Communications:

Theory
Agenda:
• Modern communications
• What is Radio?
• Analog vs Digital and Radio Wave
Propagation
• Antennas
• Types of Radios & Handheld Radios
• Analog & Digital Comms and Security
• SIGINT
• High Frequency Comms
• PACE Plan and Scenarios
Modern Communications
• Cellular Phones, Internet (via Wi-Fi) and social media are typically
used for modern communications
• Current tech is completely reliant on external systems, the electric grid,
and intermediate infrastructure
• Communications between individuals require a separate service (such as ISPs,
cell phone service providers, mail service)
• Multiple pieces of the puzzle must fit together to make it all work for a single
phone call or text
• Countries/Companies have lost these services before, leading to chaos
Modern Communications
• Radio gives one the option for talking with others without the
need to rely on these services
• Radio does not require any intermediate infrastructure, paid
services, or the electric grid to operate
• However, often some intermediate infrastructure such as repeaters
or satellites are used
What is Radio?
• Established in the early 20th century as a method of
communication which bypassed wired telegraphs
• Use of a transmitter & receiver (combined:
transceiver) to speak with other operators via
Radio Frequency (RF) Radiation
• Many different frequencies may be used and all
carry strengths and weaknesses
• Signals sent by manipulated RF waves to transmit
human speech or data
What is Radio?
• There are different classes of radio based on use and license needed.
• CB – License free radio with set channels on the 11m band (not FM)
• FRS – License free radio with set channels within UHF range (FM)
• “Walkie-Talkies”
• GMRS – Licensed radio service with set channels within the UHF range (FM)
• Shares some channels with FRS
• Amateur – Licensed radio service with different classes of service (All modes)
• Technician class most common – VHF/UHF mostly
• General and amateur classes can do all types of propagation even on HF
• Land Mobile – Licensed radio service for public service, commercial, and military
• All types of bands, UHF and VHF most common, additionally 700-800 MHz
Analog vs Digital Radio Waves
Radio Wave Propagation
Radio Wave Types and Behavior
Antennas: Directionality
• Most antennas used are omni-directional, thus equally send RF out in all
directions (less efficient).
• A directional antenna allows for greater range/clarity of signals as well as
preventing easy interception
• Directional antennas are easy to see based on their use of reflective elements to
concentrate the signal….think a lamp vs a flashlight.
Antennas: Length and polarization
• Antenna length is based on the frequency used: The lower the
frequency the longer the antenna needed
• 1/4 wave or 1/2 wave?
• The ideal antenna is 1/2 of the wavelength. While half-wave antennas are
most-efficient, they take up a lot of room and have differing propagation
characteristics (think on the move).
• Quarter-wave antennas are compact and work well enough for HTs
Antennas: Length and polarization
• The RF radiation must be sent out some way, and that is based on polarization
• Most radio antennas used are linear polarized, specifically vertically
• Vertical polarization has better ground wave propagation, horizontal skywave propagation
• Circular and dual polarization allows for both sending and receiving RF in waves
easily as orientation does not matter.
• Typically used for SATCOM
Types of Radios

Base Station

Handheld Mobile
Handheld Radio Communications
• Communication via direct wave path or reflection
(limited range – Line of Site aka LOS)
• Range may be extended by using directional or higher
gain antennas, height, and clearer terrain
• Our primary method of communication – portability
Handheld Radios – VHF/UHF/Higher UHF
• Band Selection is always an important consideration but with handhelds it
matters as many are limited to only 1 band, sometimes 2-3.
• VHF has the best range (especially with flat terrain) but lacks operability in
urban/wooded environments
• UHF is a favorite for handhelds - compromise regarding range and capabilities
• 700/800 MHz & GHz bands are excellent for urban, underground, and high-data
digital comms – however range and even weather can severely impact use
VHF/UHF
Log Periodic

High UHF
& GHz
Accessories
• The following accessories should be added to your
handheld radio
• Spare battery
• Battery Charger
• Speaker mic or some other type of connector
• These 3 at a minimum
• Programming cable
• Wrist strap and/or belt clip
• Spare/other type of antenna
• Car power adapter (replaces battery)
Microphones & Receiving

Throat Mic & Covert Earpiece Headset & PTT Speaker Mic
Handheld Antennas
• Greater antenna length and gain make transmissions clear and give longer range
• 4 common antenna types: “Rubber Ducks”, Flexible, Whip, & Cat Tail
• Each have advantages but generally whip and folding antennas give the best signal, rubber
ducks are the most durable, and whip & cat tail antennas work best with a kit

Rubber Duck Whip Folding Cat Tail

Handheld Antennas
• Most antenna connections are either SMA male or SMA female. Fine for use but
can break the connector is the antenna is moved too much.
• Solution is to use a BNC connector with adaptor. Helps with switching to mobile.
Mobile Antennas for Handhelds
• Vehicles act as RF shielding and dramatically reduce the range of radios
• For convoys, using a magnet-mount antenna connected to the radio on
the roof and highly increases the range of the radio
Mobile Radios
• Mobile radios greatly enhance the capability of comms
• Much greater power – 25-100+ Watts vs only 5W
• This gives some greater range on the edge, but mainly allows for clearer transmissions
especially in urban or forested environments
• Non-portable (usually) but easier to use while driving
Base Station Radios
• Non-portable, but can use a mobile radio for the setup
• Power can range from 100W to over 1000W – Usually only 50W for VHF/UHF
• Cost, bulkiness, and reliable power are the biggest drawbacks
• Permanence allows for better antenna setups and advanced digital
modes via computers
• Often use backup power via batteries and solar
Repeaters
• Allow an RF signal to transmit much farther by repeating it.
• Best used with handheld or mobile setup
• Separate receive and transmit frequencies – two antennas
• Programmed ahead of time and usually require CTCSS tones to unlock
and speak/hear transmissions from the repeater
Analog v Digital – Pros & Cons
• Within the last 30 years digital communication has become common
• Analog is still standard – any radio device can use analog on the same frequencies
• Cheapest and most available
• Lack of security – scramblers and frequency shifting are only options minus coding
• Digital has multiple benefits, namely in clarity, obscurity, data transmission, etc.
• Digital has packet transmission vs power of pure waves – clear comms until edge of range
• Digital nearly rids of noise floor/static from the background
• Digital uses “packets” for transmission – missed packets may be requested re-sent
• Digital has smaller bandwidth and requires decoding software to hear messages
• Digital transmissions may be encrypted – high security
• Digital allows for trunked systems
• Digital has less bandwidth (harder to find)
Security Levels

One Time
Pad (OTP)
Frequency
Hopping
Encryption Spread
(Hardware) Spectrum
Encryption
(Software)
Digital
Modes
Scrambler /
Freq
Analog Switching
Digital Mode Types
• DMR (Digital Mobile Radio)
• A commercial standard used for amateur and commercial communications
• Cons: Software based encryption only, open-source standard
• P25 (Project 25)
• A land mobile standard made for public and military communications
• Cons: Hard to find, mostly only can buy new commercially
• Pros: Allows for Hardware based encryption, can send data only 6.25 kHz bandwidth
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
• Trunked radio systems are often mistaken for this. While yes, trunked systems
DO shift radio frequencies it is to make efficient use of a small frequency space
on the Land Mobile Spectrum – Not switching for obscurity
• Frequency hopping can be as simple as changing channels, advanced military
radios do it automatically
• Prevents jamming being effective
• Prevents listening in on communications easily
One-Time Pad (OTP)
• Uncrackable code, the receiver has a pad with the a crypt. When given the
message over radio, the listener uses the cipher (pad) to decode the message.
• Can even be sent via analog as the encryption isn’t of the voice but the message
itself. Commonly used with number stations.
Reception - SIGINT
• Listening is just as important (arguably more) as transmitting. Listening can still
yield a lot of intelligence from other radio sources. Whether this be weather
radio, enemy forces, or government broadcasts.
• Listening does not require you to send out any signals (can remain invisible).
• Typical a Software Defined Radio (SDR) can be used to receive signals across the
spectrum for cheap and portable SIGINT ability.
• Con: Dedicated units are expensive, and needs plug-ins or special software to decode
digital signals
Reception - SIGINT
• Radio direction finding may be accomplished with and SDR and directional
antenna (such as a Yagi)
• A Cellphone with SDR dongle and adaptor is a cheap setup to accomplish this
• Requires practice and an understanding of polarity, power levels, and one to
expose themselves
• Amateur radio operators typically have field days where this is practiced.
High Frequency (HF) – Operations and Uses
• High Frequency (HF) aka shortwave radio gives a powerful ability:
Communication out of the region and across state/country boundaries.
• HF radios also have digital modes – encryption not possible right now
• HF works well with morse code (CW) to be harder to find as the bandwidth is much smaller.
• Burst Data transmission modes (such as JS8Call, Winlink, etc.) allow data and
emails to be sent without needing intermediate infrastructure.
• However, to store messages to be sent out to users later it requires a node to exist
• HF radios use much different antenna setups which take up a lot of space.
HF Antennas – NVIS and Vertical
• Many HF antennas exist, but sometimes we only want to talk to people outside of
our immediate area but not the entire region.
• 2 options exist: A Near Vertical Incident Skywave (NVIS) and vertical antenna
(ground wave). NVIS allows for communication from a valley over mountains and
is very hard to radio direction find especially without aircraft.

Vertical
Antenna

NVIS Dipole
HF - Portability
• HF Radios are not portable by design. However, many portable options now exist
with the rise of amateur radio competitions.
• QRP style radios are low-power output, compact radios that often have built-in
batteries and antenna tuners. Portable style NVIS antennas exist too.
• Can be powered by solar cells and batteries – additional long-term capabilities
• Tablet or Phone to run digital modes
• Con: WEIGHT, expense, and volume (ideally a separate bag or kit to transport).
PACE PLAN - Comms
• Primary, Alternate, Contingency,
Emergency
• As communications methods are
compromised, whether by external
forces or enemy interference, everyone
must know what to turn to in-order to
keep communications active.
• Cellphones should always be used as a
last resort, and HF comms, even one-
way, should be an Alternate or
Contingency option (not everyone will
have access and it is condition based)
Simplex Comms: Avoid detection via power

Higher Power Tx

Bud
Baddie

You
General Rules for Comms
• LISTEN before transmitting
• When transmitting, hit PTT button and wait at least a second before speaking
• -Be CLEAR and CONCISE - Know what you are going to say before transmitting
• Speak slowly and in natural phrases while enunciating each word
• Always use low-power when able and always assume someone you don’t want is
listening and can possibly direction find you
• Use the phonetic alphabet