CHAPTER FOUR

Bengal Under the Mughals:

Politics, Society and Culture

Abdul Karim

T he Muslim rule in Bengal continued for about five centuries and

a half, from Bakhtyar Khalji’s conquest in 1204-05 to the Battle of Plassey in
1757. After the battle, the English East India Company became the controlling
power in Bengal’s politics; the administration, however, was carried on in the
name of the puppet Nawabs for some years more. The period of Muslim rule
is divided into two phases - Sultanate and Mughal, the Sultanate rule ending in
1576, when in the battle of Rajmahal on 12k July, the last Afghan Sultan Daud
Khan Karrani was defeated by Khan Jahan, the general of the great Mughal
emperor Akbar. Daud Karrani was beheaded and the capital Tanda was occupied.
It meant the end of the Sultan and the Sultanate, but the Mughal conquest of
Bengal was far off. The Mughal army controlled and established authority over
asmall portion surrounding the capital city; they kept open and safe their supply
and base line to Delhi, but the rest of Bengal was controlled by independent and
semi-independent military Chiefs, the Afghans, and Bengali Bhuiyans and Rajas,
both Muslims and Hindus. Akbar made strenuous efforts by sending general
after general, to bring the whole of Bengal under his control but failed.
His dream of conquering Bengal was fulfilled in the reign of his son Jahangir by
a young, energetic Subahdar, Islam Khan Chishti.
Besides the chiefs and the Bhuiyans, Bengal’s climate and geography also
offered great resistance to the Mughal aggression in Bengal. Bengal is a country
where the monsoon prevails for almost half of the year. There are many rivers
and water-channels, deep and shallow. In fact one comes across a river every 25
kilometres or so. The riverine scene of Bengal is dominated by big rivers, the
 BENGAL UNDER THE MUGHALS: POLITICS, SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Ganges and the Brahmaputra, the former coming out of the Himalayas runs
through upper India into Bengal, the latter also comes out of the Himalayan 109
ranges and coming east enters Bengal through Assam and Kamrup. The Ganges
again bifurcates into two on entering Bengal, one going to the east takes the
name Padma and meets with other rivers and channels before falling into the
sea; the other going to the south takes the name Bhagirathi and joining with
other rivers and channels falls into the sea passing through Hugli and Calcutta.
The Brahmaputra was also a mighty river (now-a-days losing its former glory)
and following southwards going with a labyrinth of channels including the
mighty Padma and taking the name of Meghna flows down to the sea. Then in
north Bengal there are Mahananda, Tista, Karatoya and Atreyi and in south
Bengal the Bhairab, the Madumati and Ariyal Khan, all distributors of the
Ganges. Surma, Gomati and the two Feni rivers are important waterways in
eastern Bengal, the last two forming the borderline between Bengal and the
Kingdom of Arakan in the Mughal period.
The natural geography of Bengal as stated above offered barriers to the
Mughal conquest of Bengal, but the political geography offered no small barrier.
Bengal was occupied by a large number of independent, semi-independent
Bhuiyans, Rajas, and Afghan chiefs on the eve of the Mughal conquest. Taking
advantage of change of government at the centre and the resultant instability
during the twilight of the Afghan Sultanate, they established authority in
different parts of Bengal. There were, for example, Bir Hammir of Bishnupur
(Bankura-Birbhum), Shams Khan of Pachet and Salim Khan of Hijli (Medinipur
area); there were Pitambar, Ananta of Chilajawar and Illah Bakhsh of Alaipur,
all in north Bengal centring on Rajshahi; there were Raja Pratapaditya of Jessore,
Raja Mukunda and his son Raja Satrajit of Bhushna (eastern part of Jessore);
Raja Kandarpa Narayan and his son Raja Ram Chandra of Bakla (Bakerganj).
There were Raja Lakshman Manikya and Ananta Manikya of Bhulna (Noakhali),
Khawaja Usman Afghan and his brothers at Bukainagar (Gauripur, greater
Mymensingh) and Bayazid Karrani of Sylhet; Usman and Bayazid were Afghan
chiefs. Then there were the Bhuiyans of Bhati, their chief in Akbar’s time was
Isa Khan Masnad-i-Ala and in Jahangir’s time Isa Khan’s son Musa Khan
Masnad-i-Ala. Of the other prominent Bhuiyans of Bhati, mention may be made
of Chand Rai and his brother Kedar Rai of Bikrampur, and the Ghazis of Bhowal.
Khwaja Usman and the Bara Bhuiyans proved to be the most serious obstacle
to Mughal aggression in Bengal.
Khwaja Usmans were four brothers, they were sons of Isa Khan (not to be
confused with Isa Khan Masnad-i-Ala of Bhati) minister of Qatlu Khan of Orissa.
Usman along with his brothers and other Afghans put up stubborn resistance
to the Mughals in Orissa, but being defeated were banished by the Mughals to
Bengal. Solaiman was the eldest of all, and upon his death in Bengal, the
leadership devolved upon the second brother Usman. Coming to Bengal, they
 BANGLADESH NATIONAL CULTURE AND HERITAGE : AN INTRODUCTORY READER

travelled through Satgaon and Bhushna and ultimately established authority at

110 Bokainagar. Raja Protapaditya was the son of Sri Hari. On the occasion of Daud
Karrani’s fall, his ministers, both Sri Hari and his colleague Qatlu Khan sided
with the Mughals and thus Sri Hari got the Zamindari of a big estate at Jessore.
The Rajas of Bhushna, Bakla and Bhulua were all hereditary chiefs. They offered
nominal submission to the authority at the capital and thus enjoyed undisturbed
succession. But the great enemies of the Mughals were the Bara Bhuiyans, who
resisted the Mughal advance to Bengal for several decades. The chief of the Bara
Bhuiyans was Isa Khan in the time of Akbar and Musa Khan in the time of
Jahangir. Both assumed the leadership of the Bhuiyans and took the title of
Masnad-i-Ala. Isa Khan was the son of Kalidas Gajdani, a Bias Rajput, said to be
a Diwan of Sultan Ghias-ud-din Mahmud Shah of Bengal (1533-38). He married
the daughter of the Sultan, accepted Islam and took the name of Sulaiman Khan.
During the Reign of Islam Shah Sur (Salim Shah) son of Sher Shah, Sulaiman
Khan rebelled and was killed. Isa and his brother Ismail were sent to exile in
Iran, but later on being allowed to return, Isa Khan took upon the management
of his father’s estate. He owed allegiance to the Karrani Sultans, and after the
fall of the Karranis, joined with other Bhuiyans and taking leadership fought
against the Mughals till his death in 1599 A.D. Masum Khan Kabuli, a Mughal
military officer also joined with Isa Khan. In 1580 the Mughal captains in Bengal
revolted, and set up a rebel government. Akbar suppressed the rebellion and
re-established his authority, but though others submitted, Musum Khan Kabuli
chose to remain a rebel. He assumed independence, but died in 1599 leaving a
son, Mirza Mumin, who also joined the Bara Bhuiyans. Kedar Rai of
Sripur-Bikrampur also put up a stubborn resistance to the Mughals. He fought
a few hotly contested battles with Raja Mansingh, Akbar’s subahdar of Bengal.
Kedar Rai received mortal wounds in one such battle and died in 1602. Although
the leaders were dead their successors took up the field and continued their
struggle in the reign of Jahangir, when finally the Bara Bhuiyans were made to
submit by Islam Khan Chishti, Jahangir’s subahdar of Bengal.
Jahangir’s first few years remained static in the Mughal advance to Bengal,
but with the appointment of Islam Khan Chishti as subahdar in 1608 the situation
was completely changed. The new subahdar claimed noble birth; he was the
grandson of Shaikh Salim Chishti, a sufi saint of Fatehpur Sikri. The relation
between the family of the emperor and Shaikh was most cordial. Although the
subahdar was an inexperienced young fellow, the emperor’s choice could not
have been better. Joining his office in the then capital Rajmahal, Islam Khan
Chishti drew up an accomplished plan of operation. He decided to transfer the
capital from Rajmahal, situated at the western end of the subah, to a suitable
eastern strategic place. He found that the greatest enemy of the Mughals were
the Bara-Bhuiyans and the Afghans under Khwaja Usman; their strength lay in
Eastern Bengal. So Islam Khan decided to transfer the capital to the heart of
Bhati, and ultimately chose Dhaka as capital. He also perceived that Bengal was
a riverine country where Mughal cavalry was ineffective for almost half of the m
year. So he strengthened the Mughal navy and at his request the emperor posted
Ihtimam Khan to place the navy on a sound footing. The Bara Bhuiyans were
strong in river warfare, so the Mughal navy was organized in such a way to be
able to annihilate the local flotilla of war boats. The Subahdar started with his
numerous boats and artillery from Rajmahal towards Bhati.
On the way he subjugated the zamindars and chiefs on both sides of the
Ganges. On reaching the heart of Bhati he made Dhaka, the capital and from
there he subjugated the Bara Bhuiyans in about two years and defeated one by
one the Rajas of Jessore, Bakla and Bhulua and also defeated Khwaja Usman
Afghan and his brothers and Bayazid Karrani of Sylhet. By the end of 1612 the
whole of Bengal except Chittagong was brought under Mughal control.
The next year he also occupied the neighbouring kingdom of Kamrup. Formerly,
if the Mughal General occupied an area, and the Rajas and Zamindars/Bhuiyans
who surrendered were reinstated in their position on promise of remaining loyal
and paying tribute. But as soon as the Mughal army retraced their steps, the
subjugated Bhuiyans, Chiefs, Rajas shook off allegiance, gathered fresh strength
and became independent.
Islam Khan examined the situation very carefully; so he did not allow the
defeated chiefs to go back to their station, but they were forced into Mughal
service. They were compelled to fight against their brethren. This policy of Islam
Khan became extremely effective and the power of the Rajas, Bhuiyans or
zamindars and chiefs was so crippled that they could never again raise their head.
So the Mughal authority in Bengal was consolidated.
Ibrahim Khan Fathejang, another Subahdar of Jahangir conquerred Tippera
and ousted the King from his throne, but within a couple of years Tippera
regained her independence. The rebel Prince Shahjahan came to Bengal and
remained there for a few months. After his flight towards the Deccan, Jahangir’s
authority was re-established. Shahjahan’s first subahdar of Bengal, Quasim Khan
did an excellent service by expelling the Portuguese from Hugli in 1632 AD.
The Portuguese had established a settlement at Hugli around 1580 with the
permission of the Emperor Akbar, but in the guise of trade, they indulged in
unlawful activities, and Hugli under them was going to be an imperium in
imperio, so their power had to be curbed. Soon afterwards the Portuguese were
allowed to return, but their former power and glory was gone. During the
subahdari of Prince Shah Shuja, Bengal enjoyed peace for twenty years, 1639-
1658, but when the emperor Shahjahan fell ill the Mughal empire was plunged
into a civil war in which all the four princes - Dara, Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad
took part. Shuja enthroned himself at Rajmahal; he fought first against Dara,
then against Aurangzeb, but being defeated finally in 1660, took shelter with
the king of Arakan. There he was brutally murdered in 1661 A.D.
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Mir Jumla, who defeated and drove Shuja out of Bengal, was appointed
12 Subahdar. Born of a humble origin in Iran, Mir Muhammad Said, more famous
in history by his surname Mir Jumla, came to Golconda in South India in the
service of an Iranian merchant. Later he made a fortune for himself. He engaged
himself in the diamond business and gradually rose to be a merchant of name
and fame; his diamonds were counted by the sack -full and he also owned many
ships. He was also appointed wazir in the Sultanate of Golconda, but later he
moved to the Mughal empire in the service of Shahjahan and then of Aurangzeb.
In Bengal, Mir Jumla’s chief contribution was the conquest of Assam, but he
fell seriously ill in the course of the campaign. He tried to return, but died on
the way. His conquered possessions in Assam also went out of hands.
The next great Mughal Subahdar in Bengal was Shaista Khan. He was in
Bengal for about 22 years with a short break in the middle, when Azam Khan
Koka (Fidai Khan) and Prince Muhammad Azam became Subahdars. Shaista
Khan came of a noble family; his father was Asaf Khan, father of Mumtaz Mahal
consort of Shahjahan. Asaf Khan was the son of Itimid-ud-dawla (Mirza Ghias
Beg) and brother of Nur Jahan, queen of Jahangir . Shaista Khan came to Bengal
at the age of 63 with several grown-up sons and with their help and co-operation
he ruled Bengal ably and with distinction. But his great fame in Bengal lay in
his conquest of Chittagong. The Magh king of Arakan with the aid of Portuguese
pirates used to attack Bengal and the pirates left the coastal regions desolate,
burning and looting property and enslaving men, women and children. By a
careful policy Shaista Khan won over the Portuguese pirates and with their help
conquered Chittagong. Arakan never again dared to invade Bengal. Shaista Khan
was kind and liberal. He spent for the welfare of the poor, indigent and religious
persons; built mosques, bridges and sarais. In his time the price of grain was
extremely low so that rice was sold at 8 maund per rupee. He was gentle, amiable
and humane so much so that he was described as a pattern of excellence.
After Shaista Khan, Khan Jahan Bahadur became Subahdar for a short tenure,
Ibrahim Khan followed him. In his time, Shova Singh, a zamindar of
Chandrakona in Midnapur district revolted and joining with Rahim Khan, an
Afghan leader of Orissa looted and plundered an extensive territory including
the port of Hugli. Subahdar Ibrahim Khan was a man of scholarly disposition;
he failed to take any measure against the miscreants. So Aurangzeb recalled him
and appointed in his place Muhammad Azim-ud-din (entitled Azim-ush-shan),
his grandson. The rebels were punished, but in his desire to amass wealth, he
allowed the English East India Company to purchase from the lawful owners,
the three villages of Sutanuti, Govindapur and Kalikata. Thus the English laid
the foundation of Calcuuta (Kalikata), which later played a very important part
in the history not only of Bengal, but'also of India.
After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707,and with the resultant war of succession
and the ambitions of Mughal princes and nobility, the central government of
 BENGAL UNDER THE MUGHALS: POLITICS, SOCIETY AND CULTURE

the Mughals became very weak giving rise to provincial kingdoms. In Bengal,
Murshid Quli Khan, a last great imperial officer was able to place himself at the 13
head of every branch of administration. He sent the imperial revenue regularly
and thus kept the emperor and his ministers happy. Murshid Quli Khan was
the Subahdar of Bengal and Orissa and Diwan of Bihar. He also got the lofty
title of Mustamin-ul-Mulk Ala-ud-dowla Jafar Khan Nasiri Nasir Jang. He
became the de facto ruler of Bengal. But the emperor and the central government
continued to repose confidence in him. Appointment of subordinate offices was
made through his recommendation. He became the focus of attention in the
provinces. Members of his family, his relatives and his favourites got preference
in all branches of administration. That is why his period of administration in
Bengal is known as niabat or the nawabi period. Another important measure of
Murshid Quli Khan was to transfer the capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad.
Murshid Quli Khan died in 1727 leaving no male issue and he hoped that his
grandson (son of his daughter) Asadullah entitled Sarfaraz Khan would succeed
him and he recommended him to the emperor accordingly. His son-in-law
(Sarfraz’s father) Shuja-ud-din Muhammad Khan was holding the post of deputy
subahdar of Orissa. He now forestalled his son and occupied the masnad of
Murshidabad. He was also appointed Subahdar of Bihar and from this time
Bengal, Bihar, Orissa came under one person, both in Nizamat and Diwani
administration. Shuja-ud-din appointed Alivardi Khan his deputy in Bihar. Shuja-
ud-din ruled peacefully for more than a decade until his death in 1739. For better
administration he divided the three provinces of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa into
four divisions, and he also created a council of advisors consisting of Alivardi
Khan (deputy subahdar of Bihar), Haji Ahmad (Alivardi’s elder brother), Diwan
Rai Rayan Alam Chand and the great banker Jagat Seth. The Hindus were
already getting higher jobs from the time of Murshid Quli Khan, but now got
entry in to the advisory council. But Alivardi Khan and Haji Ahmad, the two
brothers proved to be great conspirators and they appointed Haji Ahmad’s three
grown-up sons into key positions like Faujdar, Diwan etc. When, after his-
father’s death Sarfaraz Khan sat on the Masnad, Alivardi, in league with other
members of the council conspired against him and marched from Patna at the
head of an army. In the encounter that followed Sarfaraz Khan was killed and
Alivardi occupied the Masnad of Murshidabad.
Alivardi Khan, entitled Mahabat Jang, was 64 when he sat on the masnad of
Murshidbad in 1740. He died in 1756 at the age of 80. At this old age also he
ruled vigorously. He had to suppress several rebellions including that of Rustam
Jang (Mirza Lutfullah, Murshid Quli Khan II), son.in law of Shuja-ud-din
Muhammad Khan Rustom Jang did not submit to Alivardi but fought against
him and was defeated. His general Mir Habib then invited the Marathas to invade
Orissa. The Maratha menace became the greatest problem for Alivardi Khan,
and the repeated Maratha incursions seriously damaged the prestige of the
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Nawab, who ultimately had to buy peace ceding Orissa and promising to pay
114 twelve lac rupees annually to the Marathas. Alivardi had no male issue; his three
daughters were married to his three nephews, sons of Haji Ahmad. They were
given higher posts: the eldest Nawazish Muhammad was entitled Shalhamat Jang
and was appointed Naib Nazim of Dhaka, the second Said Ahmad Khan was
appointed in Purnea with the title of Saalat Jang and the third Zain-ud-din Ahmad
was appointed to Patna with the title of Khan, and they were known by their
stations, Dhaka nawab, Purnea nawab and Patna nawab. All his nephews
predeceased Alivardi; and breavements, rebellions and the Maratha menace, all
caused terrible depression on the mind of the Nawab. His health was seriously
affected and he died in April 1756.
Alivardi Khan was survived by four grandsons, a grown-up son Shawkat Jang,
and a boy Mirza Ramzani by his second daughter, two sons Siraj-ud-dowla and
Mirza Mahdi by his third and youngest daughter, his eldest daughter Meherun-
Nisa alias Ghasiti Begum was childless. Sirajud-dowla was Alivardi’s darling, he
was born in the year in which Alivardi got the deputy subahdari of Bihar, so
Siraj was regarded as a bringer of good fortune. Siraj occupied the Masnad,
but he soon found himself surrounded by enemies. His own aunt Ghasiti Begum,
an ambitious lady, was his greatest enemy; then there was Shawkat Jang, his
cousin of Purnea and he had another political enemy Mir Muhammad Jafar Ali
Khan (Mir Jafar), the commander of the army. Ghasiti Begum brought-up
Akram-ud-dowla, Siraj’s brother from childhood, and cherished the idea
of ruling the country from behind the veil through her adopted son. But
Akram-ud-dowla predeceased Alivardi, so Ghasiti Begum favoured the case of
Shawkat Jang. The latter was ambitious but worthless, and was defeated and
killed in an encounter in the battle of Manihari against Siraj. Then there were
the Hindu officers and the bankers, particularly Jagat Seth who was raised to
position of influence by Alivardi Khan and his predecessors. They had nothing
to lose if any of the contending parties won or lost, they knew how to manage
each and every turn of events in their favour.
Siraj-ud-dowla succeded to the masnad at the age of 23. He first paid attention
to streamlining the administration and in so doing he created enemies and faced
opposition from different quarters. He asked Raj Ballabh to clear the accounts
of the Dhaka Niabat (deputy of the Nawab in charge of administration), because
he was there the pishkar. When he failed to clear the accounts, he was confined,
but his son Krishna Ballabh escaped to Calcutta with his family and treasures.
Siraj asked the English East India Company not to give shelter to the fugitives,
who were his subjects and were under trial. But the English refused to hand over
the criminals to the Nawab’s government. The English also committed other
offences against the Nawab and began fortification of Calcutta without
permission. No government could tolerate such insolence, so Siraj came out of
Murshidabad and attacked Calcutta. The English were driven out, and took
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shelter in ships out of Nawab’s reach, but they came back with reinforcements
from Madras. The Company secretly entered into a pact with the disaffected 115
officials of the Nawab, like Mir Jafar, Raj Ballabh, Rai Durlabh and the great
banker Jagat Set. According to the secret treaty the English agreed to place
Mir Jafar on the masnad with their arms, and Mir Jafar agreed to grant territorial,
financial and trade facilities to the English. Armed with the treaty, Robert Clive
the English General marched against the Nawab and took position at the plain
of Plassey. The Nawab also came out with his army, but while the Nawab’s
army was engaged in a hot battle, and the English were about to be defeated,
Mir Jafar instead of bringing the battle to a successful conclusion, advised the
Nawab to postpone the battle for the next day. Accordingly, while the Nawab
ordered his army to cease hostilities for the day, Mir Jafar sent secret information
to Clive to launch a vigorous attack. The Nawab’s soldiers were taken aback.
Many had already laid down arms for taking rest; some who turned back could
not withstand the enemy attack. So the Nawab was defeated due to the treachery
of Mir Jafar. He fled but was brought back captive, and later beheaded. Robert
Clive took Mir Jafar by the hand and placed him on the Masnad of Murshidabad.
In fact there was hardly any change, one Nawab making place for another, as
happened many times before, but in practice the English became the controller
of affairs, and step-by-step sovereignty passed to their hands.
New Forces at Work
With the coming of the Mughals into Bengal, the country witnessed the working
of certain new forces in the administrative, social, economic and cultural life.
These forces transformed Bengal’s life and thought. Unlike the previous period,
when she enjoyed independence, Bengal now became a part, i.e., a province of
the centralised Mughal empire under one administration, one law, one official
language, uniform official cadre and uniform currency. Emperor Akbar divided
the empire into several provinces called Subah. While doing so, due consideration
was given to geographical feature, natural boundaries and language. Bengal
became a Subah with the Bengali-speaking people enclosed by well-demarcated
natural boundaries. During the Mughal conquest of Bengal, the capital was at
Tanda, 15 miles south-east of Malda, now washed away by the river, but before
the end of Akbar’s reign, Subahdar Man Singh transferred the capital to Rajmahal
renamed Akbarnagar. In the reign of Jahangir, Subahdar Islam Khan Chishti
transferred the capital to Dhaka, renamed Jahangirnagar and finally in the early
18tk century Murshid Quli Khan transferred the capital to Murshidabad. (After
the Battle of Plassey, the East India Company transferred the capital to Calcutta,
which also became the capital of India.). All these capitals were situated on the
banks of rivers keeping in view the geography of the country and communication
facilities, the capitals were not only the administrative headquarters but also
military cantonments and trade centers. Akbar also introduced a well-defined