UNIT 4- ENERGY EFFICIENT SYSTEMS

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MAXIMUM DEMAND CONTROLLERS

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 Maximum Demand Controllers
• Maximum demand is the highest level of electrical
demand monitor in a particular period usually for
month period.
• Maximum demand value is the average from the
instantaneous power during a define time interval,
usually every 15 minutes.(time interval will depend on
each country)

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 Need of Maximum Demand Controller
• Usually in electricity bill the highest demand value
recorded by the meter is compared to the contracted
power, whenever this value is higher than the
contracted power there will be an economic penalty.
• As the maximum demand should not to exceed the
limit of contracted power, it is advisable to install a
system which help in disconnecting non-critical load.
• To avoid the penalty for maximum demand we must
ensure that this value never exceed contracted power.

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• Non critical loads are those that do not affect the main
production process or that are not essential such as
1. Lighting 2. Air conditioning system 4. Pumps
5. Fans and extractors 6. Packaging machines
7. Shredders

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• In addition, an electrical demand control program is
highly recommended in the processes with an
operation that has large variations in the maximum
demand and low load factors, such as smelting,
mining, automotive, textile and paper companies,
among others.
• The different units measure instantaneous power and
automatically calculate the power used that is
exceeding the contracted power. Therefore, any load
can be quickly and reliably disconnected with built-in
relays.

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• There are 2 ways to prevent exceeding the maximum
demand:
– Preventive : The preventive method is used in companies
that do not wish to connect or disconnect loads
automatically. The system prevents any value above the
contracted power with a system of visual or acoustic
signals, so that an operator can manually disconnect
determined loads.
– Predictive : The predictive method is the most common and
intelligent method. It makes a forecast of the situation at
the end of the period and optimizes loads, so that the
maximum number of loads can be connected, ensuring that
the maximum limit programmed is not exceeded. This
system is obviously valid for fixed window requests or
windows with synchronization.
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• Different Utility network follow different methods of Maximum
Demand control methods. There are mainly 3 type of Power
Demand Calculation methods :
– A : Block Interval Demand
– B : Synchronized Demand
– C : Thermal Demand
A: Block Interval Demand
• Block interval Demand method, a specified period of time
interval – Block, that is used for Demand calculation. Block
Interval demand method to calculate Maximum Demand can be
further classified into 3 sub method, depending on how that
time Block can be handled.
– A.1 : Fixed Window – Timed Block method
– A.2 : Sliding Window – Timed Sliding Block method
– A.3 : Rolling Window – Timed Rolling Block method
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A.1 : Fixed Window – Timed Block method
– In this Method, Maximum Demand is
calculated at the end of each Fix Timed
Block generally 15 minute block. It may be
different for different Utility ranging from (1 to 60
minutes).
– Select an interval from 1 to 60 minutes (in 1-
minute increments). The meter calculates and
updates the demand at the end of each interval.
A.2 : Sliding Window – Timed Sliding Block method
– In this Method, Maximum Demand is
calculated at the end of each Interval
defined for timed Block. A Timed Block
keeps on sliding forward at the end of each
interval defined. Maximum Demand is
calculated and updated at the end of each
Interval.
– Select an interval from 1 to 60 minutes (in 1-minute increments). If the interval is
between 1 and 15 minutes, the demand calculation updates every 15 seconds. If the
interval is between 16 and 60 minutes, the demand calculation updates every 60
seconds. The meter displays the demand value for the last completed interval.

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A.3 : Rolling Window – Timed Rolling Block method
– In this method, Block is further divided into
equal sub blocks. Eg. 15 Minute Block is
divided in to 5 minutes of sub blocks.
Maximum Demand is updated at the end of
each sub Blocks. And Maximum Demand is
the Average of each sub blocks. In this case
Block keeps rolling every defined sub block.
– Select an interval and a subinterval. The subinterval must divide evenly into the
interval (for example, three 5-minute subintervals for a 15-minute interval). Demand
is updated at the end of each subinterval. The meter displays the demand value for
the last completed interval.

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B : Synchronized Demand
– When Multiple Points of MD Calculations are there, or When
MD Calculations in the Field are to be compared or verified
with utility Meter, Blocks and Intervals defined in above
mentioned methods of Maximum Demand calculation,
further need to be Synchronized with each other, which can
be done by following Ways:
• B.1 : Clock Synchronization Method.
• B.2 : Input Command Synchronization Method.
B.1 : Clock Synchronization method
• In this, Real time clock in each Maximum Demand Control Meters or
Relay can be Synchronized with each other, so that, when Maximum
Demand is calculated and updated at Either Utility Meter or Meter at
Sub Distribution level each are calculate with same Reference Time.

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• B.2 : Input Command Synchronization Method
• In this method, each Maximum Demand Control Meters
or Relay can be Synchronized by way of Either IO contact
OR by Soft command over Communication Bus on
Modbus/Ethernet.

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C : Thermal Demand
– This method uses same principle similar Thermal over load
Relays, where Thermal Element deflects depending current
flow, In this case Electro-Mechanical Maximum Demand
Control Meters gives command for Demand Power at the
end of defined time block. This method is not relevant now a
days.

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What are the benefits of a maximum demand
controller?
– In addition to saving costs the maximum demand controller
is also beneficial in the following ways:
Excess maximum demand on the entire supply grid can be
avoided.
– During peak power usage the load factor can be improved by
controlling and flattening the load curve.

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Automatic Power Factor Controllers

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 Power Factor
• Origin of Low Power Factor
– Electrical Equipment need Reactive Power
– Inductive loads draw Reactive Power
– Phase difference between current & Voltage reduces
“Displacement PF”.
– Reactive Power to maintain magnetic fields in Motors.
– Non-Linear loads reduces “Distortion PF”.
– True PF, being product of displacement and distortion PF is
lower than both.

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• What is Displacement Power Factor?
– Displacement Power Factor is caused by a reactive
component in the load.
• If there is an inductive compinent in the load, then there will be an
inductive current flowing in addition to the resistive current. The
inductive curent follows the voltage waveform by 90 degrees.
• Likewise a capacitive component causes a capacitive current that
leads the voltage waveform by 90 degrees.
• The vector sum of the reactive (capacitive and/or inductive)
current(s) and the resistive current results in a single current with a
phase angle before (leading) or after(lagging) the voltage waveform.
– The displacement power factor value is the cosine of the
angle between the voltage waveform and the resultant
current waveform.
Displacement power factor=cos 

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• Distortion power factor is caused by the presence of harmonics
in the current waveform.
– The harmonics are caused by a non linear load which is commonly a solid
state rectifier of SCR based controller.
– The major sources of harmonics in industry are the input rectifiers of AC
and DC drive systems and switch mode power supply systems.
• Distortion power factor can only be corrected by reducing the
harmonic currents. This can be achieved by the use of passive
harmonic filters, active filters or active rectifier circuits.

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• Disadvantages of low power factor
– Inefficient use of Electrical Energy:
– Overloading of Transformer/Generator;
– Overloading of Cable, Switchgear, Busbar …
– Higher temperature due to increased losses
– Imposes larger kVA demand
– Limits No. of loads that can be connected
– Reduced revenue to Electrical Utilities
– Poor Voltage regulation

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Need for PF improvement

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 Advantages of P.F Correction

Reduction in KVAR Demand

Avoid power
Reduction in KVA Demand factor
penalties

Reduction in
Reduction in Line Current Transformer
Rating

Reduction in Reduction in
Reduction in
Switchgear Cable / Bus-
Line loss
Rating bar size
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• NEED FOR AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
– power factor varies as a function of the load requirements.
– leading power factor under light load conditions(fixed compensation)
– difficult to maintain a consistent power factor by use of Fixed
Compensation i.e. fixed capacitors.
– This result in over voltages, saturation of transformers, malfunction of
diesel generating sets, penalties by electric supply authorities.
– automatic variation, without manual intervention, the compensation to
suit the load requirements.
– Automatic Power Factor Correction(APFC) system provide this facility.
– leading power factor will be also prevented.
• Solution : Installing Power Factor controller

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• Various types of automatic power factor controls are
available with relay / microprocessor logic. Two of the
most common controls are: Voltage Control and kVAr
Control.
• Voltage Control
– Voltage alone can be used as a source of intelligence when
the switched capacitors are applied at point where the circuit
voltage decreases as circuit load increases.
• Generally, they are added where the voltage decreases as circuit load
increases and the drop in voltage should be around 4 – 5 % with
increasing load.
– This type of control is independent of load cycle. During light
load time and low source voltage, this may give leading PF at
the substation, which is to be taken note of.
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• KILOVAR Control
– KILOVAR sensitive controls are used at locations where the
voltage level is closely regulated and not available as a
control variable.
– The capacitors can be switched to respond to a decreasing
power factor as a result of change in system loading.
– This type of control can also be used to avoid penalty on low
power factor by adding capacitors in steps as the system
power factor begins to lag behind the desired value.
– KILOVAR control requires two inputs - current and voltage
from the incoming feeder, which are fed to the PF correction
mechanism, either the microprocessor or the relay.

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27
• The main means for the generation of reactive power
are:
– synchronous compensators (SC);
– static var compensators (SVC);
– banks of static capacitors.

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 SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR
• Synchronous condenser (sometimes called as
synchronous capacitor or synchronous compensator)
is a DC-excited synchronous motor, whose shaft is not
connected to anything but spins freely.
• Its field is controlled by a voltage regulator to either
generate or absorb reactive power as needed to adjust
the grid's voltage, or to improve power factor.
• Increasing the device's field excitation results in its
furnishing reactive power (measured in units of VAR)
to the system.
• Unlike a capacitor bank, the amount of reactive power
from a synchronous condenser can be continuously
adjusted
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Synchronous condenser installation at Temples owe substation, Melbourne,
Victoria, Australia. Built by ASEA in 1966, the unit is hydrogen cooled and
capable of three phase power at 125 MVA.

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 STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS
• A static VAR compensator is a set of electrical devices for
providing fast-acting reactive power on high-voltage electricity
transmission networks.
• In transmission applications, the SVC is used to regulate the grid
voltage.
• If the power system's reactive load is capacitive (leading), the SVC
will use thyristor controlled reactors to consume VARs from the
system, lowering the system voltage.
• Under inductive (lagging) conditions, the capacitor banks are
automatically switched in, thus providing a higher system voltage.
• By connecting the thyristor-controlled reactor, which is
continuously variable, along with a capacitor bank step, the net
result is continuously variable leading or lagging power.

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 Automatic Power Factor Controller
• An automatic power factor correction unit consists of a
number of capacitors that are switched by means
of contactors.
• These contactors are controlled by a regulator that
measures power factor in an electrical network.
• Depending on the load and power factor of the
network, the power factor controller will switch the
necessary blocks of capacitors in steps to make sure
the power factor stays above a selected value.

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 Automatic Power Factor Controller

1. Reactive Power Control Relay; 2. Network connection points;

3. Slow-blow Fuses; 4. Inrush Limiting Contactors;
5. Capacitors (single-phase or three-phase units, delta-connection);
6. Transformer (for controls and ventilation fans)

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 Automatic Power Factor Control Relay
• It controls the power factor of the installation by giving
signals to switch on or off power factor correction
capacitors. Relay is the brain of control circuit and
needs contactors of appropriate rating for switching
on/off the capacitors.
• There is a built-in power factor transducer, which
measures the power factor of the installation and
converts it to a DC voltage of appropriate polarity. This
is compared with a reference voltage, which can be set
by means of a knob calibrated in terms of power factor.

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• When the power factor falls below setting, the
capacitors are switched on in sequence. The relays are
provided with First in First out (FIFO) and First in Last
Out (FILO) sequence.
• The capacitors controlled by the relay must be of the
same rating and they are switched on/off in linear
sequence.
• To prevent over correction hunting, a dead band is
provided. This setting determines the range of phase
angle over which the relay does not respond; only
when the PF goes beyond this range, the relay acts.

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Energy Efficient Motors

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• Improvements in motor efficiency can be achieved
without compromising motor performance - at higher
cost - within the limits of existing design and
manufacturing technology.
• A reduction in watts losses can be achieved in various
ways.
• All of these changes to reduce motor losses are
possible with existing motor design and manufacturing
technology. They would, however, require additional
materials and/or the use of higher quality materials
and improved manufacturing processes resulting in
increased motor cost.

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• Energy-efficient electric motors reduce energy losses
through improved design, better materials, and
improved manufacturing techniques.
• Replacing a motor may be justifiable solely on the
electricity cost savings derived from an energy-efficient
replacement.

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• Technical aspects of Energy Efficient Motors
– Energy-efficient motors last longer, and may require less maintenance. At
lower temperatures, bearing grease lasts longer; required time between
re-greasing increases. Lower temperatures translate to long lasting
insulation. Generally, motor life doubles for each 10°C reduction in
operating temperature.
– Select energy-efficient motors with a 1.15 service factor, and design for
operation at 85% of the rated motor load.
– Electrical power problems, especially poor incoming power quality can
affect the operation of energy-efficient motors.
– Speed control is crucial in some applications. In polyphase induction
motors, slip is a measure of motor winding losses. The lower the slip, the
higher the efficiency. Less slippage in energy efficient motors results in
speeds about 1% faster than in standard counterparts.
– Starting torque for efficient motors may be lower than for standard
motors. Facility managers should be careful when applying efficient
motors to high torque applications.
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Soft Starter

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• Soft-Starter is an electronic starter designed to
accelerate, decelerate three-phase induction motors
and to control the voltage applied on the motor during
start and stop.

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• Because the load starting torque is usually near zero,
an induction motor will develop far too much torque
when connected directly to the supply.
• At the instant of start-up, there is an un-necessary
heavy power surge on both the electrical supply and
the mechanical drive components.

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• The sudden impact at start up on the load, followed by
the rapid acceleration to full speed causes excessive
wear on :-
– Belts and pulleys
– Gears and chains
– Couplings and bearings
– Cavitation in pumps etc.
• A heavy current surge on the electrical supply which
can be severe enough to cause voltage dips and
flickering lights.
• Burning of contacts due to high currents which are
many times the motor full-load current.

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• Problems Arises by these Effects
– Continuous maintenance.
– Greater chance of unscheduled shutdowns
– Oversized mechanical and electrical components to cater for
the power surge on start up.
– Short component life.

Solution of the problems…..

• By Adjusting voltage during starting, the current drawn
by the motor and the torque produced by the motor
can be reduced and controlled.
• Soft starters can limit start current to any desired level
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• The minimum level of start current for a successful
start depends on the motor and load.
• To start successfully, the motor must produce more
acceleration torque than the load requires, throughout
the start.
• Reducing the start current also reduces the torque
produced by the motor.
• The start current can only be lowered to the point
where the torque output remains just greater than the
load torque requirement.
• The likely start current can be estimated from
experience, but more precise predictions require
analysis of motor and load speed/torque curves.
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• Components of a basic soft starter
– Power switches like SCRs which need to be phase controlled
such that they are applied for each part of the cycle. For a 3
phase motor, two SCRs are connected back to back for each
phase. The switching devices need to be rated at least three
times more than the line voltage.
– Control Logic using PID controllers or Microcontrollers or any
other logic to control the application of gate voltage to the
SCR, i.e. to control the firing angle of SCRs in order to make
the SCR conduct at the required part of the supply voltage
cycle.

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• The idea behind a soft start is to gradually allow the motor
current to rise until the motor reaches its steady state. This
reduces start-up current but also reduces start-up motor torque.
• Soft starters adjust motor voltage through use of back-to-back
thyristors or triacs in each ac supply line to the motor. The
thyristors are actuated during the start-up phase such that their
turn-on is successively delayed less for each ac half cycle.
• The delayed switching effectively ramps up the average ac
voltage to the motor until the motor sees full line voltage. Once
the motor hits its rated speed, the thyristor switching circuit
may be bypassed.
• Larger motors employ either soft starters or they are controlled
by variable-frequency drives that incorporate a soft-start
function.

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Thyristors in a soft starter let part of the voltage through at the beginning of the starting sequence and gradually
increase it according to the set ramp time. The thyristors can also typically implement a soft stop by reducing
motor voltage according to a set ramp time.

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A typical soft starter reduces the motor torque and current during start-up. The star-delta starter
accomplishes the same thing but by means of switching motor windings from a star to a delta connection
at the appropriate time.

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 DIRECT-ON-LINE
6-700% STAR-DELTA

CURRENT
SOFT START

100%

TIME

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• Some soft starters can also provide a soft-stop
function in applications where an abrupt stop can
cause problems.
– Examples include pumps where a quick stop can bring on
water hammering and conveyor belts where material can get
damaged if belts stop too quickly. The soft-stop sequence
uses the same power semiconductors employed for soft
starting.
• The start-up time for soft starters is user settable. The
typical start-up time for most applications ranges from
5 to 10 sec. The longer time periods tend to be found
in pumping and compressor applications where there
is a high possibility of pressure waves building up in
piping systems.
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 Advantages of Soft Starters
• Improved Efficiency: The efficiency of soft starter
system using solid state switches is more owing to the
low on state voltage.
• Controlled startup: The starting current can be
controlled smoothly by easily altering the starting
voltage and this ensures smooth starting of the motor
without any jerks.
• Controlled acceleration: Motor acceleration is
controlled smoothly.
• Low Cost and size: This is ensured with the use of solid
state switches.

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VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES

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• A variable frequency drive (VFD) is a motor control
device that protects and controls the speed of an AC
induction motor. A VFD can control the speed of the
motor during the start and stop cycle, as well as
throughout the run cycle. VFDs are also referred to as
adjustable frequency drives (AFDs).
• VFDs offer the greatest energy savings for fans and
pumps. The adjustable flow method changes the flow
curve and drastically reduces power requirements.

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• VFDs convert input power to adjustable frequency and
voltage source for controlling speed of AC induction
motors.
• The frequency of the power applied to an AC motor
determines the motor speed, based on the following
equation:
N = 120 x f x p
N = speed (rpm) f = frequency (Hz) p = number of motor poles

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Block diagaram

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• AC supply: Comes from the facility power network
(typically 480V, 60 Hz AC)
• Rectifier: Converts network AC power to DC power
• Filter and DC bus: Work together to smooth the
rectified DC power and to provide clean, low ripple DC
power to the inverter
• Inverter: Uses DC power from the DC bus and filter to
invert an output that resembles sine wave AC power
using a pulse width modulation (PWM) technique

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• Pumps driven by electric motors typically operate at full speed
even when the loads they are serving are less than the motor
capacity.
• To match the output of the pump to the load needed, some
sort of part-load control is necessary – ie. variable speeds.
• Centrifugal equipment (fans, pumps, and compressors) follow a
general set of speed affinity laws. The affinity laws define the
relationship between speed and a set of variables:
– Flow
– Pressure
– Power
• Based on the affinity laws, flow changes linearly with speed
while pressure is proportional to the square of speed. The
power required is proportional to the cube of the speed. The
latter is most important, because if the motor speed
drops, the power drops by the cube.
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• The laws of physics dictate that:
– The flow will vary proportionally with the speed
– The pressure, or head, will vary with the square of the speed
– The energy consumed will vary with the cube of the speed
• For example, reducing the speed of a motor by 10%
will:
– Reduce the flow by 10%
– Reduce the pressure by 19% (.9 x .9)
– Reduce the energy used by 27% (.9 x .9 x .9)
• The real energy savings is around 25%, because no
control efficiency is 100%

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 Benefits of a Variable Frequency Drive
• Controlled Starting Current
– An VFD Drive starts a motor at zero frequency and voltage
– As the frequency and voltage “build,” it “magnetizes”
the motor windings, which typically takes 50-70% of the
motor full-load current. Additional current above this level
is dependent upon the connected load, the acceleration rate
and the speed being accelerated, too.
• Reduced Power Line Disturbances
– Starting an AC motor across the line, and the subsequent
demand for 300-600 % the motor full-load current will lead
to voltage sag .
– the voltage sags can cause sensitive equipment connected
on the same distribution system to trip offline due to the low
voltage.
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• Lower Power Demand on Start
– power needed to start an AC motor across the line is
significantly higher without VFD. This may breech the
maximum demand limit in the industries which are near the
maximum demand margin. This result in additional energy
charges for the industry.
• Controlled Acceleration
– an AC motor started with out VFD or soft starter triggers
higher mechanical shock loads both for the motor and
mechanically connected load. This shock will, over time,
increase the wear and tear not only on the connected load
but the AC motor as well.

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• Adjustable Operating Speed
– Unlike the traditional stop-and-go motor, the use
of a VFD enables optimizes a process, by making changes in a
process. This allows starting at reduced speed, and allows
remote adjustment of speed by programmable controller or
process controller.
• Adjustable Torque Limit
– Use of a VFD can protect machinery from damage and
protect the process or product (because the amount of
torque being applied can be controlled accurately). An
example would be a conveyor jam. If just an AC motor
connected, the motor will continue to try to rotate until the
motor’s overload device opens (due to the excessive current
being drawn as a result of the heavy load). A VFD, in turn,
can be set to limit the amount of torque (AMP/CURRENT), so
the AC motor never exceeds this limit. 70
• Controlled Stopping
– It is just as important as controlled (ramped) acceleration,
controlled (ramped) stopping can be important to reduce
mechanical wear and tear — due to shocks to the process or
loss of product due to breakage.
• Energy Savings
– Centrifugal fans and pumps follow a variable torque load,
which has horsepower proportional to the cube of speed and
torque varying proportional to the square of speed, also
known as the “Affinity Laws”.
• Reverse Operation
– Using a VFD eliminates the need for a reversing starters, a
VFD allows electronic ability reversing either by integrated
reversing or an external switch added to the VFD terminal
control board. The elimination of a reversing starter
eliminates its maintenance cost and reduces panel space. 71
 Soft Starter or VFD?
 Soft Starters are usually current or voltage controlled,
not frequency.
 Soft Starters do not have the ability to control speed.
 Soft Starters will have significant price benefits.
 Soft Starters will have a smaller footprint on larger HP
application.

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ENERGY EFFICIENT TRANSFORMERS

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• Most energy loss in dry-type transformers occurs through heat
or vibration from the core.
• The new high-efficiency transformers minimise these losses.
• The conventional transformer is made up of a silicon alloyed
iron (grain oriented) core.
• The iron loss of any transformer
depends on the type of core used in
the transformer. However the latest
technology is to use amorphous
material – a metallic glass alloy for
the core
• The expected reduction in energy loss
over conventional (Si Fe core)
transformers is roughly around 70%,
which is quite significant.
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 Cause of Noise in Transformer
• Transformer noise is caused by a phenomenon which causes a
piece of magnetic sheet steel to extend itself when magnetized.
• A transformer is magnetically excited by an alternating voltage and
current so that it becomes extended and contracted twice during a
full cycle of magnetization. This phenomenon is scientifically
referred to as magnetostriction.
• In a transformer core, which is made from many sheets, the
extensions and contractions are taking place erratically all over a
sheet. Each sheet is behaving erratically with respect to its
neighbor. These extensions are miniscule proportionally and
therefore not normally visible to the naked eye. However, they are
sufficient to cause a vibration, and consequently noise.
• Transformer voltages are fixed by system requirements. Therefore
the amount of flux at the normal voltage is fixed. This also fixes the
level of noise and vibration. Also, increasing (or decreasing)
magnetization does not affect the magnetostriction equivalently.
In technical terms the relationship is not linear. 75
• By using an amorphous core– with unique physical and
magnetic properties- these new type of transformers
have increased efficiencies even at low loads - 98.5%
efficiency at 35% load.
• Electrical distribution transformers made with
amorphous metal cores provide excellent opportunity
to conserve energy right from the installation. Though
these transformers are a little costlier than
conventional iron core transformers, the overall
benefit towards energy savings will compensate for the
higher initial investment.
• At present amorphous metal core transformers are
available up to 1600 kVA.
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Electronic Ballast

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 Role of Ballast
• Fluorescent lamp is an electric discharge lamp. The two
electrodes are separated inside a tube with no
apparent connection between them. When sufficient
voltage is impressed on these electrodes, electrons are
driven from one electrode and attracted to the other.
The current flow takes place through an atmosphere of
low-pressure mercury vapour.
• Since the fluorescent lamps cannot produce light by
direct connection to the power source, they need an
ancillary circuit and device to get started and remain
illuminated. The auxillary circuit housed in a casing is
known as ballast.
• In an electric circuit the ballast acts as a stabilizer.
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• There are mainly 3 types of ballasts :
– Magnetic, Electronic and Hybrid
• Magnetic and Hybrid ballasts employ a copper coil
wound on magnetic core as their essential
components.
• A Hybrid ballast has a magnetic core-and-coil
transformer and an electronic switch for the electrode
heating circuit. It operates at line frequency ie. 50Hz.
• These types of ballasts which are referred to as cathod-
disconnect ballasts, disconnect the electrode heating
circuit after they start the lamps.
• Electronic ballast use solid state electronic circuitry to
provide the proper operating electrical conditions to
the connected lamp. 79
• Conventional Vs Electronic Ballasts
– The conventional ballasts make use of the kick caused by
sudden physical disruption of current in an inductive circuit
to produce the high voltage required for starting the lamp
and then rely on reactive voltage drop in the ballast to
reduce the voltage applied across the lamp.
– On account of the mechanical switch (starter) and low
resistance of filament when cold the uncontrolled filament
current, generally tend to go beyond the limits specified by
Indian standard specifications.
– With high values of current and flux densities the operational
losses and temperature rise are on the higher side in
conventional choke.

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• The high frequency electronic ballast overcomes the above
drawbacks. The basic functions of electronic ballast are:
1. To ignite the lamp
2. To stabilize the gas discharge
3. To supply the power to the lamp
• The electronic ballasts make use of modern power semi-
conductor devices.
• The circuit components form a tuned circuit to deliver
power to the lamp at a high resonant frequency (in the
vicinity of 25 kHz) and voltage is regulated through an in-
built feedback mechanism.

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Image Representing Architecture and Process
Flow of a Ballast Controller

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• Fluorescent lamp efficiency in the kHz range is higher than
those attainable at low frequencies
• At lower frequencies (50 or 60 Hz) the electron density in
the lamp is proportional to the instantaneous value of the
current because the ionisation state in the tube is able to
follow the instantaneous variations in the current.
• At higher frequencies (kHz range), the ionisation state
cannot follow the instantaneous variations of the current
and hence the ionisation density is approximately a
constant, proportional to the RMS (Root Mean Square)
value of the current.
• Another significant benefit resulting from this
phenomenon is the absence of stroboscopic effect, thereby
significantly improving the quality of light output.
83
• Energy saving is achieved by two ways :
– The first is its amazingly low internal core loss, quite
unlike old fashioned magnetic ballasts.
– And second is increased light output due to the
excitation of the lamp phosphors with high
frequency
– If the period of frequency of excitation is smaller
than the light retention time constant for the gas in
the lamp, the gas will stay ionized and, therefore,
produce light continuously. This phenomenon
along with continued persistence of the phosphors
at high frequency will improve light output from 8-
12 percent
84
Graph Representing Increase in Operational
Efficiency of a Lamp

85
86
Plot Comparing Operational Performance of an
Electronic and Magnetic Ballast

87
Issues with Electronic Ballasts:
• Alternating currents can generate current spikes near
the voltage maximums producing high harmonic
current in case of electronic ballasts.
• Additional problems like stray magnetic fields,
corrosion of pipes, interference with the radio and
television equipment and even malfunction of IT
equipment

88
A Satistical Representation of Increase in Sales
of Electronic Ballasts and Reduction in Sales of
Magnetic Ballasts

89
Energy Efficient Lighting

90
• Electric lighting is a major energy consumer. Enormous
energy savings are possible using energy efficient
equipment, effective controls, and careful design.

INSTALLATION OF COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS (CFLS)

IN PLACE OF INCANDESCENT LAMPS.

INSTALLATION OF ENERGY-EFFICIENT FLUORESCENT LAMPS

IN PLACE OF “CONVENTIONAL” FLUORESCENT LAMPS.

INSTALLATION OF OCCUPANCY/MOTION SENSORS TO

TURN LIGHTS ON AND OFF WHERE APPROPRIATE.

USE AN AUTOMATED DEVICE, SUCH AS A KEY TAG SYSTEM,

TO REGULATE THE ELECTRIC POWER IN A ROOM.

91
 OCCUPANCY SENSOR
• Occupancy sensors-also called motion, or personnel
sensors- react to variables like heat and/or motion by
turning lights on or off.

Passive Infra Red

Types of Sensor
Occupancy
Sensor Ultrasonic
Sensor

92
• Passive infrared (PIR) sensors typically detect
occupants’ body heat. Triggering occurs when a
change in infrared levels is detected, such as when a
warm object moves in or out of view of one of the
sensor’s “eyes”
• Ultrasonic (US) sensors, by contrast, continuously
emit and sample inaudible sound waves and listen for
a change in frequency of the reflected sound.
• There are two basic mounting configurations for
occupancy sensors. Ceiling mounted sensors have an
independent controller and/or power supply. They may
be mounted high on a wall or in a corner, as well as on
the ceiling. Wallbox sensors are primarily designed as
retrofit replacements for common wall switches. 93
 How This Technology Saves Energy
• Occupancy sensors are switching devices that respond
to the presence and absence of people in their field of
view.
• The system consists of a motion detector, an electronic
control unit and a controllable switch (relay).
• The motion detector senses motion and sends a signal
to either close or open the relay that controls power to
the lights.
• Control unit can be calibrated
to adjust the sensitivity of the
sensors to motion
• Output from the control unit
energizes/de-energizes relay which
opens/closes the lighting circuit. 94
• In most occupancy sensor systems, the motion
detector and controller are in one package; the power
supply and relay are another integral unit, sometimes
called a switch pack.
• In wallbox sensors, components are all in one
compact package, designed to fit into an existing
switch box.
• The solid-state switches often used in these packages
are rated for relatively small loads

95
 Passive Infrared (PIR) sensors
• PIR sensors are passive devices: they only detect radiation;
they do not emit it.
• They are designed to be maximally sensitive to objects that
emit heat energy at the wavelength emitted by humans.
• They are strictly line-of-sight devices. They cannot “see”
around corners and a person will not be detected if there
is an obstruction, such as a partition between the person
and the detector.
• PIR sensors are quite resistant to false triggering

96
• The detection pattern of PIR sensors is fan shaped, formed
by the cones of vision seen by each segment of the faceted
lens.
• Since the sensor is most sensitive to motion that moves
from one sensing cone to another, its sensitivity decreases
with distance as the gaps between sensing cones widen.
• Most PIR sensors are sensitive to
hand movement up to about 10 feet,
arm and upper torso movement up
to 20 feet, and full-body movement
up to about 40 feet.
• The sensitivity range can vary
substantially, however, depending on
product quality and electronic
circuiting design. 97
• Time-Delay: Settings should be determined during the
installation period. This adjustment controls the amount of
time the lights stay ON after the last detected motion. You
may select settings varying from 20 seconds (-) to 15
minutes (+) and any time in between.
• Ambient Light: This adjustment allows
you to determine at what minimum
Ambient light level the device will
operate. You may select settings from
always operating (day and night) to
operating only when the Ambient
Light level is less than 3 lux, or
anywhere in between. The lights will
turn ON when the unit senses motion
and the Ambient Light reaches your
desired level.
98
99
 Ultrasonic (US) sensors
• Ultrasonic sensors emit a high frequency sound, above
the human and animal audibility ranges, and listen for
a change in frequency of the reflected sound.
• They are able to cover larger volumes than PIR sensors
and are noticeably more sensitive, but are also more
prone to false triggering.
• The ultrasonic sound waves cover the affected area in
a continuous fashion— there are no blind spots or gaps
in the coverage pattern.

100
101
 HYBRID SENSORS
• Some occupancy sensors utilize both passive infrared
and ultrasonic technology, but are usually more
expensive.
• Audible sound sensors listen for noise made by people
and machines, and assume that it is a result of
occupant activity. They may react to nearby vibration
(such as a slammed door) or to street noise, and
require relatively high sound levels.
• Microwave sensors are similar to ultrasonics in that
they emit a signal—in this case a radio signal—and
measure a change in frequency when that signal is
reflected.

102
• The table below provides typical savings achievable for
specific building areas, as determined by EPA studies,
with the average savings being 60%.

103