1.

Overview of Particle Physics

Joan Soto

Universitat de Barcelona )
Departament de Fı́sica Quàntica i Astrofı́sica
Institut de Ciències del Cosmos

[email protected]
[email protected]
6.17 (new part)
16:30-17:30 - Thurday

Evaluation:

Theory - 2/3 of the course aprox.

. 70% exercises (compulsory and optional)
. 30% final exam (only theory)
Experiment - 1/3
 1.1 Elementary Particles and Interactions

Key questions:

Which are the elementary building blocks of nature?

Which are the interactions among them?

Answers are space-time dependent:

Ancient Greeks: earth, water, air and fire

...
Current pragmatical view: it depends on the energy scale we probe
nature

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 Energy Elementary Interactions Range Mediator
Particles
≲ eV atoms complicated long (Van der ??
potentials Waals)
∼ keV e − , nuclei e.m. long ??
potentials (Coulomb)
∼ MeV e − ,e + , p, n, e.m. long photon
νe , ν̄e strong short ?
weak zero ?
∼ GeV plus µ− , νµ , e.m. long photon
light hadrons, strong short pion?mesons?
and their an- weak zero ?
tiparticles
∼ 10 GeV plus τ, e.m. long photon
ντ , quarks strong short (?) gluon (?)
(u,d,s,c,b) and weak zero ?
their antiparti-
cles
∼ TeV plus W ± , Z 0 , e.m. long photon
t, H 0 strong long gluon
weak short W ±, Z 0

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 Natural Units
At subatomic scales, we need Quantum Mechanics =⇒ there will be ℏ in all
formulas
At high speeds, we need Special Relativity =⇒ there will be c in all formulas
A clever way to avoid the proliferation of ℏ and c is just not writting them, namely
taking ℏ = c = 1. Then
Any dimensionful magnitude reduces to some power of energy (eV).
SI units are recovered by plugging in the appropriated powers of ℏ and c, and
using 1 eV ≃ 1.6 10−19 J
It is more convenient to develope intuition in natural units:
ERydberg = 13.6 eV, me ≃ 0.5 MeV, mp ≃ 940 MeV
However, for distances (L) and cross sections (L2 ) traditional units are still used:
Fermis (fm) for distances (1 fm = 10−15 m, ℏc ≃ 197 MeV fm, rp ∼ 0.84 fm)
Barns (b) for cross sections (1 b= 100 fm2 , σnp→np
thermal total
≃ 82 b, σpp (13 TeV) ∼ 110
total
mb, σpp→Z 0 (13 TeV) ≃ 2 nb)
The most relevant physical magnitudes and conversion factors can be found here

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 The Standard Model
Elementary Particles and Interactions at energies ≲ 10 TeV

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 Apparent puzzles:

Quarks and gluons are not observed as free particles, why?

Gluons are massless but strong interactions short range, why?

Is that all? Definitely not:

Gravity
▶ Extremelly weak, neglegible at subatomic distances
▶ Long range =⇒ massless mediator
▶ Gravitational wave detection, indirect (1974) and direct (2015)
suggests that an additional elementary particle exists, the graviton.
Dark Matter
▶ Gravitational effects detected at galactic and cosmological level
▶ No e.m. signals observed
▶ Suggests that at least one new kind of particle must exist

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 The highest energies in nature

Collider
▶ Present: LHC ∼ 13 TeV
▶ Future: FCC(hh) ∼ 100 TeV, FCC(he) ∼ 50 TeV, FCC(ee) ∼ 30 TeV
Cosmic rays
▶ Ultrahigh Energy Cosmic Rays (UHECR), E > 104 TeV
▶ World record E ∼ 3.108 TeV (Utah, 1991)

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 Tools
At subatomic scales, we need Quantum Mechanics
At high speeds, we need Special Relativity
The combination of these two theories leads to Quantum Field Theory:
The states contain an arbitrary number of particles
The states correspond to unitary representations of the Poincaré group (ISO(3, 1))
▶ The irreducibe unitary representations of ISO(3, 1) are characterized by

m 2 ∈ R+ , p ∈ R3 , J ∈ Z+ /2 , J3

⋆ If m ̸= 0, J3 = −J, −J + 1, . . . , J − 1, J
⋆ If m = 0, J3 = −J, J
▶ Elementary particles are expected to follow this pattern, even beyond
the Standard Model (SM)
▶ No hint of Poincaré invariance violation has been observed so far

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 In the SM:
1
Matter Fields: J = 2
▶ Quarks and charged leptons: m ̸= 0
▶ Neutrinos: m ∼ 0
Mediators: J = 1
▶ Photons and gluons: m = 0
▶ W ± , Z 0 : m ̸= 0
Higgs: J = 0, m ̸= 0

Beyond the SM (expected):

Graviton: J = 2, m = 0
Dark Matter J =?, m =?
...

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 Strength of the Interactions
E ∼ mp ∼ 1 GeV E ∼ mZ ∼ 100 GeV
(low energy physics) (high energy physics)
Strong αs (mp ) ∼ 1 αs (mZ ) ∼ 0.1
Electromagnetic 1
α(mp ) ∼ 137 ∼ 10−2 1
α(mZ ) ∼ 129 ∼ 10−2
m2 G
Weak GF mp2 ∼ 10−5 αW (mZ ) = W4π F
∼ 0.58 α ∼ 10−2
Gravity Gmp2 ∼ 10−39 GmZ2 ∼ 10−35

GF ∼ 1.66 10−5 GeV−2 , G ∼ 6.7 10−39 GeV−2 , mp ∼ 0.94 GeV, mW ∼ 80 GeV, mZ ∼ 91 GeV.
At E ∼ mZ weak and electromagnetic interactions have the same strength =⇒
Electroweak unification
Is there a scale where strong and electroweak interactions have the same strength?
▶ Yes, E ∼ 1016 GeV, Grand Unification scale
Is there a scale where gravity becomes as important as the other interactions?
1
▶ Yes, E ∼ G − 2 ∼ 1019 GeV, Planck scale

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 Conservation laws
Related to space-time symmetries:
▶ Energy and momentum conservation
▶ Angular momentum conservation
Related to internal symmetries:
▶ Electric charge
▶ Baryonic number (B)
▶ Leptonic number (L)
⋆ Electronic, muonic and tauonic numbers are conserved in the SM, but
not in nature (neutrino oscillations)
⋆ Subtle quantum effects violate both B and L at (nowadays)
unobservable level in the SM so that only B+L is actually conserved
Strong and electromagnetic interactions also conserve
▶ Parity
▶ Charge conjugation
▶ Time reversal
▶ Flavor

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 1.2 Baryons and Mesons

In the SM quarks and gluons are the building blocks of the strong interactions,
but in nature only hadrons, particular combinations of quarks and antiquarks,
mostly mesons and baryons, are observed.
Why free quarks and gluons are not observed?
Why the strong interactions are short range if the gluon is massless?
Why only particular combinations of quarks and antiquarks are observed?

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 Mesons and baryons can be organized in representations of SU(2), Isospin
Lighter Mesons

Meson Mass (MeV) Decay width (MeV) J PC Isospin

(π , π 0 , π − )
+
140 Γπ+ →µ+ νµ = 2.5 10−14 0−+ 1
(u d̄ , [uū , d d̄] , d ū) Γπ0 →γγ = 7.7 10−6
f0 (500) or σ 400 − 550 400 − 700 0++ 0
η ([uū , d d̄]) 548 1.3 10−3 0−+ 0
(ρ+ , ρ0 , ρ− ) 770 148 1−− 1
(u d̄ , [uū , d d̄] , d ū)
ω ([uū , d d̄]) 782 8.5 1−− 0

▶ Except for the σ, the remaining particles can be understood as

composed of a quark and an antiquark with spin J = 1/2 and isospin
I = 1/2 in a state of L = 0 orbital angular momentum. The up (u) and
down (d) components of the isospin doublet must have electric charges
Qu = 2/3e and Qd = −1/3e.
1 1 1 1
J= ⊗ =0⊕1 , I= ⊗ =0⊕1
2 2 2 2
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 Lighter Baryons

Baryon Mass (MeV) Decay width (MeV) JP Isospin

−49 1+ 1
(p , n) 940 Γp < 4.9 10 2 2
(uud , udd) Γn→p e − ν̄e = 6.3 10−25
3+
(∆++ , ∆+ , ∆0 , ∆− ) 1.232 117 2
3
2
(uuu , uud , udd , ddd)

▶ Can be understood as composed of three quarks in a state where all

orbital angular momentum are zero.
1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 3
J= ⊗ ⊗ = ⊕ ⊕ , I= ⊗ ⊗ = ⊕ ⊕
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
But:
⋆ The 3/2 representation is totally symmetric under the exchange of any
of the two quarks =⇒ ∆s violate Pauli principle

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 Color
We need a new quantum number such that the product of the three fundamental
representations gives a totally antisymmetric representation
This is achieved assuming that quarks are in the fundamental representation of
SU(3)
However:
Color multiplets are not observed
▶ The dynamics must only allow color singlet states as observable states
▶ The product of three fundamental representations must contain a color
singlet one
This is achieved in QCD, which has the gluons (8) as mediators
Quarks (3), antiquarks (3∗ ) and gluons (8) must be combined to form color singlet
states (1). We shall see by studying the products of SU(3) representations that:

3 ⊗ 3∗ = 1 ⊕ 8 , 3 ⊗ 3 = 3∗ ⊕ 6 , 3 ⊗ 3 ⊗ 3 = 1 ⊕ 8 ⊕ 8 ⊕ 10

Hence, quark-antiquark and three quark states can exist as physical states but quarks,
gluons or quark-quark states cannot.

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 Are there hadrons beyond mesons and baryons?
▶ QCD allows it
▶ σ and κ are most likely two-quark two-antiquark states
▶ Unambiguous identification requires heavy quarks:
⋆ Tetraquarks:Zc (3900) (uc d̄ c̄ , [uc ūc̄ , dc d̄ c̄] , dc ūc̄), Zb (10610)
(ub d̄ b̄ , [ubū b̄ , db d̄ b̄] , dbū b̄), Zcs (3985) (csc̄ ū , csc̄ d̄), X (6900)
(ccc̄c̄), Tcc (3875) (cc d̄ d̄ , [cc ū d̄ , cc d̄ ū] , cc ūū), . . .
⋆ Pentaquarks:Pc (4312)+ (uudcc̄), . . .

At low energies, the strong interactions are short range, because the lightest
physical states are the pions (mπ ∼ 140 MeV)

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 1.3 Weak interactions

Typical decay width of hadron resonances (ρ,ω,∆) ∼ 1-100 MeV

But the hadrons in the lightest isospin multiplets (π ± ,π 0 ,p,n) have much
smaller decay widths
▶ Isospin is (approximately) conserved in the strong interactions
▶ The hadrons in the lightest isospin multiplets must decay through a
different interaction
⋆ Electromagnetic (π 0 ). Decay width ∼ 10−5 MeV
⋆ Weak (π ± ,n). Decay widths ∼ 10−14 -10−24 MeV

Weak interactions are also necessary to explain:

Muon decay Γµ− →e − ν̄e νµ = 2.6 10−16 MeV
Decays of the lightest strange hadrons: ΓK ± = 4.6 10−16 MeV,
ΓKS0 = 6.3 10−12 MeV, ΓKL0 = 1.1 10−14 MeV, ΓΛ0 = 2.1 10−12 MeV

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 Strangeness
Produced as particle-antiparticle pairs at the rate of strong interactions
Organized in isospin multiplets
The hadrons in the lightest multiplet decay through the weak interactions
=⇒ Strangeness is conserved by the strong interactions
Strange mesons
Meson Mass (MeV) Decay width (MeV) J PC I S
(K + , K 0 ) 495 ΓK + = 4.6 10−16 0− 1
2
1
(us̄ , ds̄) ΓK 0 = 6.3 10−12 -1.1 10−14
(K̄ 0 , K − ) 495 ΓK − = 4.6 10−16 0− 1
2
-1
(s d̄ , s ū) ΓK̄ 0 = 6.3 10−12 -1.1 10−14
K0∗ (700) or κ 824 478 0+ 1
2
1
(K ∗+ , K ∗0 ) 892 48 1− 1
2
1
(us̄ , ds̄)
(K̄ ∗ 0 , K ∗− ) 892 48 1− 1
2
-1
(s d̄ , s ū)
η ′ ([uū , d d̄ , ss̄]) 958 0.19 0−+ 0 0
ϕ (ss̄) 1020 4.2 1−− 0 0

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 Except for the κ, the remaining particles can be understood as composed of a
quark and an antiquark with spin J = 1/2 and isospin I = 1/2, and an extra quark,
the strange one, with J = 1/2 and I = 0 in a state of L = 0 orbital angular
momentum. The electric charge of the strange quark must be Qs = −1/3e.
Strange baryons
Baryon Mass (MeV) Decay width (MeV) J PC I S
−12 1+
Λ (uds) 1116 2.1 10 2
0 -1
1+
(Σ+ , Σ0 , Σ− ) 1190 ΓΣ+ = 7.0 10−12 2
1 -1
(uus , uds , dds) ΓΣ0 = 7.5 10−3
ΓΣ− = 3.7 10−12
1+
(Ξ0 , Ξ− ) 1318 ΓΞ0 = 1.9 10−12 2
1
2
-2
(uss , dss) ΓΞ− = 3.4 10−12
3+
(Σ∗+ , Σ∗0 , Σ∗− ) 1385 37 2
1 -1
(uus , uds , dds)
3+
(Ξ∗0 , Ξ∗− ) 1530 9.5 2
1
2
-2
(uss , dss)
3+
Ω− (sss) 1672 6.8 10−12 2
0 -3

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 Discret Symmetries

Parity (P) and Charge conjugation (C ) are violated in a maximal way

Additional small violations of CP in neutral kaon decays

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 1.4 More generations
Charm
The existence of an extra quark beyond up, down and strange ones was predicted
on basis that weak decays that change the quark flavor but not the electric charge
(flavor changing neutral currents) were not observed (∼ 1970). It was called
charm (c)(Qc = 2/3e, I = 0) .
The existence of charm was necessary in the electroweak theory (∼ 1967)
It was discovered in e + e − → γ ∗ → J/ψ in 1974, interpreting J/ψ as a (cc̄)
bound state

mJ/ψ = 3097MeV , ΓJ/ψ = 0.093MeV , J PC = 1−−

Charm mesons
Meson Mass (MeV) Decay width (MeV) J PC I C
(D + , D 0 ) 1870 ΓD + = 5.6 10−10 0− 1
2
1
(c d̄ , c ū) ΓD 0 = 1.4 10−9
(D ∗+ , D ∗0 ) 2010 0.083 1− 1
2
1
(c d̄ , c ū)
ηc (cc̄) 2980 30 0−+ 0 0
J/ψ (cc̄) 3100 0.093 1−− 0 0

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 Bottom

It was also discovered in e + e − → γ ∗ → Υ in 1977, interpreting Υ as a (b b̄)

bound state (Qb = −1/3 e, I=0)

mΥ = 9460 MeV , ΓΥ = 0.054 MeV , J PC = 1−−

The electroweak theory implied then the existence of another quark, the top (t)
Bottom and top were necessary to explain the CP-violation observed in the decays
of the neutral kaons
Bottom mesons
Meson Mass (MeV) Decay width (MeV) J PC I B
(B + , B 0 ) 5280 ΓB + = 3.4 10−10 0− 1
2
1
(u b̄ , d b̄) ΓB 0 = 3.7 10−10
(B ∗+ , B ∗0 ) 5325 ? 1− 1
2
1
(u b̄ , d b̄)
ηb (b b̄) 9400 10 0−+ 0 0
Υ (b b̄) 9460 0.054 1−− 0 0

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 QCD behaves very differently at the scale of the light quarks (u , d , s) than at the scale
of the heavy quarks (c , b)

q = u, d b b̄ bq̄ cc̄ c q̄ ss̄ s q̄ qq̄(I = 0) qq̄(I = 1)

m1− −m0−
m1− +m0−
0.003 0.004 0.020 0.036 0.031 0.28 0.17 0.69

There is an approximate spin symmetry for hadrons containing one or two heavy
quarks
This is similar to the hydrogen atom and positronium
The decay width of Q Q̄, Q = c , b are larger for the 0−+ state than for the 1−−
state, like in positronium
Suggests that QCD at high energies has similarities with QED
Top
The last of the known quarks, the top (Qt = 2/3 e), was discovered in 1995 at the
Tevatron, a pp̄ collider

mt = 172 GeV , Γt = 1.4 GeV

It decays due to the weak interactions before forming hadrons (GF mt2 ∼ 0.34)

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