SOCIALISATION PROCESS

Introduction
In this section you are going to continue to cover the concepts in sociology focussing on the
socialisation process.

Objectives
By the end of this section you will be able to:
 Define the socialisation process
 Describe the two parts of the socialisation process
 Identify the agents of socialisation
What do you understand by the term socialisation process?

The Socialisation Process

According to Peil (1977) it refers to all the things that a child needs to know in order to function as a
confirmed member of society.
Akinsola (1983) defines socialisation as the fundamental social process by which a person is
introduced to be part of society into which one was born and learns its culture. Although much of this
learning takes place in the first two or three years of life, socialisation continues throughout life. When
we attend school, move to a new place, take a new job or whenever we are called to make changes in
customs, norms or behaviour, additional socialisation is necessary. Socialisation integrates a child
into the community by teaching them the disciplines, aspirations, social roles and skills necessary for
group membership.
By comparing the two definitions it can be observed that socialisation is a process or adjustment and
this adjustment starts from birth and continues throughout one's life (Myles 1983). This definition was
further expanded by Joseph (1986), who explained that parents, teachers and other social agents
define roles for people in society.
Socialisation refers to the development of the individual from infancy upwards; it is intertwined with the
educational system, whether through formal education in schools, through non-formal programmes, or
through informal education such as family upbringing. It is intrinsically based upon the right to
education and hence the maximisation of the potential of the individual in the process of development.
Human infants are born without any culture. They must be transformed by their parents, teachers, and
others into cultural and socially adept animals. The general process of acquiring culture is referred to
as socialisation. During socialisation, we learn the language of the culture we are born into as well as
the roles we are to play in life. For instance, girls learn how to be daughters, sisters, friends, wives
and mothers. In addition, they learn about the occupational roles that their society allows them. We
also learn and usually adopt our culture's norms through the socialisation process. Norms are the
conceptions of appropriate and expected behaviour that are held by most members of the society.
While socialisation refers to the general process of acquiring culture, anthropologists use the term
enculturation for the process of being socialised to a particular culture. You were educated in your
specific culture by your parents and the other people who raised you.
Socialisation is important in the process of personality formation. While much of human personality is
the result of our genes, the socialisation process can mould it in particular directions by encouraging
specific beliefs and attitudes as well as selectively providing experiences. This very likely accounts for
much of the difference between the common personality types in one society in comparison to
another.

Successful socialisation can result in uniformity within a society. If all children receive the same
socialisation, it is likely that they will share the same beliefs and expectations. This fact has been a
strong motivation for national governments around the world to standardise education and make it
compulsory. Deciding what things will be taught and how they are taught is a powerful political tool for
controlling people. Those who internalise the norms of society are not likely to break the law or want
radical social changes. In all societies, however, there are individuals who do not conform to culturally
defined standards of normalcy because they were 'abnormally' socialised, which is to say that they
have not internalised the norms of society. These people are usually defined by their society as being
deviant or even mentally ill.
Parts of the Socialisation Process
Having defined the socialisation process you will now identify the parts that make up the socialisation
process.
The socialisation process is made up of two parts:
 Primary socialisation
 Secondary socialisation
You will study each of these individually.

Primary Socialisation
This is the type of socialisation that starts from infancy with parents and other family members who
are in close contact with the young one. The mother plays an active role in bonding with her infant. As
the child advances in age, they are taught the expected roles according to age and sex. For example,
children are taught to be obedient to parents and other older persons in the neighbourhood. Children
also learn by observing and imitating others. Therefore, parents should be role models if they expect
their children to attain acceptable behaviour. In due course children will learn how to dress, use the
toilet facilities, feed themselves and so on. In the traditional African family, parents and the extended
family members were involved in socialising the child. According to Peil (1977), at this stage, the child
also develops a personality, that is, identifies the self in relation to society.
In modern times, although parents are still the basic agents of socialisation, there are additional
agents. These developments are often associated with the tendency for mothers to be in full time
employment. Usually, the infant stays with the mother for six weeks following birth.

The baby is then left in the care of hired female domestic help. The mother does this in order to
resume her duties in either the government, private or self-employment. It is no longer possible to
have extended family members to help in the care of the young. When the child reaches the age of six
years, they are ready to be introduced to socialisation outside the home and they are then able to
communicate using a common language. This leads to secondary socialisation.

Secondary Socialisation
This takes us outside the home with playmates in the neighbourhood, at school and with other
community agents, for example, religious forums. According to Peil (1977), rearing children in an
urban area of western Africa is very much the same as in the countryside. For example, parents who
are well educated prefer to move from rural to urban areas. They may work as employees of the
government and children are encouraged to go to school early and join church groups. All these offer
secondary socialisation. In addition, children in various neighbourhoods play with their peers who also
influence their behaviour and attitudes. As these children continue their education through primary,
secondary and college levels, they come into contact with several social groupings, all of which are in
a position to influence their behaviour
During adolescence, the youth often confide in their peers. They no longer feel compelled to express
their needs to the parents. When this happens, it is possible for the youth to imitate negative
behaviours from their peers, behaviour which is often contrary to their parents' expectations. On the
other hand, youths who move to boarding secondary schools may get secondary socialisation from
their teachers, who become their new parent figures and role models. The youth of today often
develop their own pattern of language for communication, known as sheng in Nairobi, that parents
and teachers are unable to communicate in.
As a member of one group, the individual recognises that there are several roles one is expected to
fulfil. For example, when one joins the nursing profession as a student, they are expected to continue
being a daughter or son, a learner while in class and clinical areas, a member of the student nurses'
association, a choir member, a parent and a spouse. All these roles demand the attention of the same
individual. This calls for emotional and physical maturity in order to fulfil all these roles without
conflicts. For example, as you continue studying, you will need to share out some of your social roles
with family members in order to have adequate time for your assignments
In general, a child is 'socialised' in various ways, for instance, by watching adults. This is often
noticeable in the way much of children's play imitates adults. Some socialisation is deliberate, for
example, when a teacher or a parent shows a child how to do something. At other times, it is casual
or even accidental. A parent or another child indicates that performance has been unsatisfactory and
the child must pick up the knowledge they need informally through observation. In addition to verbal
instructions and observed behaviour, the child responds to the attitudes expressed through physical
posture, tone of voice and other signs, which gradually acquire meaning for them, for example, a
raised arm signals trouble. The prime source of socialisation, though, is language. A person who
cannot hear or speak has great difficulty communicating with others and is often excluded from
groups.
Although all members of the society are socialised, they do not all turn out the same. Each individual
comes under various influences and responds to them differently. A child's socialisation may therefore
not be exactly the same as that of their parent's. Personality and innate capabilities are important in
secondary socialisation. Given the same socialisation, one man may turn out to be much more
independent.than his brother, or more scholarly or a better drummer.

Natural and Planned Socialisation

Natural Socialisation Planned Socialisation

Natural socialisation occurs when infants and Planned socialisation occurs when other people
youngsters explore, play and discover the social take actions designed to teach or train others -
world around them. from infancy on.
Natural socialisation is easily seen when looking Planned socialisation is mostly a human
at the young of almost any mammalian species phenomenon; and all through history, people have
(and some birds). been making plans for teaching or training others.

Both natural and planned socialisation can have good and bad features: It is wise to learn the best
features of both natural and planned socialisation and weave them into our lives.

Positive Socialisation
Positive socialisation is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting
experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning processes with positive motivation,
loving care, and rewarding opportunities. Negative socialisation occurs when others use punishment,
harsh criticisms or anger to try to 'teach us a lesson'; and often we come to dislike both negative
socialisation and the people who impose it on us.
Mixed Positive and Negative Socialisation
There are all types of mixes of positive and negative socialisation; and the more positive social
learning experiences we have, the happier we tend to be - especially if we learn useful information
that helps us cope well with the challenges of life. A high ratio of negative to positive socialisation can
make a person unhappy, defeated or pessimistic about life.

Deliberate Socialisation
Deliberate socialisation refers to the socialisation process whereby, there is a deliberate and
purposeful intent to convey values, attitudes, knowledge, skill and
so on.
Examples of deliberate socialisation include
 School situation
 Parents telling a child to always say 'please'

Unconscious Socialisation
Unconscious socialisation occurs as a result of spontaneous interaction, with no purposeful or
deliberate attempt on the part of anyone involved to train or educate and so on. An example of
unconscious socialisation is, for example, when a child learns how to use vulgarity by observing a
parent caught up in a frustrating traffic situation.
Having covered the various types and classifications of socialisation, you will now cover the agents of
socialisation.

Agents of Socialisation
You have already noted that parents and close relatives are the first to socialise children. As the child
reaches school age, most socialisation begins to take place outside the home. The primary agents of
socialisation make the deepest impression on the personality of the child because they provide the
first training. The other agents must, therefore, compete for attention on the already established
framework.

Family
The family is made up of parents, children and close relatives. These are the primary agents of
socialisation who influence the child's behaviour and attitudes within the society. You will study more
on the family in section four on social institutions.

Social Institutions

These are explained as social organisations each with a specific function (Akinsola 1983). Examples
of social institutions are the family, schools, religious organisations, government and hospitals. Each
of these social institutions is organised to offer a service to community members. When a child enters
school they start experiencing secondary socialisation through the teachers, schoolmates and the
school environments. All these factors play a part in the

Deliberate Socialisation
Deliberate socialisation refers to the socialisation process whereby, there is a deliberate and
purposeful intent to convey values, attitudes, knowledge, skill and
so on.
Examples of deliberate socialisation include
 School situation
 Parents telling a child to always say 'please'

Unconscious Socialisation
Unconscious socialisation occurs as a result of spontaneous interaction, with no purposeful or
deliberate attempt on the part of anyone involved to train or educate and so on. An example of
unconscious socialisation is, for example, when a child learns how to use vulgarity by observing a
parent caught up in a frustrating traffic situation.
Having covered the various types and classifications of socialisation, you will now cover the agents of
socialisation.
Agents of Socialisation
You have already noted that parents and close relatives are the first to socialise children. As the child
reaches school age, most socialisation begins to take place outside the home. The primary agents of
socialisation make the deepest impression on the personality of the child because they provide the
first training. The other agents must, therefore, compete for attention on the already established
framework.

Family
The family is made up of parents, children and close relatives. These are the primary agents of
socialisation who influence the child's behaviour and attitudes within the society. You will study more
on the family in section four on social institutions.

Social Institutions

These are explained as social organisations each with a specific function (Akinsola 1983). Examples
of social institutions are the family, schools, religious organisations, government and hospitals. Each
of these social institutions is organised to offer a service to community members. When a child enters
school they start experiencing secondary socialisation through the teachers, schoolmates and the
school environments. All these factors play a part in the child's socialisation.

Peers, School Friends and Neighbours

The peers, schoolmates and neighbours that a child spends most of their waking hours with
also become major agents. Children have friends whom they want to be similar to. However,
sometimes what their peers tell them may not conform with what the parents are telling them
and so they have to make a decision between the two. The decision made depends on the
strength of the foundation laid by the parents.
Electronic and Printed Media

These include books, magazines, journals, television, radio, computer (internet) and others. A child
may begin to emulate what they are seeing on television and may act negatively if they are not able to
filter the good and the bad based on earlier teachings. This can have both positive and negative
influences on the child or even an adult.
Generally, it can be seen that various socialising agents encountered by an individual may support
each other by promoting the same goals, or they may provide contradictory advice. The child may be
taught one thing at home and another at school. The influence of either the parents or the school thus
becomes weakened and the child may not fully internalise any norms because they are not sure
which ones are most valuable. This becomes more and more frequent as the child grows up. This is
because the child encounters other agents of socialisation like the church and other peers and they
may not always be carrying the same message. In the end, the child has to choose whom to learn
from - either the parents, the friends, the church, etc and so one becomes weakened as another is
strengthened.

Aims of Socialisation:
1. To instil discipline (for example, don't walk in front of a moving car).
2. To develop aspirations and ambitions (for example, I want to be a nun, rock star, great
sociologist).
3. To develop skills (for example, reading, driving and so on).
4. To enable the acquisition of social roles (for example, male, student and
so on).
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Introduction
In this section, you will cover how societies are differentiated. In every society, there are those who
take the lead, for example, the elders, chiefs, successful farmers, teachers, lecturers, managers,
business tycoons and so on. The difference between those who lead and those who are led may
result from factors relating to gender, age and social roles. For example, in some cultures older men
are viewed with higher regard than young men, women and children in that order. This is the
traditional type of differentiation common in Africa (Peil 1977). In addition, in every society some
people are identified as senior and others junior. In the nursing profession, there are similar
relationships, for example, the matron and staff nurse. Each is assigned special roles and obligations
according to their respective authority.
Objectives

By the end of this section you will be able to:

 Define social stratification
 Identify the theories of social stratification
 Identify the types of social stratification

Social Stratification
The basic idea of social stratification is a series of layers, rather as one bolt of cloth might be piled on
top of another. It was developed in European society to explain clashes between the old aristocracy of
landed wealth, the new industrial capitalists and the workers, over political and economic power and
cultural dominance. Stratification is the organisation of society resulting in some members having
more and others having less. Social stratification is thus defined as a process ranking members of
society according to wealth, prestige and power. This definition mainly applies in European
communities where defined explanation is acceptable. In African societies, members are ranked
according to sex, age, ethnic origin and occupation (Peil 1977).

Social Stratification in African Society

Other definitions of social stratification include the arranging of members of a society into a
pattern of superior and inferior ranks, which is perhaps determined by their birth, wealth,
power, education, and so on. It can also be said to be the way societies are organised, for
example, into clans, castes, chiefdoms, or states within a society.
Systems of social inequity exist in all human societies. This assertion emphasises two
features that are basic for analysis of social inequalities and equalities.
Firstly, the inequalities, no matter what their origin, appear in a social context. Biological differences,
real or presumed, may be used as a basis for social stratification, but biology alone does not make a
social difference. It is more likely that biology is invoked as a rationale to support established social
inequalities. When social definitions with respect to equality change, so do the biological justifications
that are used.

Secondly the equalities are systematic. They are organised into patterns that are recognised and
accepted by most, but not all, members of the society. Social differences are interlaced in the
dominant values of a society; the inequalities are justified by the very beliefs that regulate a society
and give it continuity.

A stratification system has both a moral/cultural base and a structural base. Each culture has some
view of an admirable person against which individuals may measure their own and others’ conduct, an
ideal that people try to live up to. This may be generalised or specified as behaviour that is expected
of holders of certain roles, for example, a father.
Stratification arises from the division of labour, whereby certain roles are admired more than others.
Members of the society are valued according to the roles they fill and also according to the way the
role is carried out.
Much more attention is usually paid to the structural aspect of stratification (the processes for
allocating people to roles and the societal structure which results) than to the cultural aspect (beliefs
about how and why people are allocated and the justice or injustice of the process). Some roles are
held to be important, but are in fact given to less able people or are poorly rewarded.

How an Individual is Rated in Different Roles

Theories of Stratification
The Functional Theory of Stratification
The functional theory of stratification holds that a society, through its members, makes certain
decisions about the allocation of desirable roles. Choice is limited by the number of these roles and
the number of people available to perform them. The rewards attached to various roles (wealth,
prestige or power) are justified by the service to society involved (especially to societal survival) and
the rarity of the abilities needed to fill them.

The Conflict Theory of Stratification

The conflict theory of stratification draws largely on the writings of Karl Marx, though
adjustments have been necessary to adapt in the changing nature of twentieth century
capitalism. Marx saw society as divided into two major groups (capitalists and proletarians or
workers) who are inevitably in conflict. Whereas Marx was particularly concerned only with
the economic or market hierarchy, which he termed class, Max Weber suggested that people
are also stratified according to status (prestige or lifestyle) and power. These three hierarchies
may be closely related, but this is not necessarily so. Marx assumed that those with a high
economic position would also have power, but rich businessmen often have less power than
higher civil servants on moderate salaries; clergymen and teachers usually have higher status
than either wealth or power - though this was more likely some time back.
Status
Another way of ranking society members is according to their status. Status can be defined as any
position within the stratification system. This definition says nothing about the basis for status in a
stratification system. Thus, a particular status or position can be high or low on the basis of the
property, prestige or power (or all three) associated with that position. There are two types of status.

Ascribed Status
This is explained as grouping individuals according to their social position, for example, by virtue of
one's age, sex or position of birth (indicates that the holder of this position was born within or inherited
a given status in society). Ascribed status is a position based on who you are not what you can do.
A good example of ascribed status can be found in India, where the caste system is practised.
Members of the upper caste do not in any way interact with those of the lower caste or the
untouchables. Members of the upper caste are usually well educated, while those of the lower caste
are poor with limited opportunities and are usually manual workers. These two caste level societies do
not intermarry (Joseph 1986). This system is also known as a closed system of social
stratification.
Therefore, when a society uses ascriptive status rules, people are placed in status positions because
of certain traits beyond their control such as family background, race, sex or place of birth.

Achieved/Acquired Status
Achieved status is a position gained on the basis of merit or achievement. This is defined as the
position in society earned through the individual’s efforts or choice, for example, being a father,
mother, nurse or a teacher.