Surveying I Chapter 1-Introduction
Chapter One: Introduction
Land is all around us. We walk on it, build houses and commercial buildings on it, drive on it,
fence it, dig trenches in it, and farm it. Life as we know it would not exist without land. Its presence
permeates our lives to the point that we seldom think about it. Yet in order to plan or analyze the
use of land, measurements must be made.
Many of our uses of the land require us to measure, mark, or locate points on, above or below the
surface. We often do this without thinking about the principles we are using. Property is located
and marked before a fence is built. A carpenter carefully marks the corners of a building before
starting construction. Engineers and planners may spend months deciding on the location of a road
and marking it out. The slope and other features of an area must be measured before a pond is built
or drainage way constructed. The property corners of a parcel of land are located and marked
during the transfer of ownership. The principles of surveying are used in all of the examples
mentioned above. The complexity of surveying can range from taking a few minutes and two sticks
to lay out a 90-degree corner, to spending several days with hundred thousands of Birr worth of
equipment establishing a road or power line right of way to establishing survey control
monuments, the most complex survey. This chapter will define surveying and some of the essential
terms used in surveying.
1.1. Definition
Surveying may be simply defined as the art of making measurements. Surveying involves the
measurements of distances, angles and elevations. It also involves staking out the lines and grades
needed for the construction of buildings, roads, dams, and other engineering structures. In addition
to the field measurements, surveying includes the computation of areas, volumes, and other
quantities, as well as the preparation of necessary maps and diagrams. Surveying has many
industrial applications such as; setting equipment, assembling aircrafts, laying out assembly
lines, and so on. In addition it includes the processing of converting the measurements in to
positional information such as maps and coordinates. The survey activities are not limited to the
surface of the earth but extend to the sea and deep underground, as well as extraterrestrial space.
More precisely, Surveying can be defined as the art and Science of determining the relative
positions of various points on, above or below the surface of the earth.
The Art and Science of Surveying:
Surveying is the art and science of measuring and locating points and angles on, above, and below
the surface of the earth. In this definition, the terms “art” and “science” are used because good
surveying is both. Art is defines as “skill acquired by experience, study, or observation” and
“the conscious use of skill and creative imagination especially in the production of aesthetic
objects. “An example of the art of surveying is being able to investigate a site and determines the
“best” instruments and methods to use to collect the desired data. Best is a very subjective term.
What is best for one individual, crew, or site may not be the best if the conditions change, such as
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moving to a different site, completing a different type of survey, or working for a different
government agency.
The best instruments and methods produce the required data with the least consumption of
resources. This includes determining what data needs to be collected, the most appropriate
surveying method to use, the best location of the instruments, and so on. For professional
surveyors, and for commercial construction operations, time is money. An experienced surveyor
can look at a site and determine the best method for collecting the necessary data. This ability is
an art because it cannot be learned from a textbook or in a classroom. This “art” is developed
through natural abilities and from experience. In many cases, standards and procedures have been
developed to provide guidance in this area.
Surveying is also a science. Science is defines as, “knowledge covering general truths or the
operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method.” This
definition is appropriate for many aspects of surveying. The principles and practices that have been
developed to collect accurate data provide an example of the use of science in surveying. Accurate
data is valuable in surveying, while inaccurate data can be costly because it may result in design
errors. A rule to remember is that bad data is worse than no data. Procedures have been developed
and tested over time that, if followed, control errors.
Hence, the practice of surveying is an art, because it is dependent upon the skill, judgment, and
experience of the surveyor. Surveying may also be considered to be an applied science, because
field and office procedures rely up on a systematic body of knowledge, related primarily to
mathematics and physics.
1.2. Importance of Surveying
Surveying plays an essential role in the planning, design, layout and construction of our physical
environment and infrastructure. The term infrastructure is commonly used to present all the
constructed facilities and systems which allow human communities to function. Surveying is the
link between design and construction of Roads, Bridges, Buildings, water supply sewerage,
drainage systems and many other essential public works. In addition to its customary applications
in construction and land-use projects. Surveying is playing an increasingly important role in
modern industrial technology.
1.3. Principles and Types of surveying
1.3.1. Principles of surveying
Every profession must be founded upon sound practice. Engineering surveying so must be based
upon proven principles. This section is concerned with examining the principles of survey,
describing their interrelationship and showing how they may be applied in practice. Most of the
principles below have an application at all stages of a survey and a surveyor will be unwise and
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unprofessional if he does not take them into consideration when planning, executing, computing
and presenting the results of the survey work.
A. Control
A control network is the framework of survey stations whose coordinates have been precisely
determined and are often considered definitive. The stations are the reference monuments, to which
other survey work of a lesser quality is related. By its nature, a control survey needs to be precise,
complete and reliable and it must be possible to show that these qualities have been achieved. This
is done by using equipment of proven precision, with methods that satisfy the principles and data
processing that not only computes the correct values but gives numerical measures of their
precision and reliability.
The practice of using a control framework as a basis for further survey operations is often called
‘working from the whole to the part’. If it becomes necessary to work outside the control
framework then it must be extended to cover the increased area of operations. Failure to do so will
degrade the accuracy of later survey work even if the quality of survey observations is maintained.
B. Economy of accuracy
Surveys are only ever undertaken for a specific purpose and so should be as accurate as they need
to be, but not more accurate. In spite of modern equipment, automated systems, and statistical data
processing the business of survey is still a manpower intensive one and needs to be kept to an
economic minimum. Once the requirement for a survey or some setting out exists, then part of the
specification for the work must include a statement of the relative and absolute accuracies to be
achieved. From this, a specification for the control survey may be derived and once this
specification has been achieved, there is no requirement for further work.
C. Consistency
In case of control survey, if the majority of control on a construction site is established to a certain
designed precision. Later one or two further control points are less well established, but all the
control is assumed to be of the same quality. Modern methods of survey network adjustment allow
for some flexibility in the application of the principle and it is not always necessary for all of a
particular stage of a survey to be of the same quality. If error statistics for the computed control
are not to be made available, then quality can only be assured by consistency in observational
technique and method. Such a quality assurance is therefore only second hand. Consistency and
economy of accuracy usually go hand in hand in the production of control.
D. The Independent check
The independent check is a technique of quality assurance. It is a means of guarding against a
mistake or gross error and the principle must be applied at all stages of a survey. Failure to do so
will lead to the risk. If observations are made with optical or mechanical instruments, then the
observations will need to be written down. A standard format should be used, with sufficient
arithmetic checks upon the booking sheet to ensure that there are no computational errors. The
observations should be repeated, or made in a different manner to ensure that they are compatible
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with each other. For example, if a rectangular building is to be set out, then once the four corners
have been set out, opposite sides should be the same length and so should the diagonals. The sides
and diagonals should also be related through Pythagoras’ theorem. Such checks and many others
will be familiar to the practicing surveyor. Every human activity needs to be duplicated if it is not
self-checking. Wherever there is an opportunity for an error there must be a system for checking
that no error exists. If an error exists, there must be a means of finding it.
E. Safeguarding
Since survey can be an expensive process, every sensible precaution should be taken to ensure that
the work is not compromised. Safeguarding is concerned with the protection of work. Observations
which are written down in the field must be in a permanent, legible, unambiguous and easily
understood form so that others may make good sense of the work. Observations and other data
should be duplicated at the earliest possible stage, so that if something happens to the original work
the information is not lost. This may be by photocopying field sheets, or making backup copies of
computer files. Whenever the data is in a unique form or where all forms of the data are held in
the same place, then that data is exposed to accidental destruction.
1.3.2. Types of surveying
Primary Division of Surveying:
Primary divisions of surveying are made on the basis whether the curvature of the earth is
considered or the earth is assumed to be a flat plane. Because of the curvature of the earth’s surface,
the measured distances on earth are actually curved. However, when the distances are short,
compared with the radius of the earth, there is no significant difference between the curved
distances and the corresponding straight line distances, and the curvature of the earth can be
neglected. Surveying is thus primarily divided in two types:
1. Plane surveying
2. Geodetic Surveying
1. Plane surveying: is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is neglected
and it is assumed to be a flat surface. All horizontal distances and horizontal angles are
assumed to be projected on a horizontal plane. A horizontal plane at a point is the plane,
which is perpendicular to the vertical line at that point.
2. Geodetic Surveying: It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken
in to consideration and a very high standard of accuracy is maintained. The main objective
of geodetic surveying is to determine the precise location of a system of widely spaced
points on the surface of the earth.
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A. Classifications of Surveying based on Application
As we mentioned at the beginning, the two fundamental purposes for surveying are to determine
the relative positions of existing points and to mark the positions of new points on or near the
surface of the earth .within this frame work, many different kinds of surveys are performed. Some
specific applications or types of surveys are outlined briefly as follows:
1. Property survey
A property survey is performed in order to establish the positions of boundary lines and property
corners. It is also referred to as a land survey or a boundary survey. Property surveys are usually
performed whenever land ownership is to be transferred or when a large tract of land is to be
subdivided in to smaller parcels for development. Also before the design and construction of any
public or private land- use project can get underway, it is necessary to accurately establish the legal
boundaries of the proposed project site. Constructing a structure on what later is found to be
property that belongs to someone else can be a very expensive mistake.
2. Topographic Survey
A topographic survey is performed in order to determine the relative positions (horizontal and
vertical) of existing natural and constructed features on a tract of land. Such features include
ground elevations, bodies of water, vegetation, rock out crops, roads, buildings, and so on.
A topographic survey provides information on the ‘’shape of the land’’ Hills, valleys, ridges, and
the general slope of the ground can be depicted graphically. The data obtained from a topographic
survey are plotted and drawn as a suitably scaled map called a topographic map, or topo map. The
shape of the ground is shown with contours, or lines of equal elevation. Since a topo map is
always needed before the engineering and architectural design of any building or other project can
begin, a topo survey may also be referred to as a preliminary survey.
3. Construction Survey
A construction survey, also called a layout or location survey is performed in order to mark the
position of new points on the ground. These new points represent the location of building corners,
road center lines, and other facilities that are to be built. These positions are shown on a site plan,
which is essentially a combination of the property survey and topo survey, along with the newly
designed facilities. This also may be called a plot plan.
A site plan shows the location dimensions which are to be measured with reference to boundaries
or other control points. Vertical heights are given by elevations. Sometimes horizontal positions
may be given by coordinates. Wooden stakes are used by the surveyors to mark the positions of
the building, roads, and other structures. An example of a drawing which includes location
dimensions is shown below figure 1.1 below.
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Fig-1.1- Typical Location dimension found on engineering or architectural plans,
for use during a stake out survey.
The wooden stakes serve as reference points for the construction contractor who actually builds
the project. They may be centerline stakes, offset stakes, or grade stakes. Carpenters, masons, and
other skilled professionals transfer measurements directly from the survey points. The procedure
of placing the markers is called staking out.
4. Control Survey
There are two kinds of control surveys horizontal and vertical. In a horizontal control survey,
several points are placed in the ground by the surveyor, using wooden stakes, or more permanent
markers such as iron bars and concrete monuments. These points, called stations, are arranged
throughout the site or area under study so that they can be easily seen and surveyed. The relative
horizontal positions of these points are established, usually with a very high degree of precision
and accuracy; this is done using traverse, triangulation, or trilateration survey methods.
In a vertical control survey, the elevations of relatively permanent reference points are determined
by precise leveling methods. Marked or monumental points of known elevation are called
elevation bench marks (BMs). Boundary surveys or construction surveys can be tied in to nearby
control surveys stations and Bench Marks. This minimizes the accumulation of errors and the cost
of making all the measurements precise.
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Fig-1.2-A horizontal control survey network showing traverse and triangulation station points
and course lines
5. Route Survey
A route survey is performed in order to establish horizontal and vertical control to obtain
topographic data and to lay out the positions of highways, rail ways, streets, pipelines or any other
‘’linear’’ project. In other words, the primary aspect of a route survey is that the project area is
very narrow compared with its length, which can extend from many kilometers.
6. City surveys
These surveys are conducted within the limits of a city for urban planning. These are required for
the purpose of layout of streets, buildings, sewers, pips, etc.
7. Mine surveys
These surveys are conducted to determine the relative positions and elevations of Mines, shafts,
bore holes etc. for underground works. Mine surveys are useful to plan the working of mines and
to compute volumes of materials in mines.
8. Hydrographic surveys
These surveys are conducted on or near the body of water, such as lakes, rivers, inlets, and ports.
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9. Engineering surveys
Engineering surveys are conducted to collect data for the designing and planning of engineering
works such as building, roads, bridges, dams, reservoirs, sewers and water supply lines. These
surveys generally include surveys discussed above.
10. Astronomic surveys
These surveys are conducted for the determination of latitudes, Azimuths, local time etc. for
various places on the earth by observing heavenly bodies (the sun or stars).
11. Satellite surveys
These surveys are conducted to obtain intercontinental, inter datum and interisland geodetic ties
the entire world over by artificial earth’s satellites.
12. Geological surveys
Geological surveys are conducted to obtain information about different strata (layers) of the earth’s
surface for geological studies
B. Classification of Surveying based on Instruments used
Based on the instruments used surveys can be classified as;
1. Chain Surveying: is the simplest type of surveying in which linear measurements are taken
with a chain or tape
2. Compass surveying: in this type of surveying, the horizontal angles are measured with the
help of a magnetic compass, in addition to the line or measurements with a chain or a tape.
3. Leveling: this is a type of survey in which a leveling Instrument is used for determination of
relative elevations (levels) of various points on, above or below the surface of the earth
4. Theodolite survey: is used for measuring both horizontal and vertical angles using Theodolite.
5. Tachometric Survey: This is a rapid and economical survey by which the horizontal
distances and the difference in elevation are determined indirectly using a Theodolite and a
graduated rod.
6. Photogrammetric survey: Photogrammetry is a science of taking measurements with the
help of photographs.
1.4. Basic Measurements in Surveying
Surveying determines the relative position of various points on, above or below the surface of the
earth. These relative positions of points can be defined by making several kind of measurements.
Of these measurements the basic ones are classified in to four:
a. Horizontal distance
b. Vertical Distance
c. Horizontal Angles and
d. Vertical Angles.
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1.5. Sources of error, precision and correction
Theory of Errors
Thus a fundamental principle of surveying is that no measurement is exact and the true value of
the quantity being measured is never known. (Exact or true values do exist, but they cannot be
determined). An error is the deference between an observed value for the quantity and its true
value. It can be unconditionally stated that;
a. No observation is correct
b. Every observation contains error
c. The true value of an observation never be known
d. The exact error present is always unknown
Accuracy and Precision
The terms accuracy and precision are constantly used in surveying, yet their correct meanings are
a little difficult to grasp. In an attempt to clarify the distinction, the following definitions are
presented:
Accuracy refers to the degree of perfection obtained in measurements. It denotes how close a given
measurement is to the true value of the quantity.
Precision or apparent accuracy is the degree of refinement with which a given quantity is
measured. In other words, it is the closeness of one measurement to another. If a quantity is
measured several times and the values obtained are very close to each other, the precision is said
to be high
Note: a measurement can be accurate but not precise; precise but not accurate; precise and
accurate; and neither precise nor accurate
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Necessity for Accurate Surveys
The surveyor must have the skill and judgment necessary to make very accurate measurements.
This fact is obvious when one is thinking in terms of the construction of long bridges tunnels. Tall
buildings, and missile sites or the setting of delicate machinery, but it can be just as important in
land surveying. A few decades ago land prices were not extremely high except in and around the
largest cities. If the surveyor gained or lost a few feet in a lot or a few acres in a farm, it was usually
not considered to be a matter of great importance. Hence, accurate measurement has great value
required in executing the surveying based projects effectively.
Sources of Errors
There are three sources of errors; people, instrument and nature. Accordingly, errors in
measurement are generally said to be: personal, instrumental, and natural, however, some errors
do not clearly fit in to one of these categories and may be due to a combination of factors.
1. Personal errors: occur due to human limitations, such as sense of sight and touch. For
instance, in estimating the fractional part of a scale, the surveyor cannot read it perfectly and
will always be either a little large or a little small.
2. Instrumental errors: occur because instruments cannot be manufactured perfectly and the
different parts of instruments cannot be adjusted exactly with respect to each other. Moreover,
with time the wear and tear of the instruments causes errors.
3. Natural errors: are caused by changes in natural phenomena, such as temperature, wind,
humidity, refraction, and magnetic field. For example if a tape has been calibrated at 20c, but
the field temperature is 30 c there will be a natural error due to temperature variation.
Types of Errors
In surveying, errors can be broadly classified into the following two types.
i. Systematic or cumulative errors
ii. Accidental or random errors
i. Systematic errors: Systematic errors follow some well-defined mathematical or physical
law or system. The magnitude and the sign of the systematic errors can be determined and
a suitable correction can be applied to the measured quantity. A systematic error will
always have the same sign and magnitude under the same conditions. For example, if a
30m steel tape has been standardized at a temperature of 20c but the field temperature is
30c the tape will be about 3.5mm too long. This means when the measured distance is
30m, the actual (real) distance is 30.0035m. There is a systematic error of -3.5mm in every
30m-tape length. The systematic errors are cumulative in nature. For example, if in the
above case the total distance is 300m (i.e. 10 tape lengths) the total systematic error will
be 35mm for a field temperature of 30c.
ii. Accidental errors: Accidental errors are random in nature and occur beyond the control
of the surveyor. Random errors do not follow any fixed pattern or law. These errors can be
positive or negative. These errors tend to cancel themselves in a series of measurements,
and are, therefore, also called compensating errors. For instance, when a person reads an
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angle with a surveying instrument, he or she cannot read it perfectly, one time he or she
will read a value that is too large and the next time will read a value that is too small since
these errors are just as likely to have different signs as the other, they tend to a certain
degree to cancel each other or compensate for each other.
Accidental errors occur due to:
Imperfection in the instruments
Human limitation or
Change in atmospheric conditions
Errors, which remain in the measured quantities after mistakes and systematic errors have been
eliminated or corrected, are generally the accidental errors. Mistakes occur in measurements due
to carelessness inattention, inexperience or poor judgment of the surveyor. For example, if the
surveyor reads 13m on a tape as 31m, it would be a mistake.
Definitions
The following definitions should be clearly understood.
i. The standard deviation ( )
The standard deviation is defined as
The standard deviation is also known as the root-mean square (R.M.S) error of a measurement.
The standard deviation is generally used as an indicator to describe the reliability of a set of
repeated measurements. The smaller the value of the standard deviation, the greater the precision
and vice versa.
ii. Most probable error
The most probable error is defined as that error for which there are equal chances that the true
error will be less than the probable error or will be more than the probable error. In other words,
the probability of the true error being less than the probable error is 50% and the probability of
the true error being greater than the probable error is also 50%. This error is also called 50% error,
expressed as E50.
iii. Standard error
Is the probability of the error to occur between + and - it has a percentage of 68.3% this
error is called the standard error. It is also represented as E68.3. In other words, the standard
error is the same as the standard deviation. The standard error establishes the limits with in which
measurements are expected to fall 68.3% of the time.
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iv. Standard error of the mean (m).
The standard error of the mean (m) of a number of observations of the same quantity is given
by:
It is also known as root-mean-square (R-M-S) error of the mean. The standard error of the
mean indicates that the probability of the mean value to be between + m and - m is 68.3%.
v. Maximum error
It is impossible to estimate absolutely maximum error, as it would occur at infinity. In surveying
generally 99.9% error (E99.9) is taken as the maximum error. It corresponds to a range of +3.29
and -3.29. The Maximum error is often used to separate mistakes (gross errors) from the
random errors. If any measurement deviates from the mean by more than ±3.29it is considered
as a mistake, and that measurement is rejected.
vi. Different percentage Errors
Sometimes, the following percentages of error are also required
a. 90% Error (E90) = ± 1.645
b. 95% Error (E95) = ± 1.96
c. 95.5% Error (E95.5) = ± 2.0
d. 99.7% Error (E99.7) = ± 3.0
vii. Most probable error of the mean (Em) of a number of observation of the same
quantity is given by
Example-1 There is a standard error of +10seconds for a measured angle of 71 0 30' 20".
Determine the range for which there are 50% chances that the true value would lie in that range
Also determine the range for the standard error and 99.7% error
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There are 50% chances that the true value lies b/n 710 30' 20" ± 7" or 71 0 30' 13" to 71 0 30' 27"
Obviously, there are 68.3% chances that the true value lies b/n 710 30' 20” ±10" .There are 99.7
% chances that the true value lies b/n 710 30' 20” ±3X10" or 710 29' 50" or 710 30' 50".
viii. Relative precision
The relative precision or the degree of precision is used to express the precision of the various
measurements. It is usually expressed as a ratio of the standard error of the mean (m) to the
mean value (M) of the Quantity
Relative precision = m/M
NOTE: It is usually expressed with numerator as Unit.
Example - if the standard deviation is ± 0.03m for the mean value of the length of the line of
0.03
615.41m ,the relative precision = 1⁄20,500
615.41
Example- Measurements of a line were taken ten times with a steel tape and found to be as
under
100.54m 100.56m 100.38m 100.36m 100.39m
100.46m 100.48m 100.32m 100.47m 100.52m
Assuming that the measurements have been corrected for all systematic errors, determine:
1. Standard deviation ()
2. Standard error of the mean (m)
3. 95.5% error
4. Most probable value
5. Most probable error
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Solution:
Most probable value = mean value =100.448 m 100.45m
Residual (V) = Measured value - mean value
The residuals have been calculated in column (3) the values of V2 are given in column (4)
The standard deviation ()
95.5% error = ± 2= ± 0.16m
Most probable error = ± 0.6745 = ± 0.054m
Example
An angle is measured with a standard deviation of ±2" calculate the most probable error determine
95% error and the maximum error
Most probable error = 0.6745 X
= 0.6745 X= ± 1.349"
95% error (E95) = ± 1.96= ± 1.349"
Maximum error (E99.9) =±3.29=±6.58"
Example
A distance is measured a large number of times and its 90% error is ± 0.8225cm. What is the
standard deviation? What is the percentage error for ± 1.50 cm?
Solution:
E90 = ±1.645
= ± 0.50 cm
99.7% error is equal to 3 = ± 1.50 cm
The required percentage error is 99.7%
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