn about the basic observed only after the discovery of
structural unit of an organ, which is the improved microscopes. Very little was
cell. Cells may be compared to bricks. known about the cell for the next 150
Bricks are assembled to make a building. years after Robert Hooke’s observations.
Similarly, cells are assembled to make Today, we know a lot about cell
the body of every organism. structure and its functions because of
improved microscopes having high
8.1 Discovery of the Cell magnification.
Robert Hooke in 1665 observed slices of
cork under a simple magnifying device.
8.2 The Cell
Cork is a part of the bark of a Both, bricks in a building and cells in
tree. He took thin slices of cork and the living organisms, are basic
observed them under a microscope. He structural units [Fig. 8.2(a), (b)]. The
noticed partitioned boxes or buildings, though built of similar bricks,
compartments in the cork slice (Fig. 8.1). have different designs, shapes and sizes.
Similarly, in the living world, organisms
differ from one another but all are made
up of cells. Cells in the living organisms
are complex living structures unlike
non-living bricks.

A hen’s egg can be seen

easily. Is it a cell or a
Fig. 8.1: Cork cells as observed by group of cells?
Robert Hooke

2018-19
 (a) Brick wall (b) Onion peel
Fig. 8.2 : Brick wall and onion peel
The egg of a hen represents a single Organisms made of more than one
cell and is big enough to be seen by the cell are called multicellular (multi :
unaided eye. many; cellular : cell) organisms. The
number of cells being less in smaller
8.3 Organisms show Variety organisms does not, in any way, affect
in Cell Number, Shape and the functioning of the organisms. You
Size will be surprised to know that an
How do scientists observe and study the organism with billions of cells begins
living cells? They use microscopes which life as a single cell which is the fertilised
magnify objects. Stains (dyes) are used egg. The fertilised egg cell multiplies and
to colour parts of the cell to study the the number of cells increase as
detailed structure. development proceeds.
There are millions of living Look at Fig 8.3 (a) and (b). Both
organisms. They are of different shapes organisms are made up of a single cell.
and sizes. Their organs also vary in The single-celled organisms are called
shape, size and number of cells. Let us unicellular (uni : one; cellular : cell)
study about some of them.
Number of Cells
Can you guess the number of cells in a
tall tree or in a huge animal like the
elephant? The number runs into
billions and trillions. Human body has
trillions of cells which vary in shapes
and sizes. Different groups of cells
perform a variety of functions.
A billion is a thousand million. A (a) (b)
trillion is a thousand billion.
Fig. 8.3 : (a) Amoeba (b) Paramecium
CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 91

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organisms. A single-celled organism
performs all the necessary functions The change in shape is due to
that multicellular organisms perform. formation of pseudopodia which
facilitates movement and help
A single-celled organism, like
in capturing food.
amoeba, captures and digests food,
respires, excretes, grows and
reproduces. Similar functions in A white blood cell (WBC) in human
multicellular organisms are carried out blood is another example of a single cell
by groups of specialised cells forming which can change its shape. But while
different tissues. Tissues, in turn, form WBC is a cell, amoeba is a full fledged
organs. organism capable of independent
existence.
Activity 8.1 What shape would you expect in
organisms with millions of cells? Fig.
The teacher may show a permanent 8.4 (a, b, c) shows different cells such
slide of amoeba and paramecium as blood, muscle and nerve of human
under a microscope. Alternatively, beings. The different shapes are related
the teacher can collect pond water to their specific functions.
and show these organisms by Generally, cells are round, spherical
preparing the slides. or elongated [Fig. 8.4(a)]. Some cells are
long and pointed at both ends. They
Shape of Cells exhibit a spindle shape [Fig. 8.4(b)].
Cells sometimes are quite long. Some
Refer to Fig. 8.3 (a). How do you define are branched like the nerve cell or a
the shape of amoeba in the figure? You neuron [Fig. 8.4(c)]. The nerve cell
may say that the shape appears receives and transfers messages, thereby
irr egular. Infact, amoeba has no
definite shape, unlike other organisms.
It keeps on changing its shape.
Observe the projections of varying
lengths protruding out of its
body. These are called pseudopodia
(pseudo : false; podia : feet), as you (a)
learnt in Class VII. These projections
appear and disappear as amoeba
moves or feeds.
(c)
(b)

What advantage does Fig. 8.4 : (a) Spherical red blood cells
amoeba derive by of humans, (b) Spindle
changing shape? shaped muscle cells,
(c) Long branched nerve cell
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helping to control and coordinate the the elephant be much bigger than those
working of different parts of the body. in a rat. The size of the cell is related to
Can you guess, which part of the cell its function. For example, nerve cells,
gives it shape? Components of the cell both in the elephant and rat, are long
are enclosed in a membrane. This and branched. They perform the same
membrane provides shape to the cells function, that of transferring messages.
of plants and animals. Cell wall is an
additional covering over the cell 8.4 Cell Structure and
membrane in plant cells. It gives shape Function
and rigidity to these cells (Fig. 8.7).
You have lear nt that each living
Bacterial cell also has a cell wall.
organism has many organs. You have
Size of Cells studied in Class VII about the digestive
The size of cells in living organisms may organs which together constitute the
be as small as a millionth of a metre digestive system. Each organ in the
(micrometre or micron) or may be as large system performs different functions
as a few centimetres. However, most of the such as digestion, assimilation and
cells are microscopic in size and are not absorption. Similarly, different organs
of a plant perform specific/specialised
visible to the unaided eye. They need to
functions. For example, roots help in the
be enlarged or magnified by a microscope.
absorption of water and minerals.
The smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometre
Leaves, as you have learnt in Class VII,
in bacteria. The largest cell measuring
are responsible for synthesis of food.
170 mm ×130 mm, is the egg of an ostrich.
Each organ is further made up of
smaller parts called tissues. A tissue is
Activity 8.2
a group of similar cells performing a
Boil a hen’s egg. Remove the shell. specific function.
What do you observe? A white Paheli realised that an organ is made
material surrounds the yellow part. up of tissues which in turn, are made
White material is albumin which up of cells. The cell in a living organism
solidifies on boiling. The yellow part is the basic structural unit.
is yolk. It is part of the single cell.
You can observe this single cell 8.5 Parts of the Cell
without any magnifying device. Cell Membrane
The basic components of a cell are cell
membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus
(Fig. 8.7). The cytoplasm and nucleus
Are the cells in an are enclosed within the cell membrane,
elephant larger than the
also called the plasma membrane. The
cells in a rat?
membrane separates cells from one
The size of the cells has no relation another and also the cell from the
with the size of the body of the animal or surrounding medium. The plasma
plant. It is not necessary that the cells in membrane is porous and allows the
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movement of substances or materials between the nucleus and the cell
both inward and outward. membrane is called cytoplasm.

Activity 8.3
In order to observe the basic I want to know why plant
components of the cell, take an cells need cell walls?
onion bulb. Remove the dry pink
coverings (peels). You can easily You have learnt earlier that the cell
separate these from the fleshy white membrane gives shape to the cell. In
layers of the bulb with the help of addition to the cell membrane, there is
forceps or even with your hand. You an outer thick layer in cells of plants
can also break the onion bulb and called cell wall. This additional layer
separate out thin layers. Place a surrounding the cell membrane is
small piece of the thin onion peel required by plants for protection. Plant
in a drop of water on a glass slide. cells need protection against variations
The thin layer can be cut into in temperature, high wind speed,
smaller pieces with the help of a atmospheric moisture etc. They
blade or forceps. Add a drop of are exposed to these variations
methylene blue solution to the layer because they cannot move. Cells can
and place a coverslip on it. While be observed in the leaf peel of
placing the coverslip ensure that Tradescantia, Elodea or Rhoeo. You
there are no air bubbles under the can prepare a slide as in the case
coverslip. Observe the slide under of onion.
the microscope. Draw and label. You Paheli asks Boojho if he can also
may compare it with Fig. 8.5. observe animal cells.

The boundary of the onion cell is the Activity 8.4

cell membrane covered by another thick
covering called the cell wall. The central Take a clean tooth pick, or a
dense round body in the centre is called matchstick with the tip broken.
the nucleus. The jelly-like substance Scrape inside of your cheek without
hurting it. Place it in a drop of water
on a glass slide. Add a drop of iodine
and place a coverslip over it.
nucleus Alternatively, add 1-2 drops of
methylene blue solution. Observe it
under the microscope. You may
notice several cells in the scraped
cytoplasm
material (Fig. 8.6). You can identify
the cell membrane, the cytoplasm
and nucleus. A cell wall is absent
in animal cells.
Fig. 8.5 : Cells observed in an onion peel
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 Gene
nuclear cytoplasm
membrane Gene is a unit of inheritance in living
organisms. It controls the transfer of
a hereditary characteristic from
parents to offspring. This means that
your parents pass some of their
characteristics on to you. If your father
nucleus has brown eyes, you may also have
cell
membrane
brown eyes. If your mother has curly
hair, you might also end up having
curly hair. However, the different
Fig. 8.6 : Human cheek cells combination of genes from parents
result in different characteristics.
Cytoplasm
Nucleus, in addition to its role in
It is the jelly-like substance present inheritance, acts as control centre of the
between the cell membrane and the activities of the cell. The entire content
nucleus. Various other components, or of a living cell is known as protoplasm.
organelles, of cells are present in the It includes the cytoplasm and the
cytoplasm. These are mitochondria, golgi nucleus. Protoplasm is called the living
bodies, ribosomes, etc. You will learn substance of the cell.
about them in later classes.

Nucleus
Paheli wants to know if the
It is an important component of the structure of the nucleus is
living cell. It is generally spherical and the same in cells of plants,
located in the centre of the cell. It can animals and bacteria.
be stained and seen easily with the help
of a microscope. Nucleus is separated The nucleus of the bacterial cell is
from the cytoplasm by a membrane not well-organised like the cells of
called the nuclear membrane. This multicellular organisms. There is no
membrane is also porous and allows the nuclear membrane. The cells having
movement of materials between the nuclear material without nuclear
cytoplasm and the inside of the nucleus. membrane are termed prokaryotic
cells. The organisms with these kinds
With a microscope of higher
of cells are called prokaryotes (pro :
magnification, we can see a smaller primitive; karyon : nucleus). Examples
spherical body in the nucleus. It is called are bacteria and blue green algae. The
the nucleolus. In addition, nucleus cells, like onion cells and cheek cells
contains thread-like structures called having well-organised nucleus with
chromosomes. These carry genes and a nuclear membrane are designated
help in inheritance or transfer of as eukaryotic cells. All organisms
characters from the parents to the other than bacteria and blue
green algae are called eukaryotes.
offspring. The chromosomes can be seen
(eu : true; karyon: nucleus).
only when the cell divides.
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 While observing the onion cells called chloroplasts. They provide green
under the microscope, did you notice colour to the leaves. You may recall that
any blank-looking structures in the chlorophyll in the chloroplasts of leaves,
cytoplasm? It is called vacuole. It could is essential for photosynthesis.
be single and big as in an onion cell.
Cheek cells have smaller vacuoles. Large 8.6 Comparison of Plant and
vacuoles are common in plant cells. Animal Cells
Vacuoles in animal cells are much
smaller. If you recall Activities 8.3 and 8.4, you
You might have noticed several small should be able to compare plant and
coloured bodies in the cytoplasm of the animal cells. Observe the plant and
cells of T radescantia leaf. They are animal cell carefully in Fig. 8.7 (a), (b).
scattered in the cytoplasm of the leaf Let us tabulate the similarities and
cells. These are called plastids. They are disinguishing features of plant and
of different colours. Some of them animal cells. Only a few features are
contain green pigment called mentioned. You may add mor e in
chlorophyll. Green coloured plastids are Table 8.1.

cell membrane
cell wall

vacuole

nucleus

cell membrane

chloroplast
cytoplasm
(b)
(a)
Fig. 8.7 : (a) Plant cell (b) Animal cell
Table 8.1 : Comparison of Plant Cell and Animal Cell

Sl. No. Part Plant Cell Animal Cell

1. Cell membrane Present Present

2. Cell wall Present Absent
3. Nucleus
4. Nuclear membrane
5. Cytoplasm
6. Plastids
7. Vacuole

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KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
CELL Ü All organisms are made of smaller parts called
CELL MEMBRANE organs.
Ü Organs are made of still smaller parts. The
CELL WALL smallest living part of an organism is a ‘cell’.
CHLOROPLAST Ü Cells were first observed in cork by Robert
Hooke in 1665.
CHROMOSOME
Ü Cells exhibit a variety of shapes and sizes.
CYTOPLASM Ü Number of cells also varies from organism to
organism.
EUKARYOTES
Ü Some cells are big enough to be seen with the
GENE unaided eye. Hen’s egg is an example.
Ü Some organisms are single-celled, while others
MULTICELLULAR
contain large number of cells.
NUCLEAR MEMBRANE Ü The single cell of unicellular organisms
performs all the basic functions performed by
NUCLEOLUS
a variety of cells in multicellular organisms.
NUCLEUS Ü The cell has three main parts: (i) the cell
membrane, (ii) cytoplasm which contains
ORGAN
smaller components called organelles, and
ORGANELLES (iii) the nucleus.
Ü Nucleus is separated from cytoplasm by a
PLASMA MEMBRANE
nuclear membrane.
PLASTID Ü Cells without well-organised nucleus, i.e.
lacking nuclear membrane, are called
PROKARYOTES
prokaryotic cells.
PSEUDOPODIA Ü Plant cells differ from animal cells in having
an additional layer around the cell membrane
TISSUE
termed cell wall.
UNICELLULAR Ü Coloured bodies called plastids are found in
the plant cells only. Green plastids containing
VACUOLE
chlorophyll are called chloroplasts.
WHITE BLOOD CELL Ü Plant cell has a big central vacuole unlike a
(WBC) number of small vacuoles in animal cells.

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 Exercises

1. Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
(a) Unicellular organisms have one-celled body. (T/F)
(b) Muscle cells are branched. (T/F)
(c) The basic living unit of an organism is an organ. (T/F)
(d) Amoeba has irregular shape. (T/F)
2. Make a sketch of the human nerve cell. What function do nerve
cells perform?.
3. Write short notes on the following.
(a) Cytoplasm
(b) Nucleus of a cell
4. Which part of the cell contains organelles?
5. Make sketches of animal and plant cells. State three differences
between them.
6. State the difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
7. Where are chromosomes found in a cell? State their function.
8. ‘Cells are the basic structural units of living organisms’. Explain.
9. Explain why chloroplasts are found only in plant cells?
10. Complete the crossword with the help of clues given below.
Across
1 2
1. This is necessary for C O
photosynthesis.
3. Term for component present
in the cytoplasm.
3
6. The living substance in the O
4
cell. M
5
8. Units of inheritance present V
on the chromosomes. 6
P
7
T
Down
1. Green plastids.
2. Formed by collection of
tissues.
4. It separates the contents of
8
the cell from the surrounding G
medium.
5. Empty structure in the cytoplasm.
7. A group of cells.
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 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects
1. Visit a laboratory for senior secondary students in your school or
in a neighbouring school. Learn about the functioning of a
microscope in the laboratory. Also observe how a slide is observed
under the microscope.
2. Talk to the senior biology teacher in your school or a neighbouring
school. Find out if there are diseases which are passed on from
parents to the offspring. Find out how these are carried and also if
these diseases can be treated. For this you can also visit a doctor.
3. Visit an agriculture extension centre in your area. Find out about
genetically modified (GM) crops. Prepare a short speech for your
class on this topic.
4. Find out about Bt cotton from an agriculture expert. Prepare a
short note on its advantages/disadvantages.

Did You Know?

The cells in the outermost layer of our skin are dead. An average
adult carries around about 2 kg of dead skin. Billions of tiny
fragments of the skin are lost every day. Every time you run your
finger on a dusty table, you shed a lot of old skin.

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 REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

D
o you recall the processes of Table 9.1
digestion, circulation and
respiration which you have S. No. Animal Young one
studied in your previous classes? These 1. Human Baby
processes are essential for the survival
of every individual. You have also learnt 2. Cat
about the process of reproduction in 3. Dog
plants. Reproduction is essential for the
continuation of a species. Imagine what 4. Butterfly
would have happened if organisms had 5. Hen Chick
not reproduced. You will realise that
reproduction is very important as it 6. Cow
ensures the continuation of similar 7. Frog
kinds of individuals, generation after
generation. Just as in plants, there are two modes
You have already learnt in your by which animals reproduce. These are:
previous class about reproduction in (i) Sexual reproduction, and
plants. In this chapter, we shall learn (ii) Asexual reproduction.
how reproduction takes place in
animals. 9.2 Sexual Reproduction
9.1 Modes of Reproduction Try to recall reproduction in plants
which you studied in Class VII. You will
Have you seen the young ones remember that plants that reproduce
of different animals? Try to name some sexually have male and female
of the young ones by completing reproductive parts. Can you name these
Table 9.1 shown in examples at S. No. parts? In animals also, males and
1 and 5. females have different reproductive parts
You must have seen the young or organs. Like plants, the reproductive
ones of various animals being born. parts in animals also produce gametes
Can you tell how chicks and that fuse to form a zygote. It is the zygote
caterpillars are born? How are kittens which develops into a new individual.
and puppies born? Do you think that This type of reproduction beginning
these young ones looked the same from the fusion of male and female
before they were born as they do now? gametes is called sexual reproduction.
Let us find out. Let us find out the reproductive parts

2018-19
in humans and study the process of sperm is a single cell with all the usual
reproduction in them. cell components.

Male Reproductive Organs

Head
The male reproductive organs include a
pair of testes (singular, testis), two sperm
ducts and a penis (Fig. 9.1). The testes Middle piece
produce the male gametes called
sperms. Millions of sperms are produced
by the testes. Look at Fig. 9.2 which
shows the picture of a sperm. Though
sperms are very small in size, each has
Tail
a head, a middle piece and a tail. Does
it appear to be a single cell? Indeed, each
Fig. 9.2 : Human sperm

What purpose does the

tail in a sperm serve?
Sperm
duct
Female Reproductive Organs
The female reproductive organs are a pair
of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes) and
the uterus (Fig. 9.3). The ovary produces
Penis
Oviduct

Ovary
Uterus
Testis
Fig. 9.1: Male reproductive
organs in humans
Fig. 9.3 : Female reproductive organs in
humans

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female gametes called ova (eggs)
(Fig. 9.4). In human beings, a single Sperms
matured egg is released into the oviduct
by one of the ovaries every month.
Uterus is the part where development of
the baby takes place. Like the sperm,
an egg is also a single cell.

Nucleus Ovum

Fig. 9.5 : Fertilisation

you know that the zygote is the

beginning of a new individual?

Fusing
Fig. 9.4 : Human Ovum nuclei

Boojho recalls that the size

of eggs in animals varies.
The egg may be very small
as in humans, much larger
as in hens. Ostrich egg is Fig. 9.6 : Zygote
the largest!
The process of fertilisation is the
meeting of an egg cell from the mother
Fertilisation
and a sperm cell from the father. So,
The first step in the process of the new individual inherits some
reproduction is the fusion of a sperm characteristics from the mother and
and an ovum. When sperms come in some from the father. Look at your
contact with an egg, one of the sperms brother or sister. See if you can recognise
may fuse with the egg. Such fusion of some characters in them similar to those
the egg and the sperm is called of your mother or your father.
fertilisation (Fig. 9.5). During Fertilisation which takes place inside
fertilisation, the nuclei of the sperm and the female body is called internal
the egg fuse to form a single nucleus. fertilisation. Internal fertilisation
This results in the formation of a occurs in many animals including
fertilised egg or zygote (Fig. 9.6). Did humans, cows, dogs and hens.
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 Have you heard of female lays hundreds of eggs. Unlike
test tube babies? hen’s egg, frog’s egg is not covered by a
shell and it is comparatively very
Boojho and Paheli’s teacher once told
delicate. A layer of jelly holds the eggs
them in the class that in some women
oviducts are blocked. These women together and provides protection to the
are unable to bear babies because eggs (Fig. 9.7).
sperms cannot reach the egg for
fertilisation. In such cases, doctors
collect freshly released egg and
sperms and keep them together for a
few hours for IVF or in vitro
fertilisation (fertilisation outside the
body). In case fertilisation occurs,
the zygote is allowed to develop for
about a week and then it is placed in
the mother’s uterus. Complete
development takes place in the uterus
and the baby is born like any other
baby. Babies born through this
technique are called test-tube
babies. This term is actually Fig. 9.7 : Eggs of frog
misleading because babies cannot
grow in test tubes. As the eggs are laid, the male
deposits sperms over them. Each
You will be surprised to know that sperm swims randomly in water with
in many animals fertilisation takes the help of its long tail. The sperms
place outside the body of the female. come in contact with the eggs. This
In these animals, fertilisation takes results in fertilisation. This type of
place in water. Let us find out how fertilisation in which the fusion of a
this happens. male and a female gamete takes place
outside the body of the female is called
Activity 9.1 external fertilisation. It is very
Visit some ponds or slow-flowing common in aquatic animals such as
streams during spring or rainy fish, starfish, etc.
season. Look out for clusters of
f r og’s eggs floating in water.
Write down the colour and size of
the eggs.
Why do fish and
During spring or rainy season, frogs frogs lay eggs in
hundreds whereas a
and toads move to ponds and slow-
hen lays only one
flowing streams. When the male and
egg at a time?
female come together in water, the

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 How could a single cell
Though these animals lay become such a big
hundreds of eggs and release individual?
millions of sperms, all the eggs
do not get fertilised and develop
Development of Embryo
into new individuals. Fertilisation results in the formation of
This is because the eggs and zygote which begins to develop into an
sperms get exposed to water embryo [Fig. 9.8(a)]. The zygote divides
movement, wind and rainfall. repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells
Also, there are other animals in [Fig. 9.8(b)]. The cells then begin to form
the pond which may feed groups that develop into different tissues
on eggs. Thus, production and organs of the body. This developing
of large number of eggs and structure is termed an embryo. The
sperms is necessary to embryo gets embedded in the wall of the
ensure fertilisation uterus for further development
of at least [Fig. 9.8(c)].
a few of them. The embryo continues to develop in
the uterus. It gradually develops body

Uterus

Ovary
Zygote

(b)
Embedding
embryo
Uterus
Ovulation wall

(a)

Developing
embryo

(c)
Fig. 9.8 : (a) Zygote formation and development of an embryo from the zygote; (b) Ball of cells
(enlarged); (c) Embedding of the embryo in the uterus (enlarged)
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parts such as hands, legs, head, eyes, place inside the egg shell during this
ears etc. The stage of the embryo in period? After the chick is completely
which all the body parts can be developed it bursts open the egg shell.
identified is called a foetus (Fig. 9.9). In animals which undergo external
When the development of the foetus is fertilisation, development of the embryo
complete, the mother gives birth to takes place outside the female body. The
the baby. embryos continue to grow within their
egg coverings. After the embryos develop,
the eggs hatch. You must have seen
Uterus
numerous tadpoles swimming in ponds
and streams.
Viviparous and Oviparous Animals
We have learnt that some animals give
birth to young ones while some animals
lay eggs which later develop into young
ones. The animals which give birth to
young ones are called viviparous
animals. Those animals which lay eggs
are called oviparous animals. The
following activity will help you
understand better and differentiate
Fig. 9.9 : Foetus in the uterus between viviparous and oviparous
animals.
Internal fertilisation takes place in
hens also. But, do hens give birth to Activity 9.2
babies like human beings and cows? You
Try to observe eggs of the following
know that they do not. Then, how are
organisms – frog, lizard, butterfly
chicks born? Let us find out.
or moth, hen and crow or any other
Soon after fertilisation, the zygote
bird. Were you able to observe eggs
divides repeatedly and travels down the
of all of them? Make drawings of the
oviduct. As it travels down, many eggs that you have observed.
protective layers are formed around it.
The hard shell that you see in a hen’s The eggs of a few animals are easy
egg is one such protective layer. to observe because their mothers lay
After the hard shell is formed around them outside their bodies. These are
the developing embryo, the hen finally examples of oviparous animals. But you
lays the egg. The embryo takes about 3 would not be able to collect the eggs of
weeks to develop into a chick. You must a dog, cow or cat. This is because they
have seen the hen sitting on the eggs to do not lay eggs. The mother gives birth
provide sufficient warmth. Did you know to the young ones. These are examples
that development of the chick takes of viviparous animals.

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 Can you now give some more features that are present in the adult are
examples of viviparous and oviparous not found in these young ones. Then what
animals? happens to the tadpoles or caterpillars
thereafter?
Young Ones to Adults You must have seen a beautiful moth
The new individuals which are born or emerging out of the cocoon. In the case of
hatched from the eggs continue to grow tadpoles, they transform into adults
till they become adults. In some capable of jumping and swimming. The
animals, the young ones may look very transformation of the larva into an adult
different from the adults. Recall the life through drastic changes is called
cycle of the silkworm (egg → larva or metamorphosis. What about the changes
caterpillar → pupa → adult) you studied that we observe in our body as we grow?
in Class VII. Frog is another such Do you think we too undergo
example (Fig. 9.10). metamorphosis? In human beings, body
Observe the different stages of frog parts similar to those present in the adults
starting from the egg to the adult stage. are present from the time of birth.
We find that there are three distinct
stages, that is, egg → tadpole (larva) → 9.3 Asexual Reproduction
adult. Don’t the tadpoles look so So far, we have learnt about reproduction
different from the adults? Can you in some familiar animals. But what
imagine that these tadpoles would some about very small animals like hydra and
day become frogs? Similarly, the microscopic organisms like amoeba? Do
caterpillar or the pupa of silkworm looks you know how they reproduce? Let us
very different from the adult moth. The find out.

(b) Early tadpole

(a) Eggs

(c) Late tadpole

(d) Adult frog

Fig. 9.10 : Life cycle of frog

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Activity 9.3
Get permanent slides of
hydra. Observe them using
hand lens or a microscope.
Look out for any bulges
from the parent body.
Count the number of
bulges that you see in
different slides. Also, note
the size of the bulges. Draw
the diagram of hydra, as
you see it. Compare it with
Fig. 9.11 : Budding in Hydra
the Fig. 9.11.

In each hydra, there may be one or

more bulges. These bulges are the
developing new individuals and they are
called buds. Recall the presence of buds
in yeast. In hydra too the new individuals
develop as outgrowths from a single (a)
parent. This type of reproduction in
which only a single parent is involved is
called asexual reproduction. Since new
individuals develop from the buds in Dividing nucleus
hydra, this type of asexual reproduction
is called budding. (b)
Another method of asexual
reproduction is observed in the
microscopic organism, amoeba. Let us
see how this happens.
You have already learnt about the
structure of amoeba. You will recall that (c)
amoeba is a single-celled organism
[Fig. 9.12(a)]. It begins the process of
reproduction by the division of its
nucleus into two nuclei [Fig. 9.12(b)]. Daughter amoebae
This is followed by division of its body
into two, each part receiving a nucleus
[Fig. 9.12(c)]. Finally, two amoebae are
produced from one parent amoeba (d)
[Fig. 9.12(d)]. This type of asexual
Fig. 9.12 : Binary fission in Amoeba
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reproduction in which an animal there are other methods by which a
reproduces by dividing into two single parent reproduces young ones.
individuals is called binary fission. You will study about these in your
Apart from budding and binary fission, higher classes.

Story of Dolly, the Clone

Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell, any other living part, or a
complete organism. Cloning of an animal was successfully performed for the first
time by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh,
Scotland. They successfully cloned a sheep named Dolly [Fig. 9.13 (c)]. Dolly was
born on 5th July 1996 and was the first mammal to be cloned.

(a) Finn Dorsett sheep (b) Scottish blackface ewe (c) Dolly

Fig. 9.13
During the process of cloning Dolly, a cell was collected from the mammary gland
of a female Finn Dorsett sheep [Fig. 9.13 (a)]. Simultaneously, an egg was obtained
from a Scottish blackface ewe [Fig. 9.13 (b)]. The nucleus was removed from the
egg. Then, the nucleus of the mammary gland cell from the Finn Dorsett sheep
was inserted into the egg of the Scottish blackface ewe whose nucleus had been
removed. The egg thus produced was implanted into the Scottish blackface ewe.
Development of this egg followed normally and finally Dolly was born. Though
Dolly was given birth by the Scottish blackface ewe, it was found to be absolutely
identical to the Finn Dorsett sheep from which the nucleus was taken. Since the
nucleus from the egg of the Scottish blackface ewe was removed, Dolly did not
show any character of the Scottish blackface ewe. Dolly was a healthy clone of
the Finn Dorsett sheep and produced several offspring of her own through normal
sexual means. Unfortunately, Dolly died on 14th February 2003 due to a certain
lung disease.
Since Dolly, several attempts have been made to produce cloned mammals.
However, many die before birth or die soon after birth. The cloned animals are
many-a-times found to be born with severe abnormalities.

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KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
ASEXUAL Ü There are two modes by which animals repro-
REPRODUCTION duce. These are: (i) Sexual reproduction, and
(ii) Asexual reproduction.
BINARY FISSION Ü Reproduction resulting from the fusion of male
and female gametes is called sexual
BUDDING reproduction.
Ü The reproductive organs in the female include
EGGS ovaries, oviducts and uterus.
Ü The reproductive organs in male include
EMBRYO testes, sperm ducts and penis.
Ü The ovary produces female gametes called ova
EXTERNAL
and the testes produce male gametes called
FERTILISATION sperms.
Ü The fusion of ovum and sperm is called fertilisation.
FERTILISATION The fertilised egg is called a zygote.
Ü Fertilisation that takes place inside the female
FOETUS
body is called internal fertilisation. This is
observed in human beings and other animals
INTERNAL
such as hens, cows and dogs.
FERTILISATION Ü Fertilisation that takes place outside the
female body is called external fertilisation. This
METAMORPHOSIS is observed in frogs, fish, starfish, etc.
Ü The zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to an
OVIPAROUS ANIMALS
embryo.
Ü The embryo gets embedded in the wall of the
SEXUAL
uterus for further development.
REPRODUCTION Ü The stage of the embryo in which all the body
parts are identifiable is called foetus.
SPERMS
Ü Animals such as human beings, cows and
dogs which give birth to young ones are called
VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS
viviparous animals.
ZYGOTE Ü Animals such as hen, frog, lizard and butterfly
which lay eggs are called oviparous animals.
Ü The transformation of the larva into adult
through drastic changes is called
metamorphosis.
Ü The type of reproduction in which only a single
parent is involved is called asexual
reproduction.
Ü In hydra, new individuals develop from buds.
This method of asexual reproduction is called
budding.
Ü Amoeba reproduces by dividing itself into two.
This type of asexual reproduction is called
binary fission.

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 109

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 Exercises

1. Explain the importance of reproduction in organisms.

2. Describe the process of fertilisation in human beings.

3. Choose the most appropriate answer.
(a) Internal fertilisation occurs

(i) in female body.

(ii) outside female body.
(iii) in male body.

(iv) outside male body.

(b) A tadpole develops into an adult frog by the process of
(i) fertilisation (ii) metamorphosis (iii) embedding (iv) budding

(c) The number of nuclei present in a zygote is

(i) none (ii) one (iii) two (iv) four
4. Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).

(a) Oviparous animals give birth to young ones. ( )

(b) Each sperm is a single cell. ( )
(c) External fertilisation takes place in frog. ( )

(d) A new human individual develops from a cell called gamete. ( )

(e) Egg laid after fertilisation is made up of a single cell. ( )
(f) Amoeba reproduces by budding. ( )

(g) Fertilisation is necessary even in asexual reproduction. ( )

(h) Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction. ( )
(i) A zygote is formed as a result of fertilisation. ( )

(j) An embryo is made up of a single cell. ( )

5. Give two differences between a zygote and a foetus.
6. Define asexual reproduction. Describe two methods of asexual reproduction
in animals.
7. In which female reproductive organ does the embryo get embedded?
8. What is metamorphosis? Give examples.

9. Differentiate between internal fertilisation and external fertilisation.

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 10. Complete the crossword puzzle using the hints given below.
EXERCISES Across

1. The process of the fusion of the gametes.

6. The type of fertilisation in hen.
7. The term used for bulges observed on the sides of the body of hydra.

8. Eggs are produced here.

Down
2. Sperms are produced in these male reproductive organs.

3. Another term for in vitro fertilisation.

4. These animals lay eggs.
5. A type of fission in amoeba.

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Visit a poultry farm. Talk to the manager of the farm and try to find
out the answers to the following.
(a) What are layers and broilers in a poultry farm?
(b) Do hens lay unfertilised eggs?
(c) How can you obtain fertilised and unfertilised eggs?
(d) Are the eggs that we get in the stores fertilised or unfertilised?
(e) Can you consume fertilised eggs?
(f) Is there any difference in the nutritional value of fertilised
and unfertilised eggs?

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 2. Observe live hydra yourself and learn how they reproduce by doing
the following activity:
During the summer months collect water weeds from ponds or ditches
along with the pond water and put them in a glass jar. After a day or
so you may see several hydra clinging to the sides of the jar.
Hydra is transparent, jelly-like and with tentacles. It clings to the
jar with the base of its body. If the jar is shaken, the hydra will
contract instantly into a small blob, at the same time drawing its
tentacles in.
Now take out few hydras from the jar and put them on a watch
glass. Using a hand lens or a binocular or dissection microscope,
observe the changes that are taking place in their body. Note down
your observations.
3. The eggs we get from the market are generally the unfertilised ones.
In case you wish to observe a developing chick embryo, get a fertilised
egg from the poultry or hatchery which has been incubated for 36
hours or more. You may then be able to see a white disc-like structure
on the yolk. This is the developing embryo. Sometimes if the heart
and blood vessels have developed you may even see a red spot.
4. Talk to a doctor. Find out how twinning occurs. Look for any twins
in your neighbourhood, or among your friends. Find out if the twins
are identical or non-identical. Also find out why identical twins are
always of the same sex? If you know of any story about twins, write
it in your own words.
For more information on animal reproduction, you can visit :
l www.saburchill.com
l www.teenshealth.org/teen/sexual-health

Did You Know?

An interesting organisation is observed in a honey bee hive, a colony of several
thousand bees. Only one bee in the colony lays eggs. This bee is called the
queen bee. All other female bees are worker bees. Their main job is to build the
hive, look after the young and feed the queen bee adequately to keep her
healthy so that she can lay eggs. A queen bee lays thousands of eggs. The
fertilised eggs hatch into females, while the unfertilised eggs give rise to males,
called drones. It is the job of the worker bees to maintain the temperature of
the hive at around 35°C to incubate the eggs.

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 SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA

In Class VII, you read about winds, precautions to protect ourselves from
storms and cyclones. You learnt that the deadly sparks.
cyclones can cause a lot of damage to
human life and property. You also The Sparks that the Greeks Knew
About
learnt that we can protect ourselves from
these destructive phenomena to some The ancient Greeks knew as early as
extent. In this chapter we shall discuss 600 B.C. that when amber (amber is a
two other destructive natural kind of resin) was rubbed with fur, it
phenomena. These are lightning and attracted light objects such as hair. You
might have seen that when you take
earthquakes. We shall also discuss what
off woollen or polyester clothes, your
steps we can take to minimise
hair stands on end. If you take off these
destruction caused by these clothes in the dark, you even see a
phenomena. spark and hear a crackling sound. In
1752 Benjamin Franklin, an American
15.1 Lightning scientist, showed that lightning and the
You might have seen sparks on a spark from your clothes are essentially
electric pole when wires become loose. the same phenomena. However, it took
This phenomenon is quite common 2000 years for this realisation to occur.
when wind is blowing and shaking the
wires. You might also have seen sparks
when a plug is loose in its socket. I wonder why they took so
Lightning is also an electric spark, but many years to realise the
on a huge scale. similarity.
In ancient times, people did not
understand the cause of these sparks.
They were, therefore, afraid of lightning
and thought that the wrath of gods was Scientific discoveries are a
visiting them. Now, of course, we result of hardwork by many
people. It can sometimes take
understand that lightning is caused by a long time.
the accumulation of charges in the
clouds. We need not be afraid of We shall now study some properties
lightning, but we have to take of electric charges. We shall also see how

2018-19
they are related to the lightning in the pieces of paper. Take care not to
sky. touch the rubbed end of the refill
Let us perform some activities to with your hand or with a metallic
understand the nature of electric object. Repeat the activity with small
charges. But recall first what you might pieces of dry leaf, husk and mustard
have played as a game. When you rub seeds. Record your observations.
a plastic scale on your dry hair, the
scale can attract very small pieces of When a plastic refill is rubbed with
paper. polythene, it acquires a small electric
charge. Similarly, when a plastic comb
15.2 Charging by Rubbing is rubbed with dry hair, it acquires a
small charge. These objects are called
Activity 15.1 charged objects. In the process of
charging the refill and the plastic comb,
Take a used ballpen refill and rub polythene and hair also get charged.
it vigorously with a piece of
polythene. Bring it close to small Let’s try to charge some other
objects that are familiar to you.

Activity 15.2
Collect the objects and the materials listed in Table 15.1. Try to charge each
by rubbing with the materials mentioned in the Table. Record your findings.
You can add more items to the Table.

Table 15.1

Objects Rubbed Materials Attracts/does not Charged/

Used for Rubbing Attract Pieces Not Charged
of Paper
Refill Polythene,
woollen cloth
Balloon Polythene, woollen
cloth, dry hair

Eraser Wool

Steel spoon Polythene,

woollen cloth

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15.3 Types of Charges and Rub the other refill also with
Their Interaction polythene. Bring it close to the
We will select some objects from Table charged refill. Be careful not to
15.1 for the next activity. touch the charged end with your
hand. Is there any effect on the refill
Activity 15.3 in the tumbler? Do the two attract
each other, or repel each other?
(a) Inflate two balloons. Hang them In this activity we have brought
in such a way that they do not touch close together the charged objects
each other (Fig. 15.1). Rub both the that were made of the same
balloons with a woollen cloth and material. What happens if two
release them. What do you observe? charged objects made of different
materials are brought close to each
other? Let’s find out.
(b) Rub a refill and place it gently
in a glass tumbler as before (Fig.
15.3). Bring an inflated charged
balloon near the refill and observe.

Fig. 15.1 : Like charges repel each other

Now let us repeat this activity
with the used pen refills. Rub one
refill with polythene. Place it
carefully in a glass tumbler using
the tumbler as a stand (Fig. 15.2).
Fig. 15.3 : Unlike charges attract each other

Let’s summarise the observations:

 A charged balloon repelled a charged
balloon.
 A charged refill repelled a charged
refill.
 But a charged balloon attracted a
charged refill.
Does it indicate that the charge on
the balloon is of a different kind from
the charge on the refill? Can we say
Fig. 15.2 : Interaction between like charges then, that there are two kinds of
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charges? Can we also say that the with the end of the paper clip.
charges of the same kind repel each Observe what happens. Is there any
other, while charges of different kind effect on the foil strips? Do they
attract each other? repel each other or attract each
It is a convention to call the charge other? Now, touch other charged
acquired by a glass rod when it is bodies with the end of the paper clip.
rubbed with silk as positive. The Do foil strips behave in the same
other kind of charge is said to be way in all cases? Can this apparatus
negative. be used to detect whether a body is
It is observed that when a charged charged or not? Can you explain
glass rod is brought near a charged why the foil strips repel each other?
plastic straw rubbed with polythene
there is attraction between the two.
What do you think would be the kind
of charge on the plastic straw? Your
guess, that the plastic straw would carry
a negative charge is correct.
The electrical charges generated by
rubbing are static. They do not move by
themselves. When charges move, they
constitute an electric current. You have
been reading about electric current since
Class VI. The current in a circuit which
makes a bulb glow, or the current that
makes a wire hot, is nothing but a
motion of charges.
Fig 15.4 : A simple electroscope
15.4 Transfer of Charge
The aluminium foil strips receive the
Activity 15.4 same charge from the charged refill
Take an empty jam bottle. Take a through the paper clip (remember that
piece of cardboard slightly bigger in metals are good conductors of
size than the mouth of the bottle. electricity). The strips carrying similar
Pierce a hole in it so that a metal charges repel each other and they
paper clip can be inserted. Open out become wide open. Such a device can
the paper clip as shown in Fig. 15.4. be used to test whether an object is
Cut two strips of aluminium foil carrying charge or not. This device is
about 4 cm × 1 cm each. Hang them known as electroscope.
on the paper clip as shown. Insert Thus, we find that electrical charge
the paper clip in the cardboard lid can be transferred from a charged object
so that it is perpendicular to it (Fig. to another through a metal conductor.
15.4). Charge a refill and touch it Touch the end of the paper clip gently
with hand and you will find a change in
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the foil strips. They come back to their You learnt in Class VII that during
original state. Repeat charging of foil the development of a thunderstorm, the
strips and touching the paper clip. Every air currents move upward while the
time you will find that the foil strips water droplets move downward. These
collapse as soon as you touch the vigorous movements cause separation
paperclip with hand. Why does it of charges. By a process, not yet
happen? The reason is that the foil strips
completely understood, the positive
lose charge to the earth through your
charges collect near the upper edges of
body. We say that the foil strips are
discharged. The process of transferring the clouds and the negative charges
of charge from a charged object to the accumulate near the lower edges. There
earth is called earthing. is accumulation of positive charges near
the ground also. When the magnitude
Earthing is provided in buildings to
of the accumulated charges becomes very
protect us from electrical shocks due large, the air which is normally a poor
to any leakage of electrical current. conductor of electricity, is no longer able
to resist their flow. Negative and positive
15.5 The Story of Lightning charges meet, producing streaks of
bright light and sound. We see streaks
It is now possible to explain lightning
as lightning (Fig. 15.5). The process is
in terms of the charges produced by
rubbing. called an electric discharge.

Fig 15.5 : Accumulation of charges leading to lightning.

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 The process of electric discharge can metal objects. Do not lie on the ground.
occur between two or more clouds, or Instead, squat low on the ground. Place
between clouds and the earth. Today we your hands on your knees with your
need not get frightened by lightning like head between the hands (Fig. 15.6). This
our ancestors did. Now we understand position will make you the smallest
the basic phenomenon. Scientists are target to be struck.
trying hard to improve this
understanding. However, lightning
strike could destroy life and property. It
is, therefore, necessary to take measures
to protect ourselves.

15.6 Lightning Safety

During lightning and thunderstorm no
open place is safe.
 Hearing thunder is an alert to rush
to a safer place.
 After hearing the last thunder, wait
for some time before coming out of
the safe place.

Finding a Safe Place

A house or a building is a safe place.
If you are travelling by car or by bus, Fig. 15.6 : Safe position during lightning
you are safe inside with windows and
doors of the vehicle shut. Inside the house
Lightning can strike telephone cords,
Do’s and Don’ts during a electrical wires and metal pipes (Do you
Thunderstorm remember, lightning is an electrical
Outside discharge?). During a thunderstorm
Open vehicles, like motorbikes, tractors, contact with these should be avoided. It
construction machinery, open cars are is safer to use mobile phones and
not safe. Open fields, tall trees, shelters cordless phones. However, it is not wise
in parks, elevated places do not protect to call up a person who is receiving your
us from lightning strokes. phone through a wired phone.
Carrying an umbrella is not at all a Bathing should be avoided during
good idea during thunderstorms. thunderstorms to avoid contact with
If in a forest, take shelter under running water.
shorter trees. Electrical appliances like computers,
If no shelter is available and you are TVs, etc., should be unplugged. Electrical
in an open field, stay far away from all lights can remain on. They do not cause
trees. Stay away from poles or other any harm.
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Lightning Conductors 15.7 Earthquakes
Lightning Conductor is a device used You just learnt about thunderstorm and
to protect buildings from the effect of lightning. In Class VII you learnt about
lightning. A metallic rod, taller than the cyclones. These natural phenomena can
building, is installed in the walls of the cause large scale destruction of human
building during its construction. One life and property. Fortunately, these
end of the rod is kept out in the air and phenomena can be predicted to some
the other is buried deep in the ground extent. The weather department can
(Fig. 15.7). The rod provides easy route warn about a thunderstorm developing
for the transfer of electric charge to the in some area.
ground. If a thunderstorm occurs there is
The metal columns used during always a possibility of lightning and
construction, electrical wires and water cyclones accompanying it. So, we get
pipes in the buildings also protect us to time to take measures to protect
an extent. But do not touch them during ourselves from the damage caused by
a thunderstorm. these phenomena.

lightning
conductor

copper
plate

Fig. 15.7 : Lightning conductor

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 There is, however, one natural caused by these earthquakes from
phenomenon which we are not yet able newspapers and magazines of those
to predict accurately. It is an
days. Prepare a short report on the
earthquake. It can cause damage to
suffering of the people during and
human life and property on a huge scale.
after the earthquakes.
A major earthquake occurred in India
on 8 October 2005 in Uri and Tangdhar
towns of North Kashmir What is an earthquake? What
(Fig. 15.8). Before that a major happens when it occurs? What can we
earthquake occurred on 26 January do to minimise its effects? These are
2001 in Bhuj district of Gujarat. some of the questions which we shall
discuss below.
Activity 15.5
What is an Earthquake?
Ask your parents about the huge
An earthquake is a sudden shaking or
damage to life and property caused
trembling of the earth which lasts for a
by these earthquakes. Collect a few
very short time. It is caused by a
pictures showing the damage
disturbance deep inside the earth’s

Fig. 15.8 : Kashmir earthquake

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crust. Earthquakes occur all the time,
all over the earth. They are not even What could cause a
noticed. Major earthquakes are much disturbance inside
less frequent. They can cause immense the earth?
damage to buildings, bridges, dams and
people. There can be a great loss to life Now we know that the tremors are
and property. Earthquakes can cause caused by the disturbance deep down
floods, landslides and tsunamis. A inside the uppermost layer of the earth
major tsunami occurred in the Indian called the crust (Fig. 15.9).
Ocean on 26 December 2004. All the
coastal areas around the ocean suffered
huge losses. crust

Activity 15.6
mantle
Take an outline map of the world.
Locate the eastern coast and outer
core
Andaman and Nicobar Islands in
India. Mark other countries around
inner
the Indian Ocean which could have core
suffered damage. Collect accounts
of the devastation caused by the
tsunami in India from your parents, Fig. 15.9 : Structure of the earth
or other elders in the family or in
the neighbourhood. The outermost layer of the earth is
not in one piece. It is fragmented. Each
What Causes an Earthquake? fragment is called a plate (Fig. 15.10).
These plates are in continual motion.
When they brush past one another, or
My grandmother told me
that the earth is balanced
on the horn of a bull and
when the bull shifts it to
the other horn, an
earthquake takes place.
How could it be true?
Eurasian
In ancient times, people did not know Plate
the true cause of earthquakes. Their Arabian
ideas were, therefore, expressed in Plate Indan
mythical stories such as the one told by Plate
Boojho’s grandmother. Similar myths
were prevalent in other parts of the
world. Fig. 15.10 : Earth plates

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a plate goes under another due to carried out. However, most earthquakes
collision (Fig. 15.11), they cause are caused by the movement of earth’s
disturbance in the earth’s crust. It is plates.
this disturbance that shows up as an Since earthquakes are caused by the
earthquake on the surface of the earth. movement of plates, the boundaries of
the plates are the weak zones where
earthquakes are more likely to occur.
The weak zones are also known as
seismic or fault zones. In India, the
Colliding
areas most threatened are Kashmir,
Western and Central Himalayas, the
whole of North-East, Rann of Kutch,
Rajasthan and the Indo–Gangetic Plane.
Some areas of South India also fall in
Brushing
the danger zone (Fig. 15.12).
past

Fig. 15.11 : Movements of earth’s plates

If scientists know so much

about earthquakes, can
they also predict when and
where the next one will
strike?

Although, we know for sure what

causes an earthquake, it is not yet
possible to predict when and where the
next earthquake might occur.

Fig. 15.12 : Movements of Indian earth’s plate

I read somewhere that
underground explosions
The power of an earthquake is
could also cause expressed in terms of a magnitude
tremors. on a scale called the Richter scale.
Really destructive earthquakes have
Tremors on the earth can also be magnitudes higher than 7 on the
caused when a volcano erupts, or a Richter scale. Both Bhuj and Kashmir
meteor hits the earth, or an earthquakes had magnitudes greater
underground nuclear explosion is than 7.5.
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 The tremors produce waves on the surface of the earth. These are called
seismic waves. The waves are recorded by an instrument called the
seismograph (Fig. 15.13). The instrument is simply a vibrating rod, or a
pendulum, which starts vibrating when tremors occur. A pen is attached to
the vibrating system. The pen records the seismic waves on a paper which
moves under it. By studying these waves, scientists can construct a complete
map of the earthquake, as shown in Fig. 15.14. They can also estimate its
power to cause destruction.

String
Earth’s
Focus Surface Seismic
waves
Support Pendulum Bob Epicentre
Pen
Rotating
Drum

Chart
Paper

Inside the earth

A typical seismograph record

Fig. 15.13 : A seismograph Fig. 15.14 : Map of the earthquake

Like many other scales in science (decibel is another example), Richter scale
is not linear. This means that an earthquake of magnitude 6 does not have
one and half times the destructive energy of an earthquake of magnitude 4.
In fact, an increase of 2 in magnitude means 1000 times more destructive
energy. Therefore, an earthquake of magnitude 6 has thousand times more
destructive energy than an earthquake of magnitude 4.

Protection against Earthquakes living in seismic zones, where the

We know from the earlier pages that earthquakes are more likely to occur,
earthquakes cannot be predicted. We have to be specially prepared. First of
have also seen that they can be highly all, the buildings in these zones should
destructive. It is, therefore, important be so designed that they can withstand
that we take necessary precautions to major tremors. Modern building
protect ourselves all the time. People technology can make it possible.

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 It is advisable to make the structure The Central Building Research
simple so that it is ‘Quake Safe’. Institute, Roorkee, has developed
 Consult qualified architects and knowhow to make quake-resistant
structural engineers. houses.
 In highly seismic areas, the use of In the event that an earthquake does
mud or timber is better than using strike, take the following steps to protect
heavy construction material. Keep yourself.
roofs as light as possible. In case 1. If you are at home
the structure falls, the damage will  Take shelter under a table and stay
not be heavy. there till the shaking stops.
 It is better if the cupboards and  Stay away from tall and heavy objects
shelves are fixed to the walls, so that that may fall on you.
they do not fall easily.  If you are in bed, do not get up.
 Be careful where you hang wall Protect your head with a pillow.
clocks, photo-frames, water heaters
etc., so that in the event of an 2. If you are outdoors
earthquake, they do not fall on  Find a clear spot, away from
people. buildings, trees and overhead power
 Since some buildings may catch fire lines. Drop to the ground.
due to an earthquake, it is necessary  If you are in a car or a bus, do not
that all buildings, especially tall come out. Ask the driver to drive
buildings, have fire fighting slowly to a clear spot. Do not come
equipment in working order. out till the tremors stop.

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   

   
  

CRUST  Some objects can be charged by rubbing with
other objects.
DISCHARGE
 There are two kinds of charges — positive
EARTH’S PLATES
charge and negative charge
EARTHQUAKE  Like charges repel and unlike charges attract
each other.
ELECTROSCOPE
 The electrical charges produced by rubbing
LIGHTNING are called static charges.
 When charges move, they constitute an
LIGHTNING
electric current.
CONDUCTOR
 An electroscope may be used to detect
NEGATIVE CHARGE whether a body is charged or not.
 The process of transfer of charge from a
POSITIVE CHARGE
charged object to the earth is called earthing.
RICHTER SCALE  The process of electric discharge between
clouds and the earth or between different
SEISMOGRAPH clouds causes lightning.

THUNDER  Lightning strike could destroy life and

property.
THUNDERSTORM  Lightning conductors can protect buildings
from the effects of lightning.
TRANSFER OF
 An earthquake is a sudden shaking or
CHARGE
trembling of the earth.
TSUNAMI  Earthquake is caused by a disturbance deep
inside the earth’s crust.
TREMOR
 It is not possible to predict the occurrence of
an earthquake.
 Earthquakes tend to occur at the boundaries
of earth’s plates. These boundaries are known
as fault zones.
 Destructive energy of an earthquake is
measured on the Richter scale. The
earthquake measuring 7 or more on Richter
scale can cause severe damage to life and
property.
 We should take necessary precautions to
protect ourselves from earthquakes.
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 Exercises
Select the correct option in Questions 1 and 2.
1. Which of the following cannot be charged easily by friction?
(a) A plastic scale
(b) A copper rod
(c) An inflated balloon
(d) A woollen cloth.
2. When a glass rod is rubbed with a piece of silk cloth the rod
(a) and the cloth both acquire positive charge.
(b) becomes positively charged while the cloth has a negative charge.
(c) and the cloth both acquire negative charge.
(d) becomes negatively charged while the cloth has a positive charge.
3. Write T against true and F against false in the following statements.
(a) Like charges attract each other (T/F)
(b) A charged glass rod attract a charged plastic straw (T/F)
(c) Lightning conductor cannot protect a building from lightning (T/F)
(d) Earthquakes can be predicted in advance (T/F)

4. Sometimes, a crackling sound is heard while taking off a sweater during

winters. Explain.
5. Explain why a charged body loses its charge if we touch it with our hand.

6. Name the scale on which the destructive energy of an earthquake is

measured. An earthquake measures 3 on this scale. Would it be recorded
by a seismograph? Is it likely to cause much damage?

7. Suggest three measures to protect ourselves from lightning.

8. Explain why a charged balloon is repelled by another charged balloon
whereas an uncharged balloon is attracted by another charged balloon?

9. Describe with the help of a diagram an instrument which can be used to

detect a charged body.
10. List three states in India where earthquakes are more likely to strike.

11. Suppose you are outside your home and an earthquake strikes. What
precaution would you take to protect yourself?
12. The weather department has predicted that a thunderstorm is likely to
occur on a certain day. Suppose you have to go out on that day. Would you
carry an umbrella? Explain.

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 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects
1. Open a water tap. Adjust the flow so that it forms a thin stream.
Charge a refill. Bring it near the water stream. Observe what
happens. Write a short report on the activity.
2. Make your own charge detector. Take a paper strip roughly 10 cm ×
3 cm. Give it a shape as shown in Fig. 15.15. Balance it on a
needle. Bring a charged body near it. Observe what happens. Write
a brief report, explaining its working.

Paper 10 cm × 3 cm

Fold along the dotted line

Cut along the dotted line

Needle

ThermoCole

Fig. 15.15
3. This activity should be performed at night. Go to a room where there
is a fluorescent tube light. Charge a balloon. Switch off the tube light
so that the room is completely dark. Bring the charged balloon near
the tubelight. You should see a faint glow. Move the balloon along
the length of the tube and observe how the glow changes.
Caution : Do not touch the metal parts of the tube or the wires
connecting the tube with the mains.
4. Find out if there is an organisation in your area which provides
relief to those suffering from natural disaster. Enquire about the
type of help they render to the victims of earthquakes. Prepare a
brief report on the problems of the earthquake victims.
For more information on these topics, visit:
 science.howstuffworks.com/lightning.htm
 science.howstuffworks.com/earthquake.htm

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 LIGHT

T
he world is largely known through comb and close all its openings
the senses. The sense of sight except one in the middle. You can
is one of the most important use a strip of black paper for
senses. Through it we see mountains, this purpose. Hold the comb
rivers, trees, plants, chairs, people and perpendicular to the sheet of paper.
so many other things around us. We also
Throw light from a torch through
see clouds, rainbows and birds flying
the opening of the comb from one
in the sky. At night we see the moon
side (Fig. 16.1). With slight
and the stars. You are able to see the
adjustment of the torch and the
words and sentences printed on this
page. How is seeing made possible? comb you will see a ray of light along
the paper on the other side of the
16.1 What makes Things comb. Keep the comb and the torch
steady. Place a strip of plane mirror
Visible
in the path of the light ray (Fig.
Have you ever thought how we see 16.1). What do you observe?
various objects? You may say that eyes
see the objects. But, can you see an
object in the dark? It means that eyes
alone cannot see any object. It is only
when light from an object enters our
eyes that we see the object. The light
may have been emitted by the object, or
may have been reflected by it.
You learnt in Class VII that a polished
or a shiny surface can act as a mirror. A
mirror changes the direction of light
that falls on it. Can you tell in which
direction the light falling on a surface Fig. 16.1 : Arrangement for showing reflection
will be reflected? Let us find out.
After striking the mirror, the ray of
16.2 Laws of Reflection light is reflected in another direction.
Activity 16.1 The light ray, which strikes any surface,
is called the incident ray. The ray that
Fix a white sheet of paper on a comes back from the surface after
drawing board or a table. Take a reflection is known as the reflected ray.

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 A ray of light is an idealisation. In Table 16.1 : Angles of Incidence
reality, we have a narrow beam of and Reflection
light which is made up of several S. Angle of Angle of
rays. For simplicity, we use the term No. Incidence (∠∠i) ∠r)
Reflection (∠
ray for a narrow beam of light.
1.
Draw lines showing the position of 2.
the plane mirror, the incident ray and
3.
the reflected ray on the paper with the
help of your friends. Remove the mirror 4.
and the comb. Draw a line making an 5.
angle of 90º to the line representing the
mirror at the point where the incident Do you see any relation between the
ray strikes the mirror. This line is known angle of incidence and the angle of
as the normal to the reflecting surface reflection. Are they approximately equal?
at that point (Fig. 16.2). The angle If the experiment is carried out carefully,
it is seen that the angle of incidence is
always equal to the angle of reflection.
This is one of the laws of reflection.
Let us perform another activity on
reflection.

Fig. 16.2 : Drawing the normal

What would happen if I
between the normal and incident ray is threw the light on the
called the angle of incidence (∠i). The mirror along the normal.
angle between the normal and the
reflected ray is known as the angle of Activity 16.2
reflection (∠r) (Fig. 16.3). Measure the
angle of incidence and the angle of Perform Activity 16.1 again. This
reflection. Repeat the activity several time use a sheet of stiff paper or a
times by changing the angle of chart paper. Let the sheet project a
incidence. Enter the data in Table 16.1. little beyond the edge of the Table
(Fig. 16.4). Cut the projecting
portion of the sheet in the middle.
Look at the reflected ray. Make sure
Reflected Incident that the reflected ray extends to the
ray ray
projected portion of the paper. Bend
Normal that part of the projected portion on
which the reflected ray falls. Can
you still see the reflected ray? Bring
Fig. 16.3 : Angle of incidence and angle of the paper back to the original
reflection
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 position. Can you see the reflected with the Sun as the source of light
ray again? What do you infer? instead of a torch. You, too, can use the
Sun as the source of light.

These activities can also be performed

by making use of the Ray Streak
Apparatus (available in the kit
prepared by NCERT).

Boojho remembered that in Class VII,

he had studied some features of the
image of an object formed by a plane
mirror. Paheli asked him to recall those
(a)
features:
(i) Was the image erect or upside
down?
(ii) Was it of the same size as the
object?
(iii) Did the image appear at the same
distance behind the mirror as the
object was in front of it?
(iv) Could it be obtained on a screen?
Let us understand a little more about
(b) the formation of an image by a plane
Fig. 16.4 (a), (b) : Incident ray, reflected ray
and the normal at the point mirror in the following way:
of incidence lie in the same
plane Activity 16.3
When the whole sheet of paper is A source of light O is placed in front
spread on the table, it represents one of a plane mirror PQ. Two rays OA
plane. The incident ray, the normal at and OC are incident on it (Fig. 16.5).
the point of incidence and the reflected Can you find out the direction of
ray are all in this plane. When you bend the reflected rays?
the paper you create a plane different Draw normals to the surface of the
from the plane in which the incident mirror PQ, at the points A and C.
ray and the normal lie. Then you do not Then draw the reflected rays at the
see the reflected ray. What does it points A and C. How would you
indicate? It indicates that the incident draw these rays? Call the reflected
ray, the normal at the point of rays AB and CD, respectively.
incidence and the reflected ray all lie Extend them further. Do they meet?
in the same plane. This is another law Extend them backwards. Do they
of reflection. meet now? If they meet, mark this
Paheli and Boojho performed the point as I. For a viewer’s eye at E
above activities outside the classroom (Fig. 16.5), do the reflected rays
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 Fig. 16.6 : Parallel rays incident on
an irregular surface

Fig. 16.5 : Image formation in a plane mirror

appear to come from the point I.
Since the reflected rays do not
actually meet at I, but only appear
to do so, we say that a virtual image Fig. 16.7 : Rays reflected from irregular
of the point O is formed at I. As you surface
have learnt already in Class VII,
such an image cannot be obtained When all the parallel rays reflected
on a screen. from a rough or irregular surface are
You may recall that in an image not parallel, the reflection is known as
formed by a mirror the left of the object diffused or irregular reflection.
appears on the right and the right Remember that the diffused reflection
appears on the left. This is known as is not due to the failure of the laws of
lateral inversion. reflection. It is caused by the
irregularities in the reflecting surface,
16.3 Regular and Diffused like that of a cardboard.
On the other hand, reflection from
Reflection
a smooth surface like that of a mirror
Activity 16.4 is called regular reflection (Fig. 16.8).
Images are formed by regular
Imagine that parallel rays are reflection.
incident on an irregular surface as
shown in Fig. 16.6. Remember that
the laws of reflection are valid at
each point of the surface. Use these
laws to construct reflected rays at
various points. Are they parallel to
one another? You will find that
these rays are reflected in different
directions. (Fig. 16.7) Fig. 16.8 : Regular reflection

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 Do We See all Objects due to Reflected Light?
Nearly everything you see around is seen due to reflected light. Moon, for example,
receives light from the Sun and reflects it. That’s how we see the moon. The objects
which shine in the light of other objects are called illuminated objects. Can you
name some other such objects?
There are other objects, which give their own light, such as the Sun, fire, flame
of a candle and an electric lamp. Their light falls on our eyes. That is how we see
them. The objects which emit their own light are known as luminous objects.

Paheli recalls having constructed a

periscope as an Extended Activity in
I have a question. Can the Class VI. The periscope makes use of
reflected rays be further reflected two plane mirrors. Can you explain
if incident on another mirror? how reflection from the two mirrors
enables you to see objects which are
Let us find out.
not visible directly? Periscopes are
16.4 Reflected Light Can be used in submarines, tanks and also
Reflected Again by soldiers in bunkers to see things
outside.
Recall the last time you visited a hair
dresser. She/he makes you sit in front of 16.5 Multiple Images
a mirror. After your hair cut is complete,
You are aware that a plane mirror forms
she/he holds a mirror behind you to show
you how the hair has been cut only a single image of an object. What
(Fig. 16.9). Do you know how you could happens if two plane mirrors are used
see the hair at the back of your head? in combination? Let us see.

Fig. 16.9 : Mirror at the hair dresser shop

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Activity 16.5 Can you now explain how you can
see the back of your head at the hair
Take two plane mirrors. Set them dresser’s shop?
at right angles to each other with This idea of number of images formed
their edges touching (Fig. 16.10). To by mirrors placed at an angle to one
hinge them you can use adhesive another is used in a kaleidoscope to
tape. Place a coin in between the make numerous beautiful patterns. You
mirrors. How many images of the can also make a kaleidoscope yourself.
coin do you see (Fig. 16.10)?
Kaleidoscope
Activity 16.6
To make a kaleidoscope, get three
rectangular mirror strips each about
15 cm long and 4 cm wide. Join
them together to form a prism as
shown in Fig. 16.12(a). Fix this
arrangement of mirrors in a circular
Fig. 16.10 : Images in plane mirror at right cardboard tube or tube of a thick
angle to each other chart paper. Make sure that the tube
Now hinge the mirrors using the is slightly longer than the mirror
adhesive tape at different angles, say strips. Close one end of the tube by
45°, 60°, 120°, 180° etc. Place some a cardboard disc having a hole in
object (say a candle) in between the centre, through which you can
them. Note down the number of see [Fig. 16.12(b)]. To make the disc
images of the object in each case. durable, paste a piece of transparent
Finally, set the two mirrors plastic sheet under the cardboard
parallel to each other. Find out how
many images of a candle placed
between them are formed (Fig.
16.11).

(a)

mirrors

(b) (c)
Fig. 16.11 : Image in plane mirror parallel
to each other Fig. 16.12 : Making a kaleidoscope

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 disc. At the other end, touching the
16.6 Sunlight — White or
mirrors, fix a circular plane glass Coloured
plate [Fig. 16.12(c)]. Place on this In Class VII, you learnt that the sunlight
glass plate several small pieces of is referred to as white light. You also
coloured glass (broken pieces of learnt that it consists of seven colours.
coloured bangles). Close this end of Here is another activity (Activity 16.7)
the tube by a ground glass plate. showing that sunlight consists of several
Allow enough space for the colour colours.
pieces to move around.
16.7 What is inside Our Eyes?
Your kaleidoscope is ready. When
you peep through the hole, you will be We see things only when light coming
able to see a variety of patterns in the from them enters our eyes. Eye is one
tube. An interesting feature of a of our most important sense organs. It
kaleidoscope is that you will never see is, therefore, important to understand
the same pattern again. Designers of its structure and working.
wallpapers and fabrics and artists often The eye has a roughly spherical
use kaleidoscopes to get ideas for new shape. The outer coat of the eye is
patterns. To make your toy attractive, white. It is tough so that it can protect
you can wrap the kaleidoscope in a the interior of the eye from accidents.
coloured paper. Its transparent front part is called

Activity 16.7
Get a plane mirror of a suitable size. prism. As you learnt in Class VII,
Place it in a bowl (katori) as shown this breaks up the light into its
in Fig. 16.13. Fill the bowl with water. colours, Splitting of light into its
Put this arrangement near a window colours is known as dispersion of
in such a way that direct sunlight light. Rainbow is a natural
falls on the mirror. Adjust the phenomenon showing dispersion.
position of the bowl
so that the reflected
light from the
mirror falls on a
wall. If the wall is
not white, fix a sheet
of white paper on it.
Reflected light will
be seen to have
many colours. How
can you explain
this? The mirror
and water form a Fig. 16.13 : Dispersion of light

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cornea (Fig. 16.14). Behind the cornea, Class VII. The lens focuses light on the
we find a dark muscular structure back of the eye, on a layer called retina
called iris. In the iris, there is a small (Fig. 16.14). The retina contains several
opening called the pupil. The size of nerve cells. Sensations felt by the nerve
the pupil is controlled by the iris. The cells are then transmitted to the brain
iris is that part of eye which gives it its through the optic nerve. There are two
distinctive colour. When we say that a kinds of cells–
person has green eyes, we refer actually (i) cones, which are sensitive to bright
to the colour of the iris. The iris controls light and
the amount of light entering into the (ii) rods, which are sensitive to dim light.
eye. Let us see how. Cones sense colour. At the junction
of the optic nerve and the retina, there
Ciliary
are no sensory cells, so no vision is
muscle
possible at that spot. This is called the
Iris blind spot. Its existence can be
Optic
Nerve demonstrated as follows:
Lens

Cornea
Activity 16.9
Make a round mark and a cross on
Retina
a sheet of paper with the spot to the
Fig. 16.14 : Human eye right of the cross (Fig. 16.15). The
distance between two marks may be
Caution : For this activity, never use 6-8 cm. Hold the sheet of paper at
a laser torch. an arm’s length from the eye. Close
Activity 16.8 your left eye. Look continuously at
the cross. Move the sheet slowly
Look into your friend’s eye. Observe towards you, keeping your eye on
the size of the pupil. Throw light on the cross. What do you find? Does
her eye with a torch. Observe the the round mark disappear at some
pupil now. Switch off the torch, and point? Now close your right eye.
observe her pupil once again. Do Look at the round mark now and
you notice any change in the size repeat the activity. Does the cross
of the pupil? In which case was the disappear? The disappearance of the
pupil larger? Why do you think it cross or the round mark shows that
was so? there is a point on the retina which
In which case do you need to cannot send messages to the brain
allow more light in the eye, when when light falls on it.
the light is dim or bright?

Behind the pupil of the eye is a lens

which is thicker in the centre. What
kind of lens is thicker at the centre?
Fig. 16.15 : Demonstration of blind spot
Recall what you learnt about lenses in
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 The impression of an image does not Nature has provided eyes with
vanish immediately from the retina. It eyelids to prevent any object from
persists there for about 1/16th of a entering the eye. Eyelids also shut out
second. So, if still images of a moving light when not required.
object are flashed on the eye at a rate Eye is such a wonderful instrument
faster than 16 per second, then the eye that it (normal) can clearly see distant
perceives this object as moving. objects as well as objects nearby. The
minimum distance at which the eye can
Activity 16.10 see objects distinctly varies with age. The
most comfortable distance at which one
Get a square piece of cardboard of can read with a normal eye is about
size 6-8 cm. Make two holes as 25 cm.
shown in Fig. 16.16. Thread a Some persons can see objects close
string through the two holes. Draw/ to them clearly but cannot see distant
paste a cage on one side of the
objects so clearly. On the other hand,
cardboard and a bird on the other
some persons cannot see objects nearby
side. Twist the string and make the
clearly but they can see distant objects
card twirl rapidly. Do you see the
quite well. With suitable corrective
bird in the cage?
lenses, these defects of the eye can be
corrected.
Sometimes, particularly in old age,
eyesight becomes foggy. It is due to the
Reverse side Front side of eye lens becoming cloudy. When it
of cardboard cardboard
happens, persons are said to have
cataract. There is a loss of vision,
sometimes extremely severe. It is
possible to treat this defect. The opaque
lens is removed and a new artificial
lens is inserted. Modern technology
has made this procedure simpler
and safer.

16.8 Care of the Eyes

It is necessary that you take proper care
Fig. 16.16 : Bird in cage
of your eyes. If there is any problem
you should go to an eye specialist. Have
The movies that we see are actually
a regular checkup—
a number of separate pictures in
l If advised, use suitable spectacles.
proper sequence. They are made to
move across the eye usually at the rate l Too little or too much light is bad
of 24 pictures per second (faster than for eyes. Insufficient light causes
16 per second). So, we see a moving eyestrain and headaches. Too much
picture. light, like that of the Sun, a powerful

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 Did you know?
Animals have eyes shaped in different ways. Eyes of a crab are quite small but
they enable the crab to look all around. So, the crab can sense even if the enemy
approaches from behind. Butterflies have large eyes that seem to be made up of
thousands of little eyes (Fig.
16.17). They can see not only in
the front and the sides but the Eyes
back as well.
A night bird (owl) can see very
well in the night but not during
the day. On the other hand, day
light birds (kite, eagle) can see
well during the day but not in the
night. The owl has a large cornea
and a large pupil to allow more
light in its eye. Also, it has on its
retina a large number of rods and
only a few cones. The day birds
on the other hand, have more Fig. 16.17 : Eyes of a butterfly
cones and fewer rods.

lamp or a laser torch can injure the vegetables (such as spinach) and cod
retina. liver oil are rich in vitamin A. Eggs,
l Do not look at the Sun or a powerful
milk, curd, cheese, butter and fruits
such as papaya and mango are also rich
light directly.
in vitamin A.
l Never rub your eyes. If particles of
dust go into your eyes, wash your 16.9 Visually Impaired
eyes with clean water. If there is no Persons Can Read and
improvement go to a doctor. Write
l Always read at the normal distance
for vision. Do not read by bringing Some persons, including children, can
the book too close to your eyes or be visually impaired. They have very
keeping it too far. limited vision to see things. Some
You learnt about balanced diet in persons cannot see at all since birth.
Class VI. If food is deficient in some Some persons may lose their eyesight
components, eyes may also suffer. Lack because of a disease or an injury. Such
of vitamin A in foodstuff is responsible persons try to identify things by
for many eye troubles. Most common touching and listening to voices more
amongst them is night blindness. carefully. They develop their other
One should, therefore, include in the senses more sharply. However,
diet components which have vitamin A. additional resources can enable them
Raw carrots, broccoli and green to develop their capabilities further.

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 Non-optical and optical aids for visually impaired
Non-optical aids include visual aids, tactual aids (using the sense of touch),
auditory aids (using the sense of hearing) and electronic aids. Visual aids, can
magnify words, can provide suitable intensity of light and material at proper distances.
Tactual aids, including Braille writer slate and stylus, help the visually challenged
persons in taking notes, reading and writing. Auditory aids include cassettes, tape
recorders, talking books and other such devices. Electronic aids, such as talking
calculators and computers, are also available for performing many computational
tasks. Closed circuit television, also an electronic aid, enlarges printed material
with suitable contrast and illumination. Nowadays, use of audio CDs and voice boxes
with computers are also very helpful for listening to and writing the desired text.
Optical aids include bifocal lenses, contact lenses, tinted lenses, magnifiers
and telescopic aids. While the lens combinations are used to rectify visual
limitations, telescopic aids are available to view chalkboard and class
demonstrations.

16.10 What is the Braille Braille system has 63 dot patterns or

System? characters. Each character
represents a letter, a combination of
The most popular resource for visually letters, a common word or a
challenged persons is Braille. grammatical sign. Dots are arranged
in cells of two vertical rows of three
Louis Braille, himself a visually dots each.
challenged person, developed a Patterns of dots to represent some
system for visually challenged persons English letters and some common
and published it in 1821. words are shown below.

Louis Braille Fig. 16.18 : Example of dot patterns used

in Braille System
The present system was adopted in These patterns when embossed on
1932. There is Braille code for common Braille sheets help visually
languages, mathematics and scientific challenged persons to recognise words
notation. Many Indian languages can by touching. To make them easier to
be read using the Braille system. touch, the dots are raised slightly.

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 Visually impaired people learn the character has to be memorised. Braille
Braille system by beginning with texts can be produced by hand or by
letters, then special characters and machine. Typewriter-like devices and
letter combinations. Methods depend printing machines have now been
upon recognition by touching. Each developed.

Some visually impaired Indians have great achievements to their

credit. Diwakar, a child prodigy has given amazing performances
as a singer.
Ravindra Jain, born completely visually impaired, obtained
his Sangeet Prabhakar degree from Allahabad. He had shown his
excellence as a lyricist, singer and music composer.
Lal Advani, himself visually impaired, established an
Helen A. Keller Association for special education and rehabilitation of disabled
in India. Besides this, he represented India on Braille problems
in UNESCO.
Helen A. Keller, an American author and lecturer, is perhaps the most well-
known and inspiring visually challenged person. She lost her sight when she was
only 18 months old. But because of her resolve and courage she could complete
her graduation from a university. She wrote a number of books including The
Story of my Life (1903).

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KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
ANGLE OF Ü Light is reflected from all surfaces.
INCIDENCE Ü Regular reflection takes place when light is
ANGLE OF incident on smooth, polished and regular
REFLECTION surfaces.

BLIND SPOT Ü Diffused or irregular reflection takes place from

rough surfaces.
BRAILLE
Ü Two laws of reflection are
CONES (i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle
CORNEA of reflection.
(ii) Incident ray, reflected ray and the normal
DIFFUSED OR
drawn at the point of incidence to the
IRREGULAR
reflecting surface, lie in the same plane.
REFLECTION
Ü Image formed in a plane mirror undergoes
INCIDENT RAYS
lateral inversion.
IRIS Ü Two mirrors inclined to each other give multiple
KALEIDOSCOPE images.
Ü Beautiful patterns are formed in a
LATERAL INVERSION
kaleidoscope because of multiple reflections.
LAWS OF
Ü Sunlight, called white light, consists of seven
REFLECTION
colours.
PUPIL Ü Splitting of light into its constituent colours is
REFLECTED RAYS known as dispersion.
Ü Parts of the eye are cornea, iris, pupil, lens,
REFLECTION
retina and optic nerve.
REGULAR
Ü A normal eye can see nearby and distant
REFLECTION
objects clearly.
RETINA Ü Visually impaired persons can read and write
RODS using the Braille system.
Ü Visually impaired persons develop their other
senses more sharply to improve their interac-
tion with their environment.

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 Exercises

1. Suppose you are in a dark room. Can you see objects in the room? Can
you see objects outside the room. Explain.
2. Differentiate between regular and diffused reflection. Does diffused
reflection mean the failure of the laws of reflection?

3. Mention against each of the following whether regular or diffused reflection

will take place when a beam of light strikes. Justify your answer in each
case.

(a) Polished wooden table (b) Chalk powder

(c) Cardboard surface (d) Marble floor with water
spread over it
(e) Mirror (f) Piece of paper
4. State the laws of reflection.
5. Describe an activity to show that the incident ray, the reflected ray and
the normal at the point of incidence lie in the same plane.
6. Fill in the blanks in the following.
(a) A person 1 m in front of a plane mirror seems to be _______________ m
away from his image.
(b) If you touch your ____________ ear with right hand in front of a plane
mirror it will be seen in the mirror that your right ear is touched with
____________.
(c) The size of the pupil becomes ____________ when you see in dim light.
(d) Night birds have ____________ cones than rods in their eyes.

Choose the correct option in Questions 7 – 8

7. Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
(a) Always (b) Sometimes
(c) Under special conditions (d) Never
8. Image formed by a plane mirror is
(a) virtual, behind the mirror and enlarged.
(b) virtual, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.
(c) real at the surface of the mirror and enlarged.
(d) real, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.
9. Describe the construction of a kaleidoscope.
10. Draw a labelled sketch of the human eye.
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