Assignment 4

Q 1 Define the following terms

a) Luminous Intensity:

• Luminous intensity is a measure of the amount of visible light emitted by a

source in a particular direction. It quantifies the brightness of the light in that
direction, focusing on how the human eye perceives the light.
• The unit for luminous intensity is the candela (cd). One candela represents the
luminous intensity of a light source that emits one lumen per steradian (a
measure of the solid angle).
• In simpler terms, it tells us how much light is concentrated in a specific
direction, unlike total light output, which measures the light emitted in all
directions.

b) Luminous Flux:
 • Luminous flux is the total amount of visible light emitted
by a light source in all directions. It measures how
much light energy is being radiated by the source,
considering how the human eye perceives brightness.
The unit for luminous flux is the lumen (lm).
• In simpler terms, luminous flux tells you how much light
a bulb or lamp produces overall, regardless of the
direction in which it shines.

c) Mean Spherical Candle Power:

• Mean Spherical Candlepower (MSCP) is a measurement

that represents the average luminous intensity of a light
source in all directions. It is the average of the light emitted
by a lamp in all directions around it, measured in candelas
(cd).
• The idea is to quantify the overall brightness of a light source
by averaging its intensity across all angles. MSCP is
particularly useful for sources like light bulbs, where the light
is emitted in multiple directions, and you want to get an idea
of the overall brightness, not just in a specific direction.
• In short, MSCP gives the average brightness of a light
source in every direction, unlike regular luminous intensity,
which focuses on a specific direction.

Mean spherical candle power = total flux/4pi

d) Utilisation Factor:

• The Utilisation Factor (UF) is a measure used in

lighting design to express how efficiently the light
emitted by a light source is used to illuminate a specific
area. It represents the ratio of the total luminous flux
(light) that reaches the working area or the target
 surface to the total luminous flux produced by the light
source.
• Mathematically:

• The UF depends on several factors, including the type

of light fixture, the room's geometry, surface reflectivity,
and the positioning of the lights. A higher UF means
that more of the light generated is being effectively
used to illuminate the desired area.
• In simple terms, the utilisation factor tells you how well
the light from a lamp or lighting system is being used to
brighten the space you're concerned with, like a room
or an office.

e) Reduction Factor:

• The Reduction Factor (RF) in lighting design refers to

the ratio used to account for various losses in the
lighting system over time. It represents how much the
light output is reduced due to factors such as dirt
accumulation on light fixtures, lamp aging, and other
environmental conditions. Essentially, it helps predict
the decrease in the performance of a lighting system
over its operational lifetime.
• The formula for the reduction factor can be expressed
as:

• For example, if a lighting system initially produces

100% of its intended light output, but due to dust and
aging, it produces only 80% over time, the reduction
factor would be 0.8.
• In simple terms, the reduction factor helps lighting
designers account for the expected decrease in lighting
 efficiency, so they can plan for proper illumination over
the long term.

f) Lamp Efficiency:

• Lamp efficiency (also known as luminous efficacy) is a

measure of how well a lamp converts electrical energy into
visible light. It is expressed as the ratio of the lamp’s
luminous flux (light output) to the electrical power it
consumes.
• The formula for lamp efficiency is:

• It is measured in lumens per watt (lm/W).

• A higher lamp efficiency means the lamp produces more light
for the same amount of power, making it more energy-
efficient. For example, LED bulbs typically have higher lamp
efficiency compared to incandescent bulbs, meaning they
use less electricity to produce the same amount of light.
• In simple terms, lamp efficiency tells you how much light you
get from a bulb for the electricity it uses.

g) Maintenance Factor:

• The Maintenance Factor (MF) is a measure used in lighting

design to account for the decrease in the performance of a
lighting system over time due to factors such as lamp aging,
dirt accumulation, and wear of components. It is the ratio of
the actual light output at a given time to the initial light output
when the lighting system was new.
• The formula for the maintenance factor is:
 • A higher maintenance factor means the lighting system
maintains its performance well over time, while a lower
maintenance factor indicates a significant reduction in light
output.
• In simple terms, the maintenance factor helps account for the
drop in light levels over time, allowing lighting designers to
plan for adequate illumination throughout the life of the
system. For example, if a system initially provides 100% light
but only 80% after a few years, the maintenance factor would
be 0.8.

h) Beam Factor:

• The Beam Factor (BF) is a measure used in lighting to

describe how effectively a light source concentrates its
luminous flux within a specific beam angle or direction. It
represents the ratio of the luminous flux emitted within the
beam of a light source (usually a spotlight or directional light)
to the total luminous flux emitted by the light source.
• Mathematically:

• In simpler terms, the beam factor tells you how much of the
light from a source is focused in a particular direction, as
opposed to being spread out in all directions. A higher beam
factor means the light is more concentrated within the beam,
while a lower beam factor means more light is scattered
outside of the beam.

i) Reflection Factor:

• The Reflection Factor (also known as Reflectance) is the

ratio of the amount of light that is reflected off a surface to
 the amount of light that strikes the surface. It indicates how
much of the incident light is bounced back from a surface,
rather than being absorbed.
• Mathematically:

• The reflection factor is expressed as a number between 0

and 1 (or as a percentage). A reflection factor of 1 (or 100%)
means all the light is reflected, while a reflection factor of 0
means no light is reflected, and all is absorbed.
• In simple terms, the reflection factor tells you how reflective a
surface is. For example, a white wall has a high reflection
factor because it reflects most of the light, while a dark-
colored surface has a low reflection factor because it
absorbs more light.

j) Solid Angle:

• In the context of illumination, a solid angle helps describe

how light is distributed from a source in three-dimensional
space. It quantifies the amount of light emitted in a specific
direction relative to a point, such as a light bulb or lamp.
• When considering illumination:
• Illuminance is the amount of light falling on a surface,
measured in lux (lx).
• The solid angle is relevant when calculating how much light
is directed towards a specific area from a light source.
• Formula in Terms of Illuminance:
• The illuminance EEE on a surface can be related to the
luminous flux Φ\PhiΦ and the solid angle Ω\OmegaΩ as
follows:
• Illuminance (E) = Luminous Flux (Φ) / Area (A), where
Area (A) = r² × Ω.
• Here, r is the distance from the light source to the surface,
and Ω is the solid angle subtended by the area.
• This relationship shows how the distribution of light in three-
dimensional space (solid angle) influences the illumination
received on a surface.

Q2 Explain the following Laws

Q3. Explain construction and working of filament lamp compare it with
fluorescent lamp.

Glass Bulb
An incandescent lamp has a glass enclosure including a tungsten
filament.
Inert Gas
The inert gas used to fill the light bulb is argon/nitrogen to reduce the
evaporation of the filament. So it increases the life of the lamp by
preventing the filament from falling too quickly.
Tungsten Filament
The Filament in the lamp is the thread or wire that lights up once you
turn it on. The material used to make this filament is Tungsten metal
because the melting point of this is very high and also heat resistant.
Contact Wires
The base of the bulb with two connections is called contact wires which
provide electrical connections toward the filament.
Support Wires
Support wires are small wires which are connected to the stem to give
support to the filament of the lamp.
Glass Mount or Support
Incandescent light bulbs include a glass mount that is connected to the
base of the lap which permits the electrical contacts to run throughout
the envelope without air or gas leaks.
Screw Thread
Most of the lamps screw into a socket. In household bulbs, a medium
screw base is used which is called an Edison screw. Its diameter is 1¹⁄16
inches including seven threads for every inch.
Insulation
The base of the lamp is made of brass originally & protected with plaster
of Paris & after that porcelain. Nowadays, aluminum is used at the
outside of the lamp & glass is used to protect the inner base so that a
stronger base can be formed.
Electrical Foot Contact
At the base of a lamp or light bulb is known as electrical foot contacts
which are coated with a material to protect the electricity. These two
contacts will help in connecting with an electricity source.
Incandescent Lamp Working
An incandescent lamp mainly works on the incandescence principle
which means the light can be generated through heat. In this type of
lamp, the current is supplied throughout a thin metal filament. Once the
filament is heated then it glows to generate light.
Generally, these lamps use a tungsten filament due to their high melting
point. The filament in this bulb can reach 4,500 degrees F temperatures.
A glass enclosure avoids oxygen within the air from reaching the
filament otherwise the filament gets overheated & oxidized within
seconds. This incandescent lamp works quite well in generating light. So
it is suitable for a wide range of applications.
Q. 4 Write Short Notes on the following.

A) Street Lighting:
• Street Lighting
• Purpose: Provides safety and visibility for pedestrians and
vehicles at night while enhancing the aesthetics of public spaces.
• Types of Lights: Common types include LED (energy-efficient),
High-Pressure Sodium (HPS) (warm yellow light), and Metal
Halide (better color rendering), each with distinct advantages.
• Illuminance Levels: Proper illumination levels, measured in lux
(lx), are crucial for safety, varying based on the type of area (e.g.,
residential vs. commercial).
• Design Considerations: Factors like pole height, spacing, beam
angle, and light distribution are essential for achieving uniform
illumination and minimizing dark spots.
• Energy Efficiency: Modern street lighting emphasizes reducing
energy consumption through technologies like LED lamps, smart
lighting (motion sensors), and renewable energy sources.
• Environmental Impact: Addressing glare and light pollution is
important; sustainable practices include effective shielding and the
use of energy-efficient designs.

B) Essential Requirement of Good Lighting:

• Requirements of Good Lighting

• Adequate Illumination: Provides sufficient brightness for visibility
and comfort in various tasks and activities.
• Uniform Distribution: Ensures even light distribution to minimize
shadows and dark spots, enhancing safety and reducing eye
strain.
• Energy Efficiency: Utilizes minimal energy while maintaining
adequate illumination, contributing to cost savings and
sustainability.
• Low Glare: Minimizes harsh brightness and glare to ensure visual
comfort and reduce eye fatigue.
• Aesthetic Appeal: Enhances the visual appeal of spaces,
contributing positively to the overall ambiance and design.
• Maintenance and Durability: Features that are easy to maintain
and have a long lifespan to reduce replacement frequency and
costs.

C) Compact Fluorescent Lamp

• Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL)

• Energy Efficiency:
• Uses 70-80% less energy than incandescent bulbs, leading to cost
savings on electricity bills.
• Lifespan:
• Lasts 7,000 to 15,000 hours, significantly longer than the 1,000
hours typical for incandescent bulbs.
• Light Output:
• Produces comparable light (lumens) while consuming much less
wattage.
• Design:
• Compact design fits standard fixtures, making it versatile for
various applications.
• Warm-Up Time:
• May take time to reach full brightness, especially in colder
temperatures, though newer models warm up faster.
• Environmental Impact:
• Contains a small amount of mercury, requiring careful disposal to
minimize environmental harm.
• Advantages:
• Lower energy costs and reduced heat emission compared to
incandescent bulbs.
• Disadvantages:
• Requires careful disposal due to mercury content and may not be
suitable for all fixtures (e.g., dimmers).

D) Flood Lighting:

• Flood Lighting
• Purpose:
• Provides broad illumination for large outdoor areas like sports
fields, parking lots, and building exteriors.
• Light Distribution:
• Features a wide beam angle (60 to 120 degrees) for even
coverage across extensive spaces.
• Types of Flood Lights:
• LED: Energy-efficient and long-lasting.
• Halogen: Bright but less efficient and generates more heat.
• Metal Halide: Good color rendering but shorter lifespan than
LEDs.
• Applications:
• Used in sports arenas, construction sites, security lighting, and
outdoor events.
• Energy Efficiency:
• Modern LED floodlights consume less energy while providing high
brightness, reducing electricity costs.
• Advantages:
• Versatile for various applications and enhances security by
improving visibility.
• Disadvantages:
• May contribute to light pollution if not properly shielded and may
require maintenance for some types.
• Flood lighting is an effective solution for enhancing safety and
aesthetics in outdoor environments.

Q5 Explain different types of lighting schemes

Types of Lighting Schemes in Terms of Illumination

1. Ambient Lighting:
o Definition: Provides general illumination that fills a space
with light.
o Characteristics: Creates a comfortable overall brightness
without harsh shadows; typically uniform across the area.
o Examples: Ceiling-mounted fixtures, chandeliers.
2. Task Lighting:
o Definition: Offers focused illumination for specific activities
or tasks.
o Characteristics: Bright and directed light to reduce eye
strain and enhance visibility for detailed work.
o Examples: Desk lamps, under-cabinet lights in kitchens.
3. Accent Lighting:
o Definition: Highlights particular features or objects in a
space.
o Characteristics: Provides higher intensity light on specific
areas, creating contrast and visual interest.
o Examples: Track lighting focused on artwork, wall-mounted
spotlights.
4. Decorative Lighting:
o Definition: Primarily designed for aesthetic purposes rather
than functional illumination.
o Characteristics: Enhances the decor while providing soft,
ambient light; often contributes to the overall illumination
scheme.
o Examples: Decorative chandeliers, unique pendant lights.
5. Natural Lighting:
o Definition: Utilizes daylight to illuminate indoor spaces.
o Characteristics: Varies throughout the day; can create a
dynamic and changing illumination effect that enhances
mood.
o Examples: Windows, skylights, light tubes.
6. Emergency Lighting:
o Definition: Provides illumination during power outages or
emergencies.
o Characteristics: Typically brighter and strategically placed
to ensure safe evacuation and visibility in critical areas.
o Examples: Exit signs, battery-operated emergency lights.
7. Low-Level Lighting:
o Definition: Offers gentle illumination to enhance safety and
visibility without bright lighting.
o Characteristics: Creates a soft glow, often used for
navigation and ambiance without disturbing the overall
lighting scheme.
o Examples: Night lights, step lights, and pathway lighting.
8. Smart Lighting:
o Definition: Provides customizable and adjustable
illumination through technology.
o Characteristics: Can change brightness and color, allowing
for personalized lighting schemes that suit various activities
and moods.
o Examples: Smart bulbs and LED strips that can be
controlled via apps.

Q6 Comparison Table
 Q7 Write Short note on Sources of Light

Sources of Light in Terms of Illumination

Light sources play a crucial role in providing illumination for various
applications, enhancing visibility, safety, and aesthetics. Here are
the primary sources of light in terms of illumination:
1. Natural Light:
o Definition: Light from the sun, which is the most significant
source of illumination.
o Characteristics: Provides bright, diffuse light during the day;
varies in intensity and color temperature based on the time of
day and weather.
 o Applications: Used in homes and buildings to reduce
energy costs and improve mood through daylighting
strategies like windows and skylights.
2. Incandescent Lamps:
o Definition: Traditional electric light bulbs that produce light
by heating a filament until it glows.
o Characteristics: Warm color temperature (around 2700K);
good color rendering but low energy efficiency (about 10-
15% efficient).
o Applications: Commonly used in residential lighting for
ambiance and decorative purposes.
3. Fluorescent Lamps:
o Definition: Gas-discharge lamps that produce light through a
chemical reaction between mercury vapor and phosphor
coating.
o Characteristics: More energy-efficient (up to 75% less than
incandescent) with a longer lifespan; available in various
color temperatures.
o Applications: Widely used in commercial and industrial
settings for general and task lighting.
4. LED (Light Emitting Diode) Lamps:
o Definition: Solid-state lighting that produces light when an
electric current passes through a semiconductor.
o Characteristics: Highly energy-efficient (up to 80% less
energy than incandescent), long lifespan (15,000 to 50,000
hours), and versatile in color temperature and intensity.
o Applications: Used in residential, commercial, and outdoor
lighting, including decorative and architectural applications.
5. Halogen Lamps:
o Definition: A type of incandescent lamp that contains
halogen gas, allowing for higher temperatures and efficiency.
o Characteristics: Brighter and more efficient than traditional
incandescent bulbs, with a longer lifespan; produces a crisp,
white light.
o Applications: Common in spotlights, floodlights, and
automotive lighting.
6. Metal Halide Lamps:
 o Definition: A type of high-intensity discharge lamp that
contains metal halides, providing bright light with good color
rendering.
o Characteristics: Energy-efficient and produces a bright,
white light; used for outdoor and high-ceiling applications.
o Applications: Common in sports facilities, street lighting,
and industrial spaces.
7. Neon and Xenon Lamps:
o Definition: Gas-discharge lamps that produce light through
electrical discharge in neon or xenon gas.
o Characteristics: Neon lamps provide a soft glow in various
colors; xenon lamps offer bright illumination with high color
temperature.
o Applications: Used for decorative lighting, signage, and in
photography for bright, white light.

All theory questions covered.