GE 1111 GENERAL SURVEYING 1

INTRODUCTION

Nearly everyone has at one time or another, seen a surveying crew working alongside
a road or on a local construction site. Most people know that the surveyors are making
measurements of some kind. But not everyone has a full understanding of what is actually
being measured, or an appreciation of the knowledge and skills that are required for the
surveyors to accomplish their task.

THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SURVEYING

Simply stated, surveying involves the measurement of distances and angles. The
distances may be horizontal or vertical in direction. Similarly, the angles may be measured
in a horizontal or vertical plane. Frequently distances are measured on a slope, but they must
eventually be converted to a corresponding horizontal distance, Vertical distances are also
called elevations. Horizontal angles are used to express the directions of land boundaries
and other lines.

There are two fundamental purposes for measuring distances and angles. The first is
to determine the relative positions of existing points or objects on or near the surface of the
earth. The second is to lay out or mark the desired positions of new points or objects which
are to be placed or constructed on or near the earth’s surface specific applications of
surveying which expand upon these two basic purposes.

Surveying measurements must be made with precision in order to achieve a

maximum of accuracy with a minimum expenditure of time and money. The practice of
surveying is an art, because it is dependent upon the skill, judgment, and experience of the
surveyor. Surveying may also be considered to be an applied science, because field and
office procedures rely upon a systematic body of knowledge, related primarily to
mathematics and physics. An understanding of the art and science of surveying is, of course,
necessary for surveying practitioners, as well as for those who must use and interpret
surveying data (architects, construction contractors. geologists, urban planners, as well as
civil engineers).

Basis of Surveying

Surveying is based on the use of precise measuring instruments in the field and on
systematic computational procedures in the office. The instruments may be traditional or
electronic. The computations (primarily of position, direction, area, and volume) involve
applications of geometry, trigonometry, and basic algebra.

Electronic hand-held calculators and digital computers are used to perform office
computations. In the past, surveyors had to perform calculations using trigonometric and
logarithmic tables, mechanical calculators, and slide rules. Today, the availability of
relatively low cost electronic calculators, microcomputers. and surveying software
(computer programs) relieves the modem-day surveyor from many hours of tedious

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 computations. But it is still very important for the surveyor to understand the underlying
mathematical procedures and to be able to perform the step-by-step computations by
applying and solving the appropriate formulas.

The traditional measuring instruments used in the field are the transit or theodolite (to
measure angles), the level and level rod (to measure vertical distances or elevations), and
the steel tape (to measure horizontal distances). The use of these types of instruments is
described in detail in subsequent chapters.

Electronic measuring devices are being used with increasing frequency in surveying
field work. One of the most advanced of these modern instruments is the electronic
recording tacheometer, or total station, as it is also called. It comprises an electronic
distance measuring (EDM) device, an electronic theodolite to measure angles, and an
automatic data recorder. Some companies provide a “field-to-finish” system, complete with
the computer hardware and software needed to analyze and plot the survey data.

The electronic tacheometer and other modem instruments will be discussed again later on
in the text. But the fundamental principles of surveying remain the same, whether the
electronic or the more traditional instruments are used. The beginning student must still learn
these basic principles before using sophisticated modern instruments. In any event, the steel
tape, the transit, and the level will be used for construction and small-scale surveys for many
more years to come. In fact, we shall see later on that the steel tape is more accurate than
most electronic devices when it comes to measuring relatively small horizontal distances.

With skillful use of surveying instruments and with proficient application of field and office
procedures, almost any measurement problem can be solved. Conversely, it is difficult to
solve any problem requiring relatively large and accurate measurements without resorting
to proper surveying methods and instruments.

DEFINITIONS OF SURVEYING

1. Surveying is the art of determining the positions of points on or near the earth’s surface
by means of measurements in the three elements space; namely, distance, direction,
and elevation.- Rayner and Schmidt.
2. Surveying is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects ,
of measuring angles between lines , and of determining the direction of lines, and of
establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements. – Davis,
Foote, Anderson, and Mikhail
3. Surveying is the science or art of making such measurements as are necessary to
determine the relative position of points above, on, or beneath the surface of the
earth, or to establish such points.– Breed, Hosmer and Bone
4. Surveying is that branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of
determining the area of any portion of the earth’s surface, the length and direction
of boundary lines, the contour of the surface, and of accurately delineating the whole
on paper. - Webster

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 5. Surveying is the art of making such measurements of the relative position of points on
the surface of the earth that, on drawing them to scale , natural and artificial features
may be exhibited in their correct horizontal or vertical relationships. – Clarke

TYPES OF SURVEYING

1. PLANE SURVEYING – is that type of surveying in which the earth is considered to be a

flat surface, and where distances and areas involved are of limited extent that the
exact shape of the earth is disregarded.

2. GEODETIC SURVEYING – are surveys of wide extent which take into account the
spheroidal shape of the earth. These surveys employ principles of geodesy, are of high
precision, and the related calculations involve the solving of equations derived from
advance mathematics particularly spherical trigonometry, calculus, and some
applications of the theory of least squares.

DIFFERENT METHODS OF SURVEYING

1. Property Survey

A property survey is performed in order to establish the positions of boundary lines and
property corners. It is also referred to as a land survey or a boundary survey. Property surveys
are usually performed whenever land ownership is to be transferred or when a Large tract
of land is to be subdivided into smaller parcels for development. Also, before the design and
construction of any public or private land-use project can get under way, it is necessary to
accurately establish the legal boundaries of the proposed project site. Constructing a
structure on what later is found to be property that belongs to someone else can be a very
expensive mistake.

2. Topographic Survey

A topographic survey is performed in order to determine the relative positions

(horizontal and vertical) of existing natural and constructed features on a tract of land. Such
features include ground elevations, bodies of water, vegetation, rock outcrops, roads,
buildings. and so on. A topographic survey provides information on the ‘shape of the land.’
Hills, valleys, ridges, and the general slope of the ground can be depicted graphically. The
data obtained from a topographic survey are plotted and drawn as a suitably scaled map.
called a topographic map.

3. Construction Survey

A construction survey, also called a layout or location survey, is performed in order to

mark the position of new points on the ground. These new points represent the location of
building corners, road centerlines, and other facilities that are to be built. These positions are
shown on a site plan, which is essentially a combination of the property survey and
topographic survey, along with the newly designed facilities.

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 4. Control Survey

There are two kinds of control surveys: horizontal and vertical. In a horizontal control
survey, several points are placed in the ground by the surveyor, using wooden stakes, or
more permanent markers such as iron bars and concrete monuments. These points, called
stations, are arranged throughout the site or area under study so that they can be easily
seen and surveyed.

The relative horizontal positions of these points are established, usually with a very high
degree of precision and accuracy; this is done using traverse, triangulation, or trilateration
survey methods. In a vertical control survey, the elevations of relatively permanent reference
points are determined by precise leveling methods. Marked or monumented points of known
elevation are called elevation benchmarks (BMs).The network of stations and benchmarks
provides a framework for horizontal and vertical control, upon which less accurate surveys
can be based. For example, boundary surveys or construction surveys can be tied in to
nearby control survey stations and benchmarks. This minimizes the accumulation of errors
and the cost of making all the measurements precise.

5. Route Survey

A route survey is performed in order to establish horizontal and vertical control, to

obtain topographic data, and to lay out the positions of highways, railroads, streets,
pipelines, or any other linear’ project. In other words, the primary aspect of a route survey is
that the project area is very narrow compared with its length which can extend for many
kilometers or miles.

6.HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY
A hydrographic survey is a preliminary survey applied to a natural body of water. It
serves to gather data for mapping the shoreline and for charting the water depths of a river,
lake, or harbor. In effect, an underwater topographic map is prepared from a hydrographic
survey. Navigation and water resources planning projects depend upon data obtained from
hydrographic surveys.

The surveying and mapping of sea, river, harbor, or lake bottoms to ensure safe
navigation depths are done by hand soundings located by observations to or from control
points on shore. Sonar soundings with simultaneous radar-type location of the sounding
vessel also permit rapid and exact charting (see Radar; Sonar; Sounding). Farther out from
the shore, less accuracy of location results; Loran devices are used for this purpose, and
satellite-navigation devices are also used for fairly accurate offshore positioning of vessels
furnished with modern equipment. See National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

7. RECONNAISANCE SURVEY
A reconnaissance survey is a preliminary survey conducted to get very rough data
regarding a tract of land. Distances may be approximated by pacing, and spot elevations
may be obtained with the use of only a hand level. Examination of aerial photographs may
also serve as part of a reconnaissance survey. Photogrammetric surveying uses relatively
accurate methods to convert aerial photographs into useful topographic maps.

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 8. MINE SURVEYS

Mining surveying is used to establish surface location and boundaries of mining claims.
During mining or tunneling operations, the mine survey helps to establish the location of the
underground workings horizontally and vertically, to lay out shaft connections, and to guide
the tunneling, this is three-dimensional traversing, not essentially different from surface
surveying.

9. CADASTRAL SURVEYS
Cadastral surveys are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in urban and rural

locations for the purpose of determining and defining property lines and boundaries,
corners, and areas. These surveys are also made to fix the boundaries of municipalities,
towns, and provincial jurisdictions.

10. PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SURVEYS

Photogrammetric survey is a type of survey which make use of photographs taken
with specially designed cameras either from airplane or ground stations. Measurements are
obtained from photographs which are used in conjunction with limited ground surveys.

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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 6