AESA BASED IPM Package No.

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AESA based IPM – Tomato

Pests Defenders

Directorate of Plant Protection National Institute of Plant Health National Centre for
Quarantine and Storage Management Integrated Pest Management
N. H. IV, Faridabad, Haryana Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, A. P LBS Building, IARI Campus,
New Delhi

Department of Agriculture and Cooperation

Ministry of Agriculture
Government of India

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The AESA based IPM - Tomato, was compiled by the NIPHM working group under the
Chairmanship of Dr. K. Satyagopal DG, NIPHM, and guidance of Shri. Utpal Kumar Singh JS
(PP). The package was developed taking into account the advice of experts listed below on
various occasions before finalization.

NIPHM Working Group:

Chairman : Dr. K. Satyagopal, IAS, Director General

Vice-Chairmen : Dr. S. N. Sushil, Plant Protection Advisor
: Dr. P. Jeyakumar, Director (PHM)
Core Members :

1. Er. G. Shankar, Joint Director (PHE), Pesticide Application Techniques Expertise.

2. Dr. O. P. Sharma, Joint Director (A & AM), Agronomy Expertise.
3. Dr. Dhana Raj Boina, Assistant Director (PHM), Entomology Expertise.
4. Dr. Richa Varshney, Assistant Scientific Officer (PHM), Entomology Expertise.

Other Members :

1. Dr. Satish Kumar Sain, Assistant Director (PHM), Pathology Expertise.

2. Dr. N. Srinivasa Rao, Assistant Director (RPM), Rodent Pest Management Expertise.
3 Dr. B. S. Sunanda, Assistant Scientific Officer (PHM), Nematology Expertise.

Contributions by DPPQ&S Experts:

1. Shri. Ram Asre, Additional Plant Protection Advisor (IPM),

2. Dr. K. S. Kapoor, Deputy Director (Entomology),
3. Dr. Sanjay Arya, Deputy Director (Plant Pathology),
4. Dr. Subhash Kumar, Deputy Director (Weed Science)
5. Dr. C. S. Patni, Plant Protection Officer (Plant Pathology)

Contributions by External Experts:

1. Dr. A. Krishnamurthy, Principal Scientist & Head, Division of Entomology and Nematology,
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, Karnataka.
2. Dr. Uma Devi, Professor of Pathology, Agricultural College, ANGRAU, Hyderabad. Andhra
Pradesh.
3. Dr. Koteshwar Rao, As. Prof. of Entomology, ANGRAU, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
4. Dr. M. Vijaya, Principal Scientist, Pathology, Vegetable Research Station, YSR Horticultural
University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
5. Dr. K. Sireesha, Scientist, Entomology, Vegetable Research Station, YSR Horticultural
University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
6. Dr. Madhavilatha, Scientist, Agronomy, Vegetable Research Station, YSR Horticultural
University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
7. Prof. S. Sreedharan, Department of Entomology, TNAU, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.
8. Dr. R. P. Chandel, Professor of Entomology, YS Parmar University of Agriculture and
Horticulture, Sholan, Himachal Pradesh.

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9. Dr. Y. S. Kotikal, Professor of Entomology, University of Horticultural Sciences, Bhagalkot,
Karnataka.

Information on Region-wise Distribution of Pests Provided by:

1. Dr. N. Sathyanarayana, Director, Plant Biosecurity Division, NIPHM

2. Mrs. S. Latha, Scientific Officer, Plant Biosecurity Division, NIPHM

For internal circulation only. Not for sale.

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 Contents

I. Pests
A. Pests of National Significance
1. Insect and mite pests
2. Diseases
3. Nematodes
4. Rodents
5. Weeds
B. Pests of Regional Significance
1. Insect pests
2. Diseases

II. AESA based IPM

A. Agro-ecosystem analysis
B. Field scouting
C. Surveillance through pheromone trap catches for Spodoptera and
Helicoverpa
D. Yellow pan water trap/sticky traps
E. Light traps
F. Nematode sampling

III. Ecological engineering for pest management

A. Resistant/tolerant varieties

IV. Crop stage-wise IPM

V. Rodent pest management

VI. Description of common weeds

VII. Description of insect pests

VIII. Description of diseases

IX. Description of rodent pests

X. Insecticide resistance and its management

XI. Nutritional deficiencies/disorders

XII. Safety measures

A. At the time of harvest
B. Post-harvest storage

XIII. Do’s and Don’ts in IPM

XIV. Safety parameters in pesticide usage

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XV. Basic precautions in pesticides usage

XVI. Pesticide application techniques

XVII. Operational, calibration and maintenance guidelines in brief

XVIII. References

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 IPM Package for Tomato

I. PESTS

A. Pests of National Significance

1. Insect and mite pests

1.1 Gram pod borer: Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) (Madhya
Pradesh, Assam, Orissa, West Bengal, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu)

1.2 Tobacco caterpillar: Spodoptera litura Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) (Orissa,

Karnataka, other states)

1.3 Whitefly: Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) (Madhya Pradesh,

Assam, West Bengal, Delhi, Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu)

1.4 Serpentine leaf miner: Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) (Diptera: Agromyzidae) (Madhya
Pradesh, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu)

1.5 Thrips: Thrips tabaci (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Frankliniella schultzei (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

1.5 Spider mite: Tetranychus spp. (Acarina: Tetranychidae) (Punjab, South India)

2. Diseases

2.1 Damping off: Pythium aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitzp. (Assam, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, other states)

2.2 Tomato leaf curl virus: Tomato leaf curl virus (ToLCV) (Madhya Pradesh, Bihar,
Assam, Orissa, West Bengal, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir,
Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, North India, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, South India)

2.3 Early blight: Alternaria solani (Ell. & Mart.). A. alternate, (Fr.) Keissl. A. alternate
f.sp. lycopersici Grogan et al. (Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Haryana, Himachal
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu)

2.4 Late blight: Phytopthora infestans. (Mont.) de Bary. (Orissa, Himachal Pradesh,
Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu)

2.5 Bacterial wilt: Ralstonia solanacearum (Smith) Yabuuchi et al. (Madhya Pradesh,
Assam, Orissa, West Bengal,

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 Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka)

2.6 Fusarium wilt: Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (Sacc.) W.C. Snyder and
H.N. Hans. (Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Delhi, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir,
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu)

2.7 Bacterial stem and fruit canker: Clavibacter michiganensis sub sp. michiganensis
(Smith) Davis et al. (Maharashtra, other states)

2.8 Tomato mosaic disease: Tomato Mosaic Virus

2.9 Bacterial fruits and leaf spots: Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria (Doidge)
Dye (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, other states)

2.10 Tomato spotted wilt disease: Peanut bud Necrosis Virus (PbNV) TSWV group
(Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu)

3. Nematodes

3.1 Root-knot nematode: Meloidogyne spp. (Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Delhi,
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu)

3.2 Reniform nematode: Rotylenchulus reniformis (Linford & Oliveira) (Delhi,

Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu)

4. Rodents

4.1 Lesser bandicoot: Bandicota bengalensis (Gray) (throughout India)

4.2 Palm rat/house rat: Rattus rattus (Linnaeus) (throughout India)

4.3 Indian gerbil: Tatera indica (throughout India)

5. Weeds

5.1 Major Kharif weeds

Broadleaf weeds

5.1.1 Pigweed: Amaranthus viridis Hook. F. (Amaranthaceae)

5.1.2 Swine cress: Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. (Brassicaceae)

5.1.3 Black nightshade: Solanum nigrum L. (Solanaceae)

5.1.4 Common purselane: Portulaca oleracea L. (Portualacaceae)

5.1.5 False amaranth: Digera arvensis Forssk. (Amaranthaceae)

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 Grassy weeds

5.1.7 Rabbit/Crow foot grass: Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Beauv. (Poaceae)

5.1.8 Crabgrass: Digiteria sanguinalis (L.) Willd. (Poaceae)

5.1.9 Barnyard grass: Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Scop. (Poaceae)

Sedges

5.1.10 Purple nutsedge: Cyperus rotundus L. (Cypraceae)

5.1.11 Flat sedge: Cyperus iria L. (Cypraceae)

5.1 Major Rabi weeds

Broadleaf weeds

5.2.1 Lamb’s quarter: Chenopodium album L. (Chenopodiaceae)

5.2.2 Scarlet Pimpernel: Anagallis arvensis L. (Primulaceae)

5.2.3 Sweet clover: Melilotus indica (L.) All. (Fabaceae)

5.2.4 Fine leaf fumitory: Fumaria parviflora Lam. (Fumariaceae)

5.2.5 Corn spurry: Spergula arvensis L. (Caryophylliaceae)

Grassy weeds

5.2.6 Blue grass: Poa annua L. (Poaceae)

5.2.7 Canary grass: Phalaris minor Retz. (Poaceae)

B. Pests of Regional Significance

1. Insect pests
1.1 Leafhopper:

1.1.1 Amrasca biguttula biguttula Ishida (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) (Madhya Pradesh,

Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu)

1.2 Cut worm: Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) (Jammu & Kashmir)

1.3 Aphids:

1.3.1 Myzus persicae (Sulzar) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) (Bihar, Rajasthan, Karnataka)

1.3.2 Aphis gossypii (Glover) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) (West Bengal, Punjab)

1.3.3 Aphis fabae Scopoli (Hemiptera: Aphididae) (Rajasthan)

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 1.3.4 Aphis craccivora Koch (Hemiptera: Aphididae) (Uttar Pradesh)

1.4 Mealybugs: Phenacoccus solenopsis (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) (Andhra

Pradesh, Utter Pradesh, Punjab)

2. Diseases

2.1 Buck eye rot: Phytophthora nicontianae var. parasitica (Dastur) Waterhouse
(Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka)

2.2 Powdery mildew: Leveillula taurica (Lev.) Arnaud. (Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh)

II AESA based IPM

A. Agro-ecosystem analysis

The integrated pest management (IPM) has been evolving over the decades to address the
deleterious impacts of synthetic chemical pesticides on environment ultimately affecting the
interests of the farmers. The economic threshold level (ETL) was the basis for several decades
but in modern IPM (FAO 2002) emphasis is given to AESA where farmers take decisions based
on larger range of field observations. The health of a plant is determined by its environment
which includes physical factors (i.e. soil, rain, sunshine hours, wind etc.) and biological factors
(i.e. pests, diseases and weeds). All these factors can play a role in the balance which exists
between herbivore insects and their natural enemies. Understanding the intricate interactions in
an ecosystem can play a critical role in pest management.

Decision making in pest management requires a thorough analysis of the agro-

ecosystem. Farmer has to learn how to observe the crop, how to analyze the field situation and
how to make proper decisions for their crop management. This process is called the AESA.
Participants of AESA will have to make a drawing on a large piece of paper (60 x 80 cm), to
include all their observations. The advantage of using a drawing is that it forces the
participants/farmers to observe closely and intensively. It is a focal point for the analysis and for
the discussions that follow, and the drawing can be kept as a record.

AESA is an approach, which can be gainfully employed by extension functionaries and

farmers to analyze the field situations with regards to pests, defenders, soil conditions, plant
health and the influence of climatic factors and their relationship for growing a healthy crop.

 The basic components of AESA are

 Plant health at different stages
 Built-in compensation abilities of plants
 Pest and defender population dynamics
 Soil conditions
 Climatic factors
 Farmers past experience

Principles of AESA based Integrated Pest Management (IPM):

Grow a healthy crop

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  Select a variety resistant/tolerant to major pests
 Treat the seed with recommended pesticides especially biopesticides
 Select healthy seeds and seedlings
 Follow proper spacing
 Soil health improvement (mulching and green manuring)
 Nutrient management especially organic manures and biofertilizers based on the soil
test results. If the dosage of nitrogenous fertilizers is too high the crop becomes too
succulent and therefore susceptible to insects and diseases. If the dosage is too low, the
crop growth is retarded. So, the farmers should apply an adequate for best results. The
phosphatic fertilizers should not be applied each and every season as the residual
phosphate of the previous season will be available for the current season also.
 Proper irrigation
 Crop rotation

Observe the field regularly (climatic factors, soil and biotic factors)

Farmers should
 Monitor the field situation at least once a week (soil, water, plants, pests, natural
enemies, weather factors etc.)
 Make decisions based on the field situation and P: D ratio
 Take direct action when needed (e.g. collect egg masses, remove infested plants etc.)

Plant compensation ability

Compensation is defined as the replacement of plant biomass lost to herbivores and has been
associated with increased photosynthetic rates and mobilization of stored resources from
source organs to sinks (e.g., from roots and remaining leaves to new leaves) during active
vegetative growth period. Plant tolerance to herbivory can arise from the interaction of a variety
of plant traits and external environmental factors. Several studies have documented such
compensation through increased growth and photosynthetic rate.

Understand and conserve defenders

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  Know defenders/natural enemies to understand their role through regular observations
of the agro-ecosystem
 Avoid the use of chemical pesticides especially with broad-spectrum activity

Insect zoo

In field various types of insects are present. Some are beneficial and some may be harmful.
Generally farmers are not aware about it. Predators (friends of the farmers) which feed on
pests are not easy to observe in crop field. Insect zoo concept can be helpful to enhance
farmers‟ skill to identify beneficial and harmful insects. In this method, unfamiliar/unknown
predators are collected in plastic containers with brush from the field and brought to a place for
study. Each predator is placed inside a plastic bottle together with parts of the plant and some
known insect pests. Insects in the bottle are observed for certain time and determined whether
the test insect is a pest (feeds on plant) or a predator (feeds on other insects).

Pest: Defender ratio (P: D ratio):

Identifying the number of pests and beneficial insects helps the farmers to make appropriate
pest management decisions. Sweep net, visual counts etc. can be adopted to arrive at the
numbers of pests and defenders. The P: D ratio can vary depending on the feeding potential of
natural enemy as well as the type of pest. The natural enemies of tomato pests can be divided
into 3 categories 1. parasitoids; 2. predators; and 3. pathogens. The important natural enemies
in tomato are given in ecological engineering table on page …..

Model agro-ecosystem analysis chart

Date:
Village:
Farmer:

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 Pests Defenders

Decision taken based on the

analysis of field situation
Soil condition :
Weather condition :
Diseases types and severity :
Weeds types and intensity :
Rodent damage (if any) :
No. of insect pests :
No. of natural enemies :
P: D ratio :

The general rule to be adopted for management decisions relying on the P: D ratio is 2:
1. However, some of the parasitoids and predators will be able to control more than 2 pests.
Wherever specific P: D ratios are not found, it is safer to adopt the 2: 1, as P: D ratio. Whenever
the P: D ratio is found to be favourable, there is no need for adoption of other management
strategies. In cases where the P: D ratio is found to be unfavourable, the farmers can be
advised to resort to inundative release of parasitoids/predators depending upon the type of pest.
In addition to inundative release of parasitoids and predators, the usage of microbial
biopesticides and biochemical biopesticides such as insect growth regulators, botanicals etc.
can be relied upon before resorting to synthetic chemical pesticides.

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Feeding/egg laying potential of different parasitoids/predators

Predators/ Parasitoids Feeding potential/ Egg laying capacity

Predatory rate of adult coccinellid on aphids is 50 aphids per
day

Lady bird beetle

1st instar larva can consume 15-19 aphids/day
2nd instar larva can consume 45-52 aphids/day
3rd instar larva can consume 80-90 aphids/day
In total life cycle they can consume approx. 400 aphids.
Hover fly
Each larva can consume 100 aphids, 329 pupa of whitefly and
288 nymphs of jassids

Green Lace wing

1st & 2nd nymphal instars can consume 1 small larva/day
3rd & 4th nymphal instars can consume 2 to 3 medium
larvae/day
Reduviid bug 5th nymphal instar & adult can consume 3 to 4 big larvae/day
In total life cycle they can consume approx. 250 to 300 larvae
5 big larvae/day

Spider
Predatory rate of adult is 20-35 phytophagous
mites/female/day

Predatory mite
http://www.eduwebs.org/bugs/predatory_mites.htm

Egg laying capacity is 100-200 eggs/female. 1-8 eggs/larva

Bracon hebetor
Egg laying capacity is 20-200 eggs/female.

Trichogramma sp

Decision making

Farmers become experts in crop management

Farmers have to make timely decisions about the management of their crops. AESA farmers
have learned to make these decisions based on observations and analysis viz. abiotic and biotic

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factors of the crop ecosystem. The past experience of the farmers should also be considered for
decision making. However, as field conditions continue to change and new technologies
become available, farmers need to continue improving their skills and knowledge.

 Farmers are capable of improving farming practices by experimentation

 Farmers can share their knowledge with other farmers

AESA methodology

 Go to the field in groups (about 5 farmers per group). Walk across the field and choose
20 plants/acre randomly. Observe keenly each of these plants and record your
observations:

 Plant: Observe the plant height, number of branches, crop stage, deficiency
symptoms etc.
 Pests: Observe and count pests at different places on the plant.
 Defenders (natural enemies): Observe and count parasitoids and predators.
 Diseases: Observe leaves and stems and identify any visible disease symptoms
and severity.
 Rats: Count number of plants affected by rats.
 Weeds: Observe weeds in the field and their intensity.
 Water: Observe the water situation of the field.
 Weather: Observe the weather condition.

 While walking in the field, manually collect insects in plastic bags. Use a sweep net to
collect additional insects. Collect plant parts with disease symptoms.
 Find a shady place to sit as a group in a small circle for drawing and discussion.
 If needed, kill the insects with some chloroform (if available) on a piece of cotton.
 Each group will first identify the pests, defenders and diseases collected.
 Each group will then analyze the field situation in detail and present their observations
and analysis in a drawing (the AESA drawing).
 Each drawing will show a plant representing the field situation. The weather condition,
water level, disease symptoms, etc. will be shown in the drawing. Pest insects will be
drawn on one side. Defenders (beneficial insects) will be drawn on another side. Write
the number next to each insect. Indicate the plant part where the pests and defenders
were found. Try to show the interaction between pests and defenders.
 Each group will discuss the situation and make a crop management recommendation.
 The small groups then join each other and a member of each group will now present
their analysis in front of all participants.
 The facilitator will facilitate the discussion by asking guiding questions and makes sure
that all participants (also shy or illiterate persons) are actively involved in this process.
 Formulate a common conclusion. The whole group should support the decision on what
field management is required in the AESA plot.
 Make sure that the required activities (based on the decision) will be carried out.
 Keep the drawing for comparison purpose in the following weeks.

Data recording

Farmers should record data in a notebook and drawing on a chart

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  Keep records of what has happened
 Help us making an analysis and draw conclusions

Data to be recorded

 Plant growth (weekly)

 Height of plant
 Number of leaves
 Crop situation (e.g. for AESA)
 Plant health
 Pests, diseases, weeds
 Natural enemies
 Soil condition
 Irrigation
 Weather conditions
 Input costs
 Seeds
 Fertilizer
 Pesticides
 Labour
 Harvest
 Yield (kg/acre)
 Price of produce (Rs./kg)

Some questions that can be used during the discussion

 Summarize the present situation of the field?

 What crop management aspect is most important at this moment?
 Is there a big change in crop situation compared to last visit? What kind of change?
 Is there any serious pest or disease outbreak?
 What is the situation of the beneficial insects?
 Is there a balance in the field between pests and defenders?
 Were you able to identify all pests and diseases?
 Do you think the crop is healthy?
 What management practices are needed at this moment?
 When will it be done? Who will do it? Make sure that responsibilities for all activities are
being discussed.
 Are you expecting any problems to emerge during the coming week such as congenial
weather conditions for pest buildup?
 What problems? How can we avoid it? How can we be prepared?
 Summarize the actions to be taken.

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Advantages of AESA over ETL

One of the problems of the ETL is that it is based on parameters that are changing all the time,
and that are often not known. The damage or losses caused by a certain density of insects
cannot be predicted at all. In ETL the due recognition of the role of natural enemies in
decreasing pest population is ignored. Farmers cannot base their decisions on just a simple
count of pests. They will have to consider many other aspects of the crop (crop ecology, growth
stage, natural enemies, weather condition, etc.) and their own economic and social situation
before they can make the right crop management decisions. In ETL based IPM, natural
enemies, plant compensation ability and abiotic factors are not considered. In AESA based IPM
emphasis is given to natural enemies, plant compensation ability, abiotic factors and P: D ratio.

AESA and farmer field school (FFS)

AESA is a season-long training activity that takes place in the farmer field. It is season-long so
that it covers all the different developmental stages of the crop and their related management
practices. The process is always learner-centered, participatory and relying on an experiential
learning approach and therefore it has become an integral part of FFS.

Farmers can learn from AESA

 Identification of pests and their nature of

damage
 Identification of natural enemies
 Management of pests
 Water and nutrient management
 Influence of weather factors on pest buildup
 Role of natural enemies in pest management

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FFS to teach AESA based IPM skills

Active involvement of the farmers

Participatory
Farmers learn from other IPM
farmers

Not classroom training

Practical
Active involvement of the farmers

Group meetings

Regular meetings Throughout cropping season

Guided by IPM facilitator

AESA based IPM
training for farmers Learning through Design studies to solve problems
field experiments
Learning by doing

Problem oriented Farmers choose topics

Learning about crop ecology

Understanding role of beneficial insects

B. Field scouting

AESA requires skill. So only the trained farmers can undertake their exercise. However, other
farmers also can do field scouting in their own fields at regular intervals to monitor the major
pest situation.

Surveillance on pest occurrence at the main field should commence soon after crop
establishment after transplanting and at weekly intervals thereafter. In each of the fields, select
five spots randomly. Select five random plants at each spot for recording counts of insects as
per procedure finalized for individual insects.

For sucking pests :

For aphids, whitefly and mites: Count and record the number of both nymphs and adults on
five randomly selected leaves per plant.
For thrips: Count and record the number of nymphs and adults of thrips present on five
terminal leaves per plant (tapping method also can be used to count thrips).
For leaf miner: Only the number of live mines on five randomly selected leaves per plant
should be counted and recorded.
For Helicoverpa and Spodoptera: Total number of fruits, damaged fruits due to Helicoverpa
and Spodoptera and number of larvae on individual plants should be counted and recorded.

C. Surveillance through pheromone trap catches for Spodoptera and Helicoverpa:

Pheromone traps for two insects viz., Helicoverpa armigera and Spodoptera litura @ 2/fixed
field have to be installed. Install the traps for each species separated by a distance of >75 feet
in the vicinity of the selected fixed field. Fix the traps to the supporting pole at a height of one
foot above the plant canopy. Change of lures should be made at 2-3 week interval (regular

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interval). During each week of surveillance, the number of moths/trap should be counted and
entered.

Procedure for observation: Total number of moths of Helicoverpa armigera and Spodoptera
litura/trap/week should be recorded year round. The trapped moths should be destroyed and
removed after each recording.

D. Yellow pan water trap/sticky traps

Set up yellow pan water trap/sticky traps 15 cm above the canopy for monitoring whitefly and
blue sticky trap for thrips @ 4-5 traps/acre. Locally available empty tins can be painted yellow/
coated with grease/Vaseline/castor oil on outer surface may also be used.

E. Light traps
Set up light traps 1 trap/acre 15 cm above the crop canopy for monitoring and mass trapping
insects. Light traps with exit option for natural enemies of smaller size should be installed and
operate around the dusk time (6 pm to 10 pm).

F. Nematode sampling
Collect 100 to 300 cm3 (200-300 g) soil sample. Mix soil sample and pass through a coarse
sieve to remove rocks, roots, etc. Take a 600 cc subsample of soil, pack lightly into a beaker
uniformly. Place soil in one of the buckets or pans half filled with water. Mix soil and water by
stirring with paddle; allow to stand until water almost stops swirling. Pour all but heavy sediment
through 20-mesh sieve into second bucket; discard residue in first bucket; discard material
caught on sieve. Stir material in second bucket; allow to stand until water almost stops swirling.
Pour all but heavy sediment through 200-mesh sieve into first bucket; discard residue in second
bucket. Backwash material caught on 200-mesh sieve (which includes large nematodes) into
250-ml beaker. Stir material in first bucket; allow to stand until water almost stops swirling. Pour
all but heavy sediment through 325-mesh sieve into second bucket; discard residue in first
bucket. Backwash material caught on 325-mesh sieve (which includes small to mid-sized
nematodes and silty material) into 250-ml beaker. More than 90% of the live nematodes are
recovered in the first 5-8 mm of water drawn from the rubber tubing and the sample is placed in
a shallow dish for examination.

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III. Ecological engineering for pest management

Ecological engineering for pest management has recently emerged as a paradigm for
considering pest management approaches that rely on the use of cultural techniques to
effect habitat manipulation and to enhance biological control. The cultural practices are
informed by ecological knowledge rather than on high technology approaches such as
synthetic pesticides and genetically engineered crops (Gurr et al. 2004).

Natural enemies may require

1. Food in the form of pollen and nectar for adult natural enemies.
2. Shelters such as overwintering sites, moderate microclimate, etc are needed.
3. Natural enemies may also require alternate host when primary host are not present.

Ecological engineering for pest management – Above ground:

 Raising the flowering plants / compatible cash crops along the field border by arranging
shorter plants towards main crop and taller plants towards the border to attract natural
enemies as well as to avoid immigrating pest population
 Growing flowering plants on the internal bunds inside the field
 Not to uproot weed plants those are growing naturally like Tridax procumbens, Ageratum
sp. Alternanthera sp., which act as nectar source for natural enemies,
 Not to apply broad spectrum chemical pesticides, when the P: D is favourable. The plant
compensation ability should also be considered before applying chemical pesticides.

Ecological engineering for pest management – Below ground:

 Crop rotations with leguminous plants which enhance nitrogen content.

 Keeping soils covered year-round with living vegetation and/or crop residue.
 Adding organic matter in the form of FYM, Vermicompost, crop residue which enhance
below ground biodiversity.
 Reducing tillage intensity so that hibernating natural enemies can be saved.
 Applying balanced dose of nutrients using biobiofertilizers.
 Apply mychorrhiza and PGPR
 Applying Trichoderma as seed and nursery treatment and Pseudomonas fluorescens as
seed, nursery treatment and soil application (if commercial products are used, check for
label claim. However, biopesticides produced by farmers for own consumption in their
fields, registration is not required).

Due to enhancement of biodiversity by the flowering plants, parasitoids and predatory

natural enemies number also will increase due to availability of nectar, pollen, fruits, insects,
etc. The major predators are a wide variety of spiders, lady bird beetles, long horned
grasshoppers, Chrysoperla, earwigs, etc.

22
Good insectary plants belonging to Compositae, Leguminaceae, Umbelliferae,
Brassicaceae etc. families

French bean Marigold Carrot

Sunflower Mustard Caraway

Alfalfa Dill Cowpea

Desmodium sp Chrysanthemum Buckwheat

23
24
Flowering plants that attract natural enemies/repel pests

Insect Natural enemies Flowering plants that attract

natural enemies/repel pests

1 Serpentine leaf Parasitoids: Tetrastichus  Attractant plants : Carrot family,

miner ovularum (egg), Gronotoma sunflower family, buck wheat,
micromorpha (larval and pupal), French bean (predatory thrips)
Diglyphus sp. (larval), Opius sp.
(pupal) Chrysocharis sp.,
Neochrysocharis formosa (larval)
etc.

Predators: Lacewings, lady

beetle, spiders, fire ants,
dragonfly, robber fly, praying
mantis etc.
2 Gram pod Parasitoids: Trichogramma  Repellant plants: Ocimum/Basil
borer chilonis (egg), Tetrastichus spp.  Attractant plants: Carrot family,
(egg), Telenomus spp. (egg), sunflower family, buck wheat,
Chelonus blackburni (egg-larval), alfalfa, corn, shrubs (minute
Carcelia spp. (larval-pupal), pirate bug and lacewing)
Campoletis chlorideae (larval),  Nectar rich plants with small
Goniophthalmus halli (larval), flowers i.e. anise, caraway, dill,
Bracon spp. (larval) etc. parsely, mustard, sunflower, buck
wheat and cowpea (wasp)
Predators: Chrysoperla carnea,
coccinellids, King crow, common
mynah, wasp, dragonfly, spider,
robber fly, reduviid bug, praying
mantis, fire ants, big eyed bugs
(Geocoris sp), pentatomid bug
(Eocanthecona furcellata),
earwigs, ground beetles, rove
beetles etc.

Ovomermis albicans, a nematode,

3 Tobacco Parasitoids: Trichogramma  Repellant plants: Basil
caterpillar chilonis (egg), Tetrastichus spp.  Attractant plants: Carrot family,
(egg), Telenomus spp. (egg), sunflower family, buck wheat,
Chelonus blackburni (egg-larval), alfalfa, corn, shrubs (minute
Carcelia spp. (larval-pupal), pirate bug and lacewing)
Campoletis chlorideae (larval),  Nectar rich plants with small
Eriborus argentiopilosus (larval), flowers i.e anise, caraway, dill,
Microplitis sp (larval) etc. parsely, mustard, sunflower,
buck wheat and cowpea (wasp)
Predators: Chrysoperla carnea,
coccinellids, King crow, common
mynah, wasp, dragonfly, spider,
robber fly, reduviid bug, praying
mantis, fire ants, big eyed bugs
25
 (Geocoris sp), pentatomid bug
(Eocanthecona furcellata),
earwigs, ground beetles, rove
beetles etc.

Ovomermis albicans, a nematode,

4 Whitefly Parasitoids: Encarsia sp,  Repellant plants: Peppermint
Eretmocerus spp.  Attractant plant: French bean
(predatory thrips)
Predators: Dicyphus hesperus,
(mirid bug), dragonfly, spider,
robber fly, praying mantis, fire
ants, coccinellids, lace wings, big
eyed bugs (Geocoris sp) etc.

5 Spider mites Predators: Anthocorid bugs  Attractant plants: Carrot family,

(Orius spp.), mirid bugs, bishop‟s weed (spider mite
syrphid/hover flies, green destroyer)
lacewings (Mallada basalis and  Sunflower family, marigold, buck
Chrysoperla carnea), predatory wheat, spear mint (lady beetle)
mites (Amblyseius alstoniae, A.  Carrot family, sunflower family,
womersleyi, A. fallacies and buck wheat, alfalfa, corn, shrubs
Phytoseiulus persimilis), predatory (minute pirate bug)
coccinellids (Stethorus  Mustard, sweet clove, dill (aphid
punctillum), staphylinid beetle midge)
(Oligota spp.), predatory  French bean (predatory mites)
cecidomyiid fly (Anthrocnodax  Berseem clover (big eyed bugs)
occidentalis), predatory gall midge
(Feltiella minuta) etc.

Beauveria bassiana (entomo

pathogen)

6 Root knot Use of biocontrol agents like  Intercropping of marigold with

nematode Paecilomyces lilacinus (egg tomato reduces nematode
parasite) population
 Repellant plants: Marigold
 Crop rotation : Marigold,
Chrysanthemum spp., Sesbania
spp., Crotalaria spp., Gaillardia
sp, castor bean and Desmodium
spp., (parasitic nematodes)
 Boarder crops: Strips of Rye,
grains, cover crops and mulch
beds (rove beetle)

26
A. Resistant/tolerant varieties
Pest Tolerant/ Resistant Variety

Root knot Pusa-120, Pusa Hybrid-2, Pusa Hybrid-4, Arka Vardan, Hisar Lalit, TNAU
Nematode Tomato Hybrid Co3

Tomato leaf curl Arka Ananya, Kashi Vishesh, Kashi Amrit, COTH 2, TNAU Tomato Hybrid
virus Co3

Bacterial wilt Arka Ananya, Arka Abhijit, Arka Abha, Arka Alok

*For detailed and updated information nearest KVK, SAU / ICAR Institute may be
contacted

IV. Crop stage-wise IPM

Crop stage Management Activity

Pre-sowing* Nutrients  Add well rotten farm yard manure (FYM) @

8-10 t/acre or vermicompost @ 5 t/acre.
Incorporate at the time of field preparation at
1 week (vermicompost) or 2 to 3 weeks
(FYM) before transplanting.
Weeds  At the time of field preparation, adopt stale
seed bed technique to minimize the weeds
menace in field.
 Keep the nursery weed free by hand pulling
of the weeds.
Soil-borne fungus and Cultural control:
nematodes, resting  Deep summer ploughing of fields to control
stages of insects nematodes and exposes dormant stages
(pupa and larva) of Helicoverpa and
Spodoptera and subsequently reduces their
initial population build up
 Soil solarization: Cover the beds with
polythene sheet of 45 gauge (0.45 mm)
thickness for three weeks before sowing for
soil solarization which will help in reducing
the soil-borne pests including weeds.
 Ecological engineering of tomato with
raising African marigold nursery 15 days
prior to tomato nursery serves as a trap crop
for ovipositing females of Helicoverpa.
 Apply neem cake @ 100 kg/acre.

Damping off Cultural control:

 Excessive watering and poorly drained

27
 areas of field should be avoided
 Use raised beds: 15 cm height is better for
water drainage or use pro-trays for raising
seedlings

Biological control:
 Seed treatment with Trichoderma viride 1 %
WP @ 9 g/kg of seed.

Chemical control:
 Seed treatment with captan 75% WS @ 20-
30 g/kg seed
 Soil drench with captan 75% WP @ 1000 g
in 400 l of water/acre

Seed Sowing/ Nutrients  Before sowing, soil testing should be done
Transplanting to find out the soil fertility status. Nutrients
should be provided as per soil test
stage*
recommendations. Generally, tomato needs
40: 24: 24 kg N: P: K/acre-for varieties and
60: 36: 36 kg N: P: K/acre-for hybrids.
 In varieties- Apply 50% of N fertilizer dose
as basal before transplanting.
 Apply entire dose of phosphatic fertilizers at
the time of last ploughing/transplanting in
case of varieties.
 For hybrids, apply nitrogen fertilizer in three
equal split doses. First at the time of last
ploughing.
 For hybrids, apply potassic fertilizers in two
equal splits, first at the time of last
ploughing.
 Based on soil test for micronutrients, the
deficient micronutrient should be applied in
soil at sowing/transplanting.
 Biofertilizers: For seed/seedling treatment
with Azotobacter and phosphorous
solubilizing bacteria (PSB) cultures @ 8-10
g each/kg seed
 For seedling root dip treatment with
Azotobacter and phosphorous solubilizing
bacteria (PSB) cultures @ 250 g each/acre
seedlings
Seed and Weed management  Keep the nursery beds weed free by hand
Seedling* weeding.
 Avoid carrying of weed seedlings along with
tomato seedlings
 Cultural practices such as crop rotation, line
transplanting, intercropping should be
adopted to avoid weeds spread and to

28
 suppress the weed growth.
Early blight Cultural control:
 Use resistant or tolerant cultivars
 Change the nursery beds location every
season,h eradicate weeds and volunteer
tomato plants, fertilize properly
 Avoid planting overlapping crops in adjacent
area.

Chemical control:
 Spray azoxystrobin 23% SC @ 200 ml in
200 l of water/acre or captan 50% WP @
1000 g in 300-400 l of water/acre or captan
75% WP @ 666.8 g in 400 l of water/acre or
copper oxy chloride 50% WP @ 1000 g in
300-400 l of water/acre or copper sulphate
2.62% SC @ 400 ml in 200 l of water/acre
or iprodione 50% WP @ 600 g in 200 l of
water/acre or kitazin 48% EC @ 80 ml in 80
l of water/acre or mancozeb 35% SC @ 200
g in 200 l water/acre or mancozeb 75% WG
@ 400 g in 200 l of water/acre or
pyraclostrobin 20% WG @ 150-200 g in 200
l of water/acre or zineb 75% WP @ 600-800
g in 300-400 l of water/acre or ziram 80%
WP @ 600-800 g in 300-400 l of water/acre
or famoxadone 16.6% + cymoxanil 22.1%
SC @ 200 g in 200 l of water/acre or
metiram 55% + pyraclostrobin 5% WG @
600-700 g in 200 l of water/acre

Bacterial wilt Cultural control:

 Crop rotations, viz., cowpea-maize-
cabbage, okra-cowpea-maize, maize-
cowpea-maize and finger millet- brinjal are
reported effective in reducing bacterial wilt
of tomato
 Rotate with non-host crops, particularly with
paddy
 Use seedlings from pathogen free seed
beds.
 Restriction of irrigation water flowing from
affected field to healthy field

Biological control:
 Neem cake @ 100 kg/acre.
Bacterial leaf spot Chemical control
 Spray streptomycin sulfate 9% + tetracycline
hydrochloride 1% SP solution
(streptocycline) 40-100 ppm in fields after

29
 the appearance of first true leaves. Two
sprays, one before transplanting (seed
beds) and another after transplanting (main
field)

Fusarium wilt Biological control:

 Seed treatment with Trichoderma viride 1%
WP @ 9 g/kg seed
 Root zone application: Mix thoroughly 2.5
kg of the T. viride 1% WP in 150 kg of
compost or farmyard manure and apply this
mixture in the field after sowing/
transplanting of crops

Leaf curl Cultural control:

 Raising nursery in protected condition (with
net of sufficient mesh size to prevent the
entry of vector, whitefly)
 Seeds from disease free healthy plants
should be selected for sowing.
 In the nursery all the infected plants should
be removed carefully and destroyed.
Seedlings infected with the viral disease
should not be used for transplanting.

Chemical control:
 Before transplanting dip the roots of
seedlings for 15 minutes in imidacloprid 17.8
% SL @ 60-70 ml in 200 l of water/acre for
management of leaf curl vector.

Nematodes Cultural control:

 Crop rotation with cereal crops
 Ecological engineering of tomato with
marigold/mustard as intercrops reduces
nematode population
 Nursery should be raised in nematode free
sites or solarized beds.

Chemical control:
 Apply dazomet technical @ 12-16 g/acre
(nursery)

Serpentine leaf miner Cultural control:

 Avoid excess use of nitrogen.
 Ecological engineering of tomato with
beans as intercrop reduces leaf miner
attack.
* Applying Trichoderma as seed and nursery treatment and Pseudomonas fluorescens as

30
seed, nursery treatment and soil application (if commercial products are used, check for
label claim. However, biopesticides produced by farmers for own consumption in their fields,
registration is not required).

Vegetative Nutrient Management  In varieties, apply the second dose of N i.e.

stage 13.5 kg N/acre, at 45 days after
transplanting.
 For hybrids, apply the second dose of N i.e.
20 kg N/acre at 30 days after planting.
 For hybrids, apply the second dose of
potassic fertilizers at 30 days after planting.
 Micronutrient deficiency should be corrected
by foliar spray of particular micronutrient.
Weed management  Field should be weed free before 30 days
crop stage. Two hoeings between the rows
plus hand weeding within the row at 15 and
30 days after planting.
 Mulching with black Low Density
Polyethylene (LDPE) sheets of 30 micron
thickness by burying both the ends into the
soil to a depth of 10 cm will avoid weed
growth.
Alternaria blight and Cultural control
late blight  Field sanitation
 Destruction of alternate hosts
 Provide light irrigation

Chemical control
 Spray mancozeb 35% SC @ 200 g in 200 l
water/acre or mancozen 75% WP @ 600-
800 g in 300 l of water/acre or zineb 75%
WP @ 600-800 g in 300-400 l of water/acre
or famoxadone 16.6% + cymoxanil 22.1%
SC @ 200 g in 200 l of water/acre or
cymoxanil 8% + mancozeb 64% WP @ 600
g in 200-300 l of water/acre or azoxystrobin
23% SC @ 200 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
captan 50% WP @ 1000 g in 300-400 l of
water/acre or captan 75% WP @ 666.8 g in
400 l of water/acre or copper oxy chloride
50% WP @ 1000 g in 300-400 l of
water/acre or copper sulphate 2.62% SC @
400 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
cyazaphamid 34.5% SC @ 80 ml in 200 l of
water/acre or metrium 75% WG @ 1000 g in
200-300 l of water/acre

Leaf curl disease Cultural control:

(vector –whitefly)  Field sanitation, roguing of affected plants
 Raise barrier crops-cereals (maize or

31
 sorghum) around the field.
 Peppermint can be used as repellant plant
for whitefly.
 Yellow sticky traps or cards @ 10/acre may
reduce the whiteflies population

Biological control:
 Conserve parasitoids such as Encarsia sp.
(nymphal and pupal), Eretmocerus spp
(nymphal and pupal). etc.
 Conserve predators such as Dicyphus
hesperus, (mirid bug), dragonfly, spider,
robber fly, praying mantis, fire ants,
coccinellids, lace wings, big eyed bugs
(Geocoris sp) etc.
 Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%
or azadirachtin 5% W/W neem extract
concentrate @ 80 g in 160 l of water/acre

Chemical control:
 Spray dimethoate 30% EC @ 396 ml in 200-
400 l of water/acre or imidacloprid 17.8 SL
@ 60-70 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 80 g in 200 l of
water/acre or carbofuran 3% CG @ 16,000
g/acre or malathion 50% EC @ 600 ml in
200-400 l of water/acre or oxydemeton-
methyl 25% EC @ 400 ml in 200-400 l of
water/acre or phorate 10% CG @ 6,000
g/acre or spiromesifen 22.9% SC @ 250 ml
in 200 l of water/acre

Septoria leaf spot Cultural control:

 Removal and destruction of the affected
plant parts.

Chemical control:
 Spray with mancozeb 75% WP @ 600-800
g in 300 l of water/acre
Spider mites Cultural control:
 Field sanitation, roguing of affected plants
 Plant tall border crops such as maize,
sorghum etc.

Biological control:
 Conserve predators such as predatory mites
(Phytoseiulus spp., Amblyseius spp.),
staphylinids (Oligota spp.), lady bird beetles,
lacewings, predatory thrips, anthocorid bugs
(Orius spp.), mirid bugs, predatory flies

32
 (syrphid/hover flies) etc.

Chemical control:
 Apply fenzaquin 10% EC @ 500 ml in 200 l
of water/acre or spiromesifen 22.9% SC @
250 ml in 200 l of water/acre
Serpentine leaf miner Cultural and Mechanical control:
 Use yellow sticky traps or cards @ 10/acre

Biological control:
 Conserve parasitoids such as Tetrastichus
ovularum (egg), Gronotoma micromorpha
(larval and pupal), Diglyphus sp (larval),
Opius phaseoli (pupal), Chrysocharis sp,
Neochrysocharis formosa etc.
 Conserve predators such as lacewings, lady
beetles, spiders, fire ants etc.
Tobacco caterpillar Cultural control:
 Field sanitation.
 Install pheromone traps @ 4-5/acre or
monitoring adult moths activity. Replace the
lures with fresh lures after every 2-3 weeks
 Setting up of light trap @ 1/acre
 Ecological engineering of tomato with
growing of ovipositional trap crops such as
castor.
 Erecting of bird perches @ 20/acre for
encouraging predatory birds such as king
crow, mynah etc.

Biological control:
 Release egg parasitoid, Trichogramma
pretiosum @ 20,000/acre/week four times.
 Spray NSKE 5% against eggs and first
instar larva or azadirachtin 5% W/W neem
extract concentrate @ 80 g in 160 l of
water/acre
 Conserve parasitoids such as
Trichogramma chilonis (egg), Tetrastichus
spp. (egg), Telenomus spp. (egg),
Chelonus blackburni (egg-larval), Carcelia
spp. (larval-pupal), Campoletis chlorideae
(larval), Eriborus argentiopilosus (larval),
Microplitis sp etc.
 Conserve predators such as Chrysoperla
carnea, coccinellids, King crow, common
mynah, wasp, dragonfly, spider, robber fly,
reduviid bug, praying mantis, fire ants, big
eyed bugs (Geocoris sp), pentatomid bug
(Eocanthecona furcellata), earwigs, ground

33
 beetles, rove beetles etc.
 Apply entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs)
@ 2,50,000 infective juveniles of
Steinernema feltiae/sq mt area

Chemical Control:
 Apply trichlorfon 5% GR @ 300 g/acre or
trichlorfon 5% DUST @ 300 g/acre or spray
indoxacarb 14.5% SC @ 160 - 200 ml in
120-240 l of water/acre or flubendiamide
20% WG @ 40 g in 150–200 l of water/acre
or flubendiamide 39.35% M/M SC @ 40 ml
in 150-200 l of water/acre or carbaryl 50%
WP @ 800 g in 200-400 l of water/acre or
chlorantranilioprole 18.5% SC @ 60 ml in
200 l of water/acre or lambda-cyhalothrin
4.9% CS @ 120 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
lambda-cyhalothrin 5% EC @ 120 ml in 160-
200 l of water/acre or methomyl 40% SP @
300-450 ml in 200-400 l of water/acre or
novaluron 10 % EC @ 300 ml in 200-400 l
of water/acre or phosalone 35% EC @ 514
ml in 200-400 l of water/acre or quinalphos
20% AF @ 600-700 ml in 300-400 l of
water/acre or quinalohos 25% EC @ 400 ml
in 200-400 l of water/acre or novaluron
5.25% + indoxacarb 4.5% SC @ 330-350 ml
in 200 l of water/acre
Reproductive Nutrients  In varieties, the third dose of N i.e. 13.5 kg
stage N/acre, to be applied at 60 days after
transplanting.
 For hybrids, third dose of N i.e. 20 kg N/acre
is applied at 60 days after planting.
 Micronutrient deficiency, if any, should be
corrected by application of particular
nutrients.
Weeds  Weeds should be removed from the field to
avoid further spread of weed seeds.
Gram pod borer Cultural control:
 Field sanitation
 Ecological engineering of tomato with
growing intercrops such as cowpea, onion,
maize, coriander, urdbean etc. and with
growing sorghum or maize in 4 rows all
around tomato crop as guard crop.
 Rotate the tomato crop with a non host
cereal crop, cucurbit, or cruciferous
vegetable.
 Ecological engineering of tomato with
repellant plants: Ocimum/Basil and marigold

34
 as ovipositional trap crop.
 Erecting of bird perches @ 20/acre for
encouraging predatory birds such as king
crow, mynah etc.
 Install pheromone traps @ 4-5/acre for
monitoring adult moths activity. Replace the
lures after every 2-3 weeks
 Setting up of light trap @ 1/acre

Biological control:
 Inundatively release T. pretiosum @
40,000/acre 4-5 times from flower initiation
stage at weekly intervals
 Conserve parasitoids such as Tetrastichus
spp. (egg), Telenomus spp. (egg),
Campoletis chlorideae (larval) etc.
 Conserve predators such as Chrysoperla
carnea, coccinellids, King crow, common
mynah, wasp, dragonfly, spider, robber fly,
reduviid bug, praying mantis, fire ants, big
eyed bugs (Geocoris sp), pentatomid bug
(Eocanthecona furcellata), earwigs, ground
beetles, rove beetles etc.
 Spray azadirachtin 1% (10000 ppm) neem
based EC @ 400-600 ml in 200 l of
water/acre or azadirachtin 5% W/W neem
extract concentrate @ 80 g in 160 l of
water/acre
 Spray Ha NPV 0.43% AS @ 600 ml in 160-
240 l of water/acre or Ha NPV 2% AS @
100-200 ml in 200 l of water/acre in
combination with jaggery @ 1 kg in the
evening hours at 10-15 days interval on
observing the eggs or early instar larvae
 Spray Bacillus thuringiensis var gallariae @
400-600 g in 200 l of water/acre
 Apply entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs)
@ 20-120 crore infective juveniles of
Steinernema feltiae/acre.

Chemical control:
 Spray with indoxacarb 14.5% SC @ 160-
200 ml in 120-240 l of water/acre or
flubendiamide 20% WG @ 40 g in 150-200 l
of water/acre or flubendiamide 39.35% M/M
SC @ 40 ml in 150-200 l of water/acre or
novaluron 10 % EC @ 300 ml in 200-400 l
of water/acre or carbaryl 50% WP @ 800 g
in 200-400 l of water/acre or
chlorantranilioprole 18.5% SC @ 60 ml in

35
 200 l of water/acre or lambda-cyhalothrin
4.9% CS @ 120 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
lambda-cyhalothrin 5% EC @ 120 ml in 160-
200 l of water/acre or methomyl 40% SP @
300-450 ml in 200-400 l of water/acre or
phosalone 35% EC @ 514 ml in 200-400 l of
water/acre or quinalphos 20% AF @ 600-
700 ml in 300-400 l of water/acre or
quinalohos 25% EC @ 400 ml in 200-400 l
of water/acre
Tobacco caterpillar Same as in vegetative stage

Bacterial leaf spot Same as in seed and seedling stage

Leaf curl disease Cultural practices:

 Staking of plants to avoid touching fruits on
ground.
 Same as in seed and seedling and
vegetative stages.
Mosaic Cultural practices:
 Seeds from disease free healthy plants
should be selected for sowing.
 The seeds should be thoroughly rinsed and
dried in shade.
 In the nursery all the infected plants should
be removed carefully and destroyed.
Seedlings infected with the viral disease
should not be used for transplanting.
 Crop rotation with crops other than tobacco,
potato, chilli, capsicum, brinjal, and other
solanaceous crops should be undertaken.

Management of regional pests:

Aphids:

 Install yellow sticky trap @ 4-5/acre

 Judicious use of nitrogenous fertilizers
 Spray azadirachtin 5% W/W neem extract concentrate @ 80 g in 160 l of water/acre
 Release 1st instar larvae of green lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea) @ 4000/acre
 Conserve predators such as lady bird beetles (Coccinella septumpunctata and
Menochilus sexmaculata) and parasitoids such as Aphidius colemani etc.
 Spray dimethoate 30% EC @ 264 ml in 200-400 l of water/acre

Leafhoppers:

 Soil application of neem cake 100 kg/acre

 Conserve predators such as ladybird beetles and green lacewings and parasitoids such
as Anagrus flaveolus and Stethynium triclavatum.

36
  Spray NSKE 5%.

Cutworm:

 Deep summer ploughing.

 Use well decomposed organic manure.
 Tillage at least 2 weeks before planting will help destroy plant residue that could harbor
larvae.
 Flood the infested fields.
 On a small area, collection of caterpillars from soil around the plants can be done.
 Collection of moths in the light traps.
 Conserve biological control agents such as Microgaster sp, Micropilitis dimilis, Bracon
kitchener, Broscus punctatus and Liogryllus bimaculatus (Predator)

Buck eye rot or fruit rot

 Use resistant varieties

 Seed treatment with Trichoderma spp.
 Staking and removal of the fruits and leaves touching the ground (up to 30 cm)
 Provision of good soil drainage
 Periodic clipping of lower leaves and mulching
 Spray mancozeb 75% WP @ 600-800 g in 300 l of water/acre or propineb 70% WP @
120 g in 40 l of water/acre

Powdery mildew:

 Growing resistant varieties

 Adopt early planting, sprinkler irrigation
 Immediately remove and destroy them to help prevent the disease from spreading.
 Proper plant spacing of about 3 feet apart to allow for proper air circulation, which helps
the foliage dry faster.
 Periodic clipping of lower leaves and mulching
 Organic mulch added around the plants will protect roots while preventing fungal spores
from splashing onto the plant.

Plant growth regulators:

The following plant growth regulators are recommended for improvement of crop growth in
tomato

1. Triacontanol 0.05% min GR @ 10000 g/acre to be broadcasted and mixed in the soil 2-3
days before sowing or
2. Spray gibberellic acid 0.001% L @ 70.8 ml in 180-200 l of water/acre at 45 and 65 days
after sowing or
3. Triacontanol 0.05% EC/Triacontanol 0.1% EW @ 100 ml in 160-200 l of water/acre at
25, 45, and 65 days after sowing.

37
V. Rodent pest management

Lesser bandicoot,  Active burrow in Cultural control:

Bandicota the field
bengalensis  Practice clean cultivation/maintain weed free
Palm rat/House  Presence of fields which reduces the harboring/hiding
rat, Rattus rattus damaged fruits in points for rodents.
dug out rodent
burrows and in  Practice trapping with locally available traps
premises using lure @ 8-10 traps/acre. In areas, where
Rattus rattus is a problem, wonder
traps/multi-catch traps work better and
enable to trap more animals into a single
trap.

 Identify live rodent burrows and smoke the

burrows with burrow smoker for 2-3 minutes

 Erect owl perches @ 5-6/acre to promote

natural control of rodents

Chemical control:

 In cases of high level of infestation (>50 live

burrows/ac) practice poison baiting with zinc
phosphide @ 2.0% on community approach.
PRACTICE PRE-BAITING TO AVOID BAIT
SHYNESS

Day 1: Close all the burrows in the fields, field

bunds, canal bunds and surrounding barren lands
etc.

Day 2: Count the re-opened burrows and practice

pre-baiting @ 20 g/burrow (98 parts of broken
tomato + 2 parts of edible oil)

Day 4: Observe the re-opened burrows and treat

the burrow with zinc phosphide poison bait (96
parts of broken tomato + 2 parts of edible oil + 2
parts of zinc phosphide) @ 10g/ burrow. Collect
the dead rats, if found any outside and bury them.

38
VI. Description of common weeds

Major kharif weeds

1. Pigweed: Amaranthus viridis Hook. F. Amaranthaceae

It is an erect 6 to 100 cm tall annual herb with especially upwards glabrous to pubescent stem.
Leaves are also glabrous or pubescent on the veins of the lower surface; petioles long (up to 10
cm), occasionally longer than the blade; blade ovate to rhombic-oblong, base tapered to blunt,
tip rounded. Flowers green, unisexual, male and female intermixed, in slender axillary to
terminal paniculate spikes 2-12 cm long and 2-5 mm wide, or in dense axillary clusters in the
lower part of the stem. Fruits are capsule almost round shaped 1.25-1.75 mm long with rough
surface. Seeds 1-1.25 mm, round, slightly compressed, dark brown to black with a paler thick
border.

2. Swine cress: Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. Brassicaceae

An annual herb with , horizontal or ascending stem, multiple from the base, radiating from a
central point; glabrous, green. Leaves are alternate, petiolate, pinnate, 4-5 cm long, 2 cm broad,
glabrous. Divisions of the leaves opposite, lobed or devided, linear-elliptic to linear oblong.
Inflorescence is a small raceme, up to 4 cm long, opposite to one of the stem leaves, compact.
Flowers minute, greenish. Fruits are glabrous, 3-4 mm broad, 2 mm long, slightly compressed,
sub-globose, 2-seeded.

3. Black nightshade: Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae

A variable annual herb upto 1 m tall with an erect, glabrous or sparsely pubescent stem and
staggered branching pattern. Leaves are 2.5-9 cm long and 2-5 cm wide, ovate, glabrous, thin,
margins toothed, tapering into the petiole, apex subacute. Flowers small, white, borne in
drooping, umbellate 3-8 flowered cymes. Fruits berries globose, 5-8 mm in diameter, red, yellow
or purplish-black. when ripened, fruits having numerous, disc-shaped, 1.5 mm in diameter,

39
yellow, minutely pitted seeds.

4. Common purselane: Portulaca oleracea L. Portualacaceae

An annual glabrous herb with prostrate and succulent stem. Leaves spatulate, flattened, apex
round nearly truncate. Flowers 3-10 mm diameter and yellow. Fruits capsules ovoid, 4-9 mm
diameter. Seeds black or dark brown, orbiculate or elongate, flattened, 0.6-1.1 mm; surface
cells sooth, granular, or stellate, with rounded tubercles.

5. False amaranth: Digera arvensis Forssk. Amaranthaceae

An annual herb, 30-60 cm high with spreading branches. Leaves variable, 2-7.5 cm long and
1.3-4.5 cm wide, ovate or elliptic, acute or rounded at the apex, sometimes with reddish
margins, glabrous. Flowers pink, borne in threes axillary, pedunculate spikes, 2.5-12.5 cm long.
Fruits globose, approximately 0.3 cm in diameter having yellowish-brown.

6. Rabbit/crow foot grass: Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd Poaceae

Annual, very variable, grass, 10-44 cm high. Stem erect or creeping culms, rooting from the
profusely branched nodes. Leaves are linear, tapering to a fine point, 2-10 cm long and 0.2-0.4
cm wide, flat, glaucous, glabrous or hispid; leaf sheaths striate, the lower whitish; ligules

40
membranous, very short. Inflorescence comprised of 2-6 digitate spikes, 0.5-4 cm long, olive-
grey; spikelets 2-5 flowered, spreading at right angles, pendulous, strongly striate. Grain 0.5-1
mm long, subglobose, reddish, very rugose.

7. Crabgrass: Digiteria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. Poaceae

A prostrate or ascending annual grass with spreading, branched stem having rooting at nodes.
Leaves are 3-20 cm long, 3-10 mm wide, with hairs on both the surfaces. Stem sheaths hairy
and closed. Leaves and sheaths may turn dark red or maroon with age. Seed head composed
of 4-6 branches (spikes) at the top of the stems, each approximately 3-15 cm long. Fruit
caryopsis shiny, yellowish-brown, 2-3 mm long.

8. Barnyard grass: Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. Poaceae

Robust, tufted annual grass, erect or at the base decumbent and rooting at the nodes, 20-150
cm tall. Culms cylindrical, glabrous, filled with white spongy pith. Leaf sheaths glabrous and 9-
13 cm long. Leaf blades merging into the sheath, linear, with a broad, rounded base and acute
top; rough margined, glabrous or at the base with a few long hairs, smooth or the upper surface
minutely bristly. Inflorescence is an apical panicle of 5-40 spikes like racemes. Fruit are
caryopsis ovoid to obovoid, compressed, 1.5-2 mm long.

41
Sedges
9. Purple nutsedge: Cyperus rotundus L. Cypraceae

A perennial sedge, hard, fragrant, globose-ovoid tubers, up to 1.2 cm long and 0.3-0.7 cm in
diameter; culms solitary or few together, sparsely tufted, erect, 10-75 cm tall, 3-angled at top.
Leaves narrowly linear, sometimes longer than stem, 0.4-0.8 cm wide, dark green above, pale
beneath. Inflorescence is a simple or compound umbel, rays 2-8, each up to 7.5 cm long,
bearing short spikes of 3-10 spreading, red-brown spikelets. Nuts oblong to ovate-oblong, 3-
sided, 1.3-1.5 mm long and 0.5-0.7 mm wide, maturing brown.

10. Flat sedge: Cyperus iria L. Cypraceae

Annual sedge, sometimes behaving as a perennial with 8 to 60 cm high. The culms are tufted,
triangular, smooth, green and 0.6-3.0 mm thick. The roots are numerous, short and yellowish-
red. Leaves are linear-lanceolate, usually all shorter than the culm, 1-8 mm wide, flat, and rough
on the margin and major ribs; leaf sheaths are green to reddish-brown, membraneous and
envelope the culm at the base. Inflorescence is simple or compound, usually open, 1-20 cm
long and 1-20 cm wide, with groups of spikes which are either attached directly to stem or on
0.5-15.0 cm long peduncles (rays). Spikelets are erect-spreading, crowded, 6-24-flowered, 2-13
mm long, 1.5-2.0 mm wide, golden to yellowish green. Nutlet, 1.0-1.5 mm long, 0.6-0.7 mm
wide, obovate, triangular in cross section, dark-brown to almost black; the surface is almost
smooth.

42
Major rabi weeds
1. Lambs quarter: Chenopodium album L. Chenopodiaceae

It is an annual weed found in agricultural fields. It is a polymorphous, non-aromatic, erect herb,

0.3-3 m tall with angled stems that are often striped green, red or purple. Leaves are variable in
size and shape, lower leaves are toothed or irregularly lobes, 10-15 cm long, with petioles often
as long as leaf blades. Flowers are green, borne in clusters forming a compact or loosely
panicled axillary spike. Fruits utricle, seeds round, compressed, black and shining.

2. Scarlet pimpernel: Anagallis arvensis: Primulaceae L

A low-growing annual, up to 30 cm tall with branched or erect herbaceous, 4-angled, glabrous to

pubescent stem. Sometimes rooting observed at the nodes. Leaves are opposite, entire,
sessile, ovate variously pubescent, margins somewhat tuberculate. Flowers are bright blue,
solitary arising from the area between the stem and leaves (leaf axils) and occur on relatively
long stalks (pedicels). Fruits capsule, globose, seeds1.3 mm long, trigonous, brown.

43
3. Sweet clover: Melilotus indica (L.) All. Fabaceae

It is a sweet-smelling erect herb, up to 10-60 cm high with hairless, spreading or erect stem.
Leaves odd-1-pinnate; leaflets 1-2.5 cm, inverted, lance-shaped to wedge-shaped, generally
sharply toothed on the broader part. Flowers yellow; appear in slender, compact racemes that
are 1-2 inches in length. Plant bear papery, small, round, 2-3 mm long, yellow or grey,
reticulately wrinkled and slightly hairy pods. Seeds 2 mm long; 1.5 mm wide; broadly oval, one
side plane, the other side rounded; yellowish green; roughened by minute tubercles.

4. Fine leaf fumitory: Fumaria parviflora Lam. Fumariaceae

Annual herb, up to 60 cm tall. Stem Slender, much branched and succulent. Leaves 2-3
pinnatisect, 2-5 cm long, segments linear oblanceolate, apiculate. Flowers Purplish-red,
spurred, in terminal or leaf opposed bracteate racemes. Fruits are rounded nuts, 2-3 mm in
diameter, wrinkled when dry.

5. Corn spurry: Spergula arvensis L. Caryophyllaceae

A diffuse annual herb. Stem branched from the root, grooved. Leaves are in pseudo whorls,
fleshy, linear-subulate, spreading. Flowers small, white. Fruits capsule rounded, five valved.
Seeds are circular, thick lens shaped in cross section; margins winged with one small notch.

44
Seeds are greyish black to black with margins usually light brown.

6. Bluegrass: Poa annua L. Poaceae

Annual cool-season grass grows 6 to 8 inches high when left unmowed. It has light green
flattened stems that are bent at the base and often rooted at the lower stem joint. Leaf blades
are often crinkled part way down and vary from 1 to 3 inches long with typical Poa boat-shaped
leaf tips- a key characteristic of annual bluegrass. Inflorescence is branched with three to eight
flattened florets in each spikelet.

7. Canary grass: Phalaris minor Retz. Poaceae

A tufted annual bunchgrass, up to 1.8 meters in height. Stem is erect or horizontal with long,
linear leaves. Ligule is an oblong hyaline membrane, about 2-5 mm long, often truncate and/or
fringed; auricles absent, sheath smooth. Panicle more or less protruding or entirely protruding
from the uppermost swollen leaf sheath, ovate to oblong, 5-8 cm long, green. Spikelets green,
broadly lanceolate on short pedicels, shining, 4 -6 mm long, strongly laterally compressed.

45
VII. Description of insect pests

1) Serpentine leaf miner:

Biology:

Egg: Eggs are minute in size and orange yellow in colour. The egg hatches in 4 days.

Larva: Apodous maggot feeds on chlorophyll mining in between epidermal layers. Full grown
maggot measures 3 mm. Larval duration is about 7 days.

Pupa: Pupation is in soil. Some pupae are found in leaves.

Pupation takes place inside a thin loose mesh of silken cocoon. Pupal period is about 7 days.

Adult: It is a pale yellowish fly, measuring 1.5 mm in length. The female fly punctures upper
surface of leaf to lay eggs singly
.
Total life cycle takes 3 weeks.

Life cycle:

3. Adult
15-30 days

ys
da
7

Serpentine leaf miner, Eggs are

2. Pupa Egg
Liriomyza trifolii microscopic

7
da
ys ys
da
4

1. Larva

1. http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/leaf/aserpentine_leafminer.htm
2. http://www.nbaii.res.in/insectpests/images/Liriomyza-trifolii3.jpg
3. http://www.nbaii.res.in/insectpests/images/Liriomyza-trifolii8.jpg

46
Damage symptoms:

 Leaves with serpentine mines

 Drying dropping of leaves in severe cases

Mining on leaves
1 2

1. http://www.nbaii.res.in/insectpests/Liriomyza-trifolii.php
2. http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/leaf/a_serpentine_leafminer.htm

Favourable conditions:

Warm weather conditions are favourable for multiplication.

Parasitoids:

1. Chrysocharis pentheus 2. Diglyphus isaea 3. Gronotoma micromorpha

1. http://baba-insects.blogspot.in/2012/05/blog-post_21.html
2. http://www.evergreengrowers.com/diglyphus-isaea-114.html
3.http://www.ento.csiro.au/science/Liriomyza_ver3/key/Eucoilidae_Key/Media/Html/
gronotoma_sp.html

Predators:

1. Lacewing 2. Lady beetle 3. Spider 4. Fire ant

47
1. http://www.macro-world.cz/image.php?id_foto=514&gal=29
2. http://llladybug.blogspot.in/
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_spider
4.http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/queensland-launched-a-war-against-the-fire-
ant-invasion-but-12-years-later-they8217re-still-on-the-march/story-fnihsrf2-1226686256021

*For management refer to page number----

2) Gram pod borer:
Biology:

It is a polyphagous pest, infesting gram, lablab, safflower, chillies, groundnut, tobacco, cotton
etc.

Egg: Spherical, yellowish eggs are laid singly on tender parts and buds of plants. The egg
period lasts for 2-4 days.

Larva: Caterpillars are of varying colour, initially brown and later turn greenish with darker
broken lines along the side of the body. Body covered with radiating hairs. When full grown,
they measure 3.7 to 5 cm in length. The larval period lasts for 18-25 days. The full grown
caterpillar pupates in the soil.

Pupa: Pupation takes place inside the soil in an earthen cell. Pupal stage lasts 7-15 days.

Adult: Moth is stout, medium sized with brownish/greyish forewings with a dark cross band near
outer margin and dark spots near costal margins, with a wing expanse of 3.7cm.

Life cycle:

4. Adult
7-10 days

ys
da
5
7 -1

3. Pupa Gram pod borer, 1. Eggs

Helicoverpa armigera

18
-2 ys
5
da da
4
ys 2-

2. Larva

48
 1. http://www7.inra.fr/hyppz/RAVAGEUR/6helarm.htm
2. http://www.infonet-biovision.org/default/ct/120/crops
3. http://www.invasive.org/browse/subinfo.cfm?sub=9408
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicoverpa_armigera

Damage symptoms:

 Young larva feeds on the leaves for some time and then attacks fruits. Internal tissues
are eaten severely and completely hollowed out. While feeding the caterpillar thrust its
head inside leaving the rest of the body outside.
 Bored fruits with round holes.
 Fed leaves, shoots and buds.
 The activity of Helicoverpa starts on green gram, summer vegetables and maize and
continues their generation by Aug-Sept months synchronizing with main crop.

http://bppamongtani.blogspot.in/2013/01/penggunaan-pestisida-yang-baik-benar.html

Favourable conditions:

Warm weather conditions followed by light rains and dry spells are favourable for multiplication.

Parasitoids:

1. Trichogramma spp. 2. Tetrastichus spp. 3. Chelonus spp.

4. Telenomus spp. 5. Bracon spp. 6. Ichneumon spp.

49
7. Carcelia spp. 8. Campoletis spp.

1. http://gsquaredbugs.com/?page_id=318
2. http://www.pbase.com/image/135529248
3. http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured%20insects/chelonus.htm
4. http://baba-insects.blogspot.in/2012/02/telenomus.html
5. http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured%20insects/Bracon%20brevicornis.htm
6. http://www.organicgardeninfo.com/ichneumon-wasp.html
7. http://72.44.83.99/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=40633&pid=178398
8. http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured%20insects/Campoletis.htm

Predators:

1. Lacewing 2. Lady beetle 3. Spider 4. Fire ant

5. Dragon fly 6. Robber fly 7. Reduviid bug 8. Praying mantis

50
9. Black drongo 10. Wasp 11. Common mynah 12. Big-eyed bug
(King crow) (Geocoris sp)

13. Earwig 14. Ground beetle 15. Pentatomid bug

(Eocanthecona furcellata)

1. http://www.macro-world.cz/image.php?id_foto=514&gal=29
2. http://llladybug.blogspot.in/
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_spider
4.http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/queensland-launched-a-war-against-the-fire-
ant-invasion-but-12-years-later-they8217re-still-on-the-march/story-fnihsrf2-1226686256021
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragonfly
6. http://www.warpedphotosblog.com/robber-fly-and-prey
7.http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/plants/field-crops-and-pastures/broadacre-field-crops/integrated-
pest-management/a-z-of-predators,-parasites-and-pathogens/assassin-bugs
8. http://spirit-animals.com/praying-mantis/
9. http://nagpurbirds.org/blackdrongo/picture/1639
10. http://somethingscrawlinginmyhair.com/2011/09/17/yellowjacket-with-prey/
11. http://nickdobbs65.wordpress.com/tag/herbie-the-love-bug/
12. http://bugguide.net/node/view/598529
13. http://www.flickr.com/photos/johnhallmen/2901162091/
14.http://www.mattcolephotography.co.uk/Galleries/insects/Bugs%20&%20Beetles/slides/
Ground%20Beetle%20-%20Pterostichus%20madidus.html
15.http://www.ndsu.nodak.edu/ndsu/rider/Pentatomoidea/Genus_Asopinae/ Eocanthecona.html

*For management refer to page number------------------------

3) Tobacco caterpillar:
Biology:
It is found throughout the tropical and subtropical parts of the world, wide spread in India.
Besides tobacco, it feeds on cotton, castor, groundnut, tomato, cabbage and various other
cruciferous crops.

Eggs: Female lays about 300 eggs in clusters. The eggs are covered over by brown hairs and
they hatch in about 3-5 days.

51
Larva: Caterpillar measures 35-40 mm in length, when full grown. It is velvety, black with
yellowish – green dorsal stripes and lateral white bands with incomplete ring – like dark band on
anterior and posterior end of the body. It passes through 6 instars. Larval stage lasts 15-30 days

Pupa: Pupation takes place inside the soil. Pupal stage lasts 7-15 days.

Adult: Moth is medium sized and stout bodied with forewings pale grey to dark brown in colour
having wavy white crisscross markings. Hind wings are whitish with brown patches along the
margin of wing. Pest breeds throughout the year. Moths are active at night. Adults live for 7-10
days. Total life cycle takes 32-60 days. There are eight generations in a year.

Life cycle:

4. Adult
5-10 days

ys
da
15
7-

3. Pupae Tobacco caterpillar, 1. Eggs

Spodoptera litura

15
-3 ys
0 da
da 5
ys 3-

2. Larva

1. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spodoptera_litura_egg_mass.jpg
2. http://lepidoptera.butterflyhouse.com.au/lynf/lynf.html
3. http://www.ccs-hk.org/DM/butterfly/Noctuid/Spodoptera-litura.html
4. http://www.nbaii.res.in/insectpests/images/Spodoptera-litura11.jpg

Damage symptoms:

 In early stages, the caterpillars are gregarious and scrape the chlorophyll content of leaf
lamina giving it a papery white appearance. Later they become voracious feeders making
irregular holes on the leaves.
 Irregular holes on leaves initially and later skeletonization leaving only veins and petioles
 Heavy defoliation.
 Bored fruits with irregular holes

52
 1 2

1. http://www.nbaii.res.in/insectpests/Spodoptera-litura.php
2.http://www.ncipm.org.in/nicra/NICRAPDFs/Manuals/Manual%20for%20Tomato%20Pest%20
Surveillance.pdf

For parasitoids and predators see Helicoverpa armigera on page…………………..

Favourable conditions:

Warm weather conditions and rainy conditions are favourable for multiplication.
*For management refer to page number------------------------
4) Whitefly:
Biology:

Egg: Pear shaped, light yellowish Stalked

 Nymph: On hatching - Oval, scale-like, greenish white

Adult: White, tiny, scale-like adult

Life cycle:

53
 4. Adults
15-30 days

ys
da
8
2-

Whitefly,
3. Pupa 1. Eggs
Bemisia tabaci

9-
19 ys
da da
ys 30
3-

2. Nymphs

1.http://m.animal.memozee.com/m.view.php?q=%EB%8B%B4%EB%B0%B0%EA%
B0%80%EB%A3%A8%EC%9D%B4&p=3
2. http://www.forestryimages.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=2511050
3 http://www.fera.defra.gov.uk/plants/publications/documents/factsheets/bemisia.pdf
4. http://www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/inter/inmine/Whitefg.html

Damage symptoms:

 Chlorotic spots
 Yellowing
 Downward curling and drying of leaves.
 Vector of tomato leaf curl disease.

1 2

54
1. http://www.kevinquinnmcguinness.com/dev/wp2/?p=87
2. http://ipm.illinois.edu/ifvn/contents.php?id=29

Parasitoids:

1. Encarsia formosa 2. Eretmocerus spp. 3. Chrysocharis pentheus

1. http://www.buglogical.com/whitefly-control/encarsia-formosa/
2. http://www.dongbufarmceres.com/main/mboard.asp?strBoardID=c_product01_en
3. http://baba-insects.blogspot.in/2012/05/blog-post_21.html

Predators:

1. Dicyphus hesperus 2. Lacewing 3. Lady beetle 4. Big-eyed bugs

(mirid bug) (Geocoris sp)

1. http://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/hemipt/Dicyphus.htm
2. http://www.macro-world.cz/image.php?id_foto=514&gal=29
3. http://llladybug.blogspot.in/
4. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Geocoris_punctipes.jpg

55
Favourable conditions:

Warm weather conditions are favourable for multiplication.

*For management refer to page number------------------------

5) Spider mites:
Biology:

Egg: Hyaline , globular laid in mass

Nymphs: Yellowish in colour

Adult: Red coloured small size

Life cycle:

3. Adult
14-21 days
s
day
2
3-1

Red spider mite,

Tetranychus spp.

2. Nymphs 1. Eggs
2-4 days

1. http://www.simplepestcontrol.com/spider-mite-control.htm
2. http://entomology.k-state.edu/extension/insect-photo-gallery/Corn-Insects.html
3. http://www.al.gov.bc.ca/cropprot/grapeipm/spidermites.htm

Damage symptoms:

 Affected leaves become reddish brown and bronzy

56
  Severe infestation larvae silken webbing on the leaves
 Leaves wither and dry
 Flower and fruit formation affected

1. 2.

1.http://www.pestsandcrops.com/index_files/Page3923.htm
2.http://gardeningnaturallywithclaudia.blogspot.in/2013/01/companion-plantsbenefits-in-
garden.html

Predators:

1. Predatory mite 2. Predatory thrips 3. Oligota spp. 4. Spider

5. Orius spp. 6. Hover fly 7. Mirid bug

(pirate/anthocorid bug)

1. http://www.dragonfli.co.uk/natural-pest-control/natural-enemies
2. http://biocontrol.ucr.edu/hoddle/persea_mite.html
3. http://www.fugleognatur.dk/forum/show_message.asp?MessageID=560188& ForumID=33
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_spider

57
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orius_insidiosus_from_USDA_2_(cropped).jpg
6. http://freepages.misc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~larsonmorgan/flies/flies.html
7. http://www.britishbugs.org.uk/heteroptera/Miridae/blepharidopterus_angulatus.html

Favourable conditions:

Warm weather conditions are favourable for multiplication.

*For management refer to page number------------------------

6) Root-knot nematode:
Biology:

 Most species of plant parasitic nematodes have a relatively simple life cycle consisting of the
egg, four larval stages and the adult male and female. They are microscopic in size.
 Development of the first stage larvae occurs within the egg where the first moult occurs.
Second stage larvae hatch from eggs to find and infect plant roots or in some cases foliar
tissues.
 Under suitable environmental conditions, the eggs hatch and new larvae emerge to complete
the life cycle within 4 to 8 weeks depending on temperature.
 Nematode development is generally most rapid within an optimal soil temperature range of
70 to 80°F.

Life cycle:

Life stages are microscopic in size

3. Adults
Male (longer): 16-22 days
Female (bulged): 25-30 days
s
ay
6d
-1

Root-knot nematode,
12

Meloidogyne spp.

2. Larvae
[Infective (J2) 1. Eggs
juveniles]
4-6 days

58
 1.http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/sweetpotato/key/
Sweetpotato%20Diagnotes/Media/Html/TheProblems/Nematodes/RootKnotNematode/Root-
knot.htm
2. http://nematology.umd.edu/rootknot.html
3. http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/pgg/dan_webpage/Introduction/Images/pyroform.htm

Damage symptoms:

 Infected plants in patches in the field

 Formation of galls on host root system is the primary symptom
 Roots branch profusely starting from the gall tissue causing a „beard root‟ symptom
 Infected roots become knobby and knotty
 In severely infected plants the root system is reduced and the rootlets are almost completely
absent. The roots are seriously hampered in their function of uptake and transport of water
and nutrients
 Plants wilt during the hot part of day, especially under dry conditions and are often stunted
 Seedlings infected in nursery do not normally survive transplanting and those surviving have
reduced flowering and fruit production
 Nematode infection predisposes plants to fungal and bacterial root pathogens

1. 2.

1. http://utahpests.usu.edu/htm/utah-pests-news/up-summer12-newsletter/ root-knot-nematodes/
2. http://extension.entm.purdue.edu/nematology/melonnems.html

Survival and spread:

Primary: Cysts and egg masses in infected plant debris and soil or collateral and other hosts
like Solonaceous, Malvaceous and Leguminaceous plants act as sources of inoculum
Secondary: Autonomous second stage juveniles that may also be water dispersed

Favourable conditions:

 Loamy light soils

*For management refer to page number------------------------

59
VIII. Description of diseases

1) Damping Off:
Damage symptoms:

 Damping off of tomato occurs in two stages, i.e. the pre-emergence and the post-
emergence phase.
 In the pre-emergence the phase the seedlings are killed just before they reach the soil
surface.
 The young radical and the plumule are killed and there is complete rotting of the
seedlings.
 The post-emergence phase is characterized by the infection of the young, juvenile
tissues of the collar at the ground level.
 The infected tissues become soft and water soaked. The seedlings topple over or
collapse.

1. 2.

1. http:// http://thedxbgardener.blogspot.in/2012/11/seedlings-dying.html
2.http://afghanag.ucdavis.edu/a_horticulture/row-crops/tomato/pictures-tomato-pests/

Healthy nursery raising

1. Trays 2. Pro-trays

60
3. Raised bed

Photos by: SK Sain

Favourable conditions:

 High humidity, high soil moisture, cloudiness and low temperatures below 24° C for few
days are ideal for infection and development of disease.
 Crowded seedlings, dampness due to high rainfall, poor drainage and excess of soil
solutes hamper plant growth and increase the pathogenic damping-off.

Survival and spread:

Primary: Soil, Seed, Water

Secondary: Conidia through rain splash or wind

*For management refer to page number------------------------

2) Septoria leaf spot:
Damage symptoms:

 Less vigorous plant are usually affected

 Small, round to irregular spots with a grey center and dark margin on leaves
 Spots usually starts on lower leaves and gradually advance upwards
 Spots coalesce and leaves are blighted
 Complete defoliation of affected leaves
 Stems and flowers are sometimes attacked
 Fruits are rarely attacked

61
http://nuwildroots.files.wordpress.com/2010/06/septoria-leaf-spot2-copy.jpg

Survival and spread:

Primary: Mycelium or conidia in pycnidia in infected plant debris or on solanaceous weeds

Secondary: Conidia through rain splash or wind and also by slimy conidia sticking on to hands
and clothing of tomato pickers

Favourable conditions:

 Poor vigour of plants due to nutrient inadequacy or in late season

 High humidity or persistent dew at 25 °C
 Moist weather with intermittent showers

*For management refer to page number------------------------

3) Bacterial stem and fruit canker:
Damage symptoms:

 Disease appears as spots on leaves, stems and fruits and as wilting of leaves and
shoots
 White blister like spots in the margins of leaves
 Spots become brown with age and coalesce, but leaves do not fall off
 Leaflets on one side of rachis show withering initially
 Light coloured streaks on stems and petioles at the joints
 Cracks develop in streaks and form cankers
 Slimy bacterial ooze through the cracks in humid weather
 Small, shallow, water soaked, spots with white halo develop on fruits
 The centers of spots become slightly raised, tan coloured and rough
 Vascular discolouration is seen in split open stems

Symptoms on leaves and fruit

Photo by: SK Sain

Survival and spread:

Primary: Bacterial cells survive on infected plant debris and seed (both internally and
externally) and also on solanaceous weeds such as Solanum nigrum

62
Secondary: Bacterial cells transmitted through rain splash

Favourable conditions:

 Soil temperature of around 28 °C

 High humidity or persistent dew
 Moist weather with intermittent showers

*For management refer to page number-----

4) Early blight:
Damage symptoms:

 This is a common disease of tomato occurring on the foliage at any stage of the growth.
 The fungus attacks the foliage causing characteristic leaf spots and blight. Early blight is
first observed on the plants as small, black lesions mostly on the older foliage.
 Spots enlarge, and by the time they are one-fourth inch in diameter or larger, concentric
rings in a bull's eye pattern can be seen in the center of the diseased area.
 Tissue surrounding the spots may turn yellow. If high temperature and humidity occur at
this time, much of the foliage is killed.
 Lesions on the stems are similar to those on leaves, sometimes girdling the plant if they
occur near the soil line.
 Transplants showing infection by the late blight fungus often die when set in the field.
The fungus also infects the fruit, generally through the calyx or stem attachment.
 Lesions attain considerable size, usually involving nearly the entire fruit; concentric rings
are also present on the fruit.

Symptoms on foliage, leaf and fruit

Photos by: SK Sain

Survival and spread:

Primary : The fungus spends the winter in infected plant debris in or on the soil where it can
survive at least one and perhaps several years. It can also be seed borne.
Secondary:The spores are transported by water, wind, insects, other animals including man,
and machinery. Once the initial infections have occurred, they become the most important
source of new spore production and are responsible for rapid disease spread.

Favourable conditions:

63
  Warm, rainy and wet weather

*For management refer to page number------------------------

5) Bacterial leaf spot:
Damage symptoms:

 Moist weather and splattering rains are conducive to disease development. Most
outbreaks of the disease can be traced back to heavy rainstorms that occur in the area.
 Infected leaves show small, brown, water soaked, circular spots surrounded with
yellowish halo.
 On older plants the leaflet infection is mostly on older leaves and may cause serious
defoliation.
 The most striking symptoms are on the green fruit. Small, water-soaked spots first
appear which later become raised and enlarge until they are one-eighth to one-fourth
inch in diameter.
 Centers of these lesions become irregular, light brown and slightly sunken with a rough,
scabby surface.
 Ripe fruits are not susceptible to the disease. Surface of the seed becomes
contaminated with the bacteria, remaining on the seed surface for some time.
 The organism survives in alternate hosts, on volunteer tomato plants and on infected
plant debris.

http://plantdoctor.pbworks.com/w/page/17167380/Tomato

Survival and spread:

Primary: Bacterial cells survive on infected plant debris and seed (both internally and
externally) and also on solanaceous weeds such as Solanum nigrum
Secondary: Bacterial cells transmitted through rain splash

Favourable conditions:

 Moist weather and splattering rains

 High humidity or persistent dew

*For management refer to page number------

64
6) Bacterial wilt:
Damage symptoms:

 Characteristic symptoms of bacterial wilt are the rapid and complete wilting of normal
grown up plants.
 Lower leaves may drop before wilting. Pathogen is mostly confined to vascular region; in
advantage cases, it may invade the cortex and pith and cause yellow brown
discolouration of tissues.
 Infected plant parts when cut and immersed in clear water, a white streak of bacterial
ooze is seen coming out from cut ends.

1. 2.

1.http://mobilebotanicalgardens.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/bacterial-wilt-
tomato.jpeg
2.http://mobilebotanicalgardens.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/ 2012/01/bacterial-wilt-2.jpg.

Survival and spread:

 The spreads through wounds, soil and implements.

Favourable conditions:

 Relatively high soil moisture andto be checked

*For management refer to page number------
7) Leaf curl:
Damage symptoms:

 Leaf curl disease is characterized by severe stunting of the plants with downward rolling
and crinkling of the leaves. The newly emerging leaves exhibit slight yellow colouration
and later they also show curling symptoms.
 Older leaves become leathery and brittle. The nodes and internodes are significantly
reduced in size.
 The infected plants look pale and produce more lateral branches giving a bushy

65
 appearance. The infected plants remain stunted.

Symptom on plant
Photo by: SK Sain

Favourable conditions:

 whitefly is the vector for transmitting of leaf curl virus

*For management refer to page number------------------------

8) Mosaic:
Damage symptoms:
 The disease is characterized by light and dark green mottling on the leaves often
accompanied by wilting of young leaves in sunny days when plants first become
infected.
 The leaflets of affected leaves are usually distorted, puckered and smaller than normal.
Sometimes the leaflets become indented resulting in "fern leaf" symptoms.
 The affected plant appears stunted, pale green and spindly.

http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/lessons/viruses/Pages/TobaccoMosaic.aspx

Survival and spread:

66
  The virus is spread by contact with clothes, hand of working labour, touching of infected
plants with healthy ones, plant debris and implements.

*For management refer to page number------------------------

9) Tomato spotted wilt disease:
Damage symptoms:

 Symptoms vary among hosts and in a single host species

 Stunting is a common symptom of TSWV infection
 Chlorotic or necrotic rings form on the leaves of many infected hosts
 Thickening of veins and bronzing of young leaves
 Growing tips may die-back and terminal branches may be streaked
 Affected plants may have a one sided growth habit or may be entirely stunted and have
drooping leaves, suggesting a wilt
 Pale red or yellow areas with concentric circular marking in the normal red skin of ripe
tomato are formed
 Discoloration of seed

Symptoms on leaf and fruit

Photo by: SK Sain

Survival and spread:

Primary: Virus particles in infected plants of many hosts like Acanthospermum hispidum, Aster
sp., Boerhaavia diffusa, Chrysanthemum sp., Cleome gynandra, cowpea, Dahlia variabilis, egg
plant, French bean, Gerbera sp., groundnut, Lagasca mollis, lettuce, marigold, pea, chilli,
pineapple, potato, Trianthema portulacastrum, water melon and Zinnia elegans

Secondary: Virus particles transmitted by thrips, Frankliniella schultzii, Scirtothrips dorsalis

*For management refer to page number------------------------

10) Fusarium wilt:
Damage symptoms:

 The first symptom of the disease is clearing of the veinlets and chlorosis of the leaves.

67
  The younger leaves may die in succession and the entire may wilt and die in a course of
few days. Soon the petiole and the leaves droop and wilt.
 In young plants, symptom consists of clearing of veinlet and dropping of petioles. In field,
yellowing of the lower leaves first and affected leaflets wilt and die.
 The symptoms continue in subsequent leaves. At later stage, browning of vascular
system occurs. Plants become stunted and die.

http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/K-12/NewsViews/Article%20Images/w/2003jul_jpg.

Survival and spread:

 Soil and implements

Favourable conditions:

 Relatively high soil moisture and soil temperature

*For management refer to page number-----

X. Description of rodent pests

1) Lesser bandicoot:

Distribution and Identification:

Distributed throughout India and infests almost all

crops. It is a robust rodent (200 to 300 g body weight)
with a rounded head and a broad muzzle. Dorsum
covered with grey-brownish rough hairs. Tail is naked,
shorter than head and body. Breeds throughout the
season and litter size 6-8 in normal conditions.

Burrows are characterized by the presence of scooped

soil at the entrance and mostly burrow openings are
closed with soil.

68
 Damage symptoms:

 Mostly damage occurs at fruiting stage. Bandicoots cut

the raw and ripened fruits and hoard them in their
burrows.

2. House rat:
Distributed throughout India. Medium sized (80-120g)
slender rodent. Commonly found in houses and on
plantation crops. Very good climber with longer tail than
head and body. Occasionally causes damage to tomato
in certain pockets. Inhabitation on trees and other
places and won‟t make any burrows in fields

3. Indian gerbil:
Distributed throughout the India. Inhabits rain-fed crop
fields/ fallow/wastelands. Medium sized (100-250 g.)
with light brownish dorsum and longer tail than head
and body. The eyes are large, rounded ears and
bicolour tail with terminal black tuft. The burrows have
semi-circular openings with zigzag shape and 2 to 4
openings and emergency exits.

Diseases cycles

1. Bacterial wilt: Ralstonia solanecearum

69
2. Bacterial fruit & leaf spot and canker

70
3. Leaf spot and powdery mildew

4. Late blight and Wilt

71
5. Tomato bud necrosis virus: PbNV

X. Insecticide resistance and its management

Insecticide resistance: Resistance to insecticides may be defined as „a heritable change in the

sensitivity of a pest population that is reflected in the repeated failure of a product to achieve the
expected level of control when used according to the label recommendation for that pest
species‟ (IRAC). Cross-resistance occurs when resistance to one insecticide confers resistance
to another insecticide, even where the insect has not been exposed to the latter product.

Causes of resistance development: The causes and rate at which insecticide resistance
develops depend on several factors, including the initial frequency of resistance alleles present
in the population, how rapidly the insects reproduce, the insects‟ level of resistance, the
migration and host range of the insects, the insecticide's persistence and specificity, and the
rate, timing and number of applications of insecticide made. For instance, insect pests that
survive in large populations and breed quickly are at greater advantage of evolving insecticide,
especially when insecticides are misused or over-used.

General strategy for insecticide resistance management: The best strategy to avoid
insecticide resistance is prevention and including insecticide resistance management tactics as
part of a larger integrated pest management (IPM) approach.

1) Monitor pests: Monitor insect population development in fields to determine if and when
control measures are warranted. Monitor and consider natural enemies when making control
decisions. After treatment, continue monitoring to assess pest populations and their control.

72
2) Focus on AESA. Insecticides should be used only as a last resort when all other non-
chemical management options are exhausted and P: D ratio is above 2: 1. Apply
biopesticides/chemical insecticides judiciously after observing unfavourable P: D ratio and when
the pests are in most vulnerable life stage. Use application rates and intervals as per label
claim.
3) Ecological engineering for pest management: Flowering plants that attract natural
enemies as well as plants that repel pests can be grown as border/intercrop.
4) Take an integrated approach to managing pests. Use as many different control measures
as possible viz., cultural, mechanical, physical, biological etc. Select insecticides with care and
consider the impact on future pest populations and the environment. Avoid broad-spectrum
insecticides when a narrow-spectrum or more specific insecticide will work. More preference
should be given to green labeled insecticides.
5) Mix and apply carefully. While applying insecticides care should be taken for proper
application of insecticides in terms of dose, volume, timing, coverage, application techniques as
per label claim.
6) Alternate different insecticide classes. Avoid the repeated use of the same insecticide,
insecticides in the same chemical class, or insecticides in different classes with same mode of
action and rotate/alternate insecticide classes and modes of action.
7) Preserve susceptible genes. Preserve susceptible individuals within the target population
by providing unsprayed areas within treated fields, adjacent "refuge" fields, or habitat attractions
within a treated field that facilitate immigration. These susceptible individuals may outcompete
and interbreed with resistant individuals, diluting the resistant genes and therefore the impact of
resistance.

XI. Nutritional deficiencies:

Nutrient and their deficiency symptoms Appearance

Nitrogen: Under N deficiency, older leaves gradually change from
green to paler green. As the deficiency progresses these older leaves
become uniformly yellow (chlorotic). Leaves approach a yellowish white
color under extreme deficiency. The young leaves at the top of the plant
maintain a green but paler color and tend to become smaller in size.
Branching is reduced resulting in short, spindly plants. The yellowing in
nitrogen deficiency is uniform over the entire leaf including the veins.

Correction Measure: Recovery can be done by top dressing of urea of

as recommended on soil test basis or apply 2 % urea solution.
Recovery of deficient plants to applied nitrogen is immediate (days) and
spectacular.
Phosphorus: The symptoms first develop on older leaves showing
some necrotic spots and plants are dwarfed or stunted. Phosphorus
deficient plants develop very slowly. Plants develop a distinct purpling
of the stem, petiole and the under sides of the leaves. Under severe
deficiency conditions there is a tendency for leaves to develop a blue-
gray luster.

Correction Measure: Soil application of recommended dose of

73
phosphorous should be applied at the time of sowing or planting.
Potassium: Since potassium is very mobile within the plant, symptoms
only develop on young leaves in the case of extreme deficiency. Some
of the leaves show marginal necrosis (tip burn), and at a more
advanced deficiency status show inter-veinal necrosis. This group of
symptoms is very characteristic of K deficiency symptoms. As the
deficiency progresses, most of the interveinal area becomes necrotic,
the veins remain green and the leaves tend to curl and crinkle. In
contrast to nitrogen deficiency, chlorosis is irreversible in potassium
deficiency, even if potassium is given to the plants.

Correction Measure: Foliar application of K2SO4 @1%.

Sulfur: This leaves show a general overall chlorosis. The veins and
petioles show a very distinct reddish color. The yellowing is much more
uniform over the entire plant including young leaves. The reddish color
often found on the underside of the leaves. With advanced sulfur
deficiency the leaves tend to become more erect and often twisted and
brittle.

Correction Measure: Foliar spray of K2SO4 or CaSO4 1% twice at

fortnightly interval.
Magnesium: The Mg-deficient leaves show advanced interveinal
chlorosis, In its advanced form, magnesium deficiency may superficially
resemble potassium deficiency. The symptoms generally start with
mottled chlorotic areas developing in the interveinal tissue.

Correction Measure: Foliar spray of MgSO4 @2%.

Manganese: The leaves show a light interveinal chlorosis developed

under a limited supply of Mn. The early stages of the chlorosis induced
by manganese deficiency are somewhat similar to iron deficiency. As
the stress increases, the leaves develop dark necrotic areas along the
veins.

Correction Measure: Foliar spray of MnSO4 @ 2%.

74
Molybdenum: The leaves show some mottled spotting along with
some interveinal chlorosis. An early symptom for molybdenum
deficiency is a general overall chlorosis, similar to the symptom for
nitrogen deficiency but generally without the reddish coloration on the
undersides of the leaves.

Correction Measure: Foliar spray of NaMO4 0.05% twice at weekly

interval.
Zinc: The leaves show interveinal necrosis. In the early stages of zinc
deficiency the younger leaves become yellow and pitting develops in
the interveinal upper surfaces of the mature leaves. As the deficiency
progress these symptoms develop into an intense interveinal necrosis
but the main veins remain green, as in the symptoms of recovering iron
deficiency.

Correction Measure: Foliar spray of ZnSO4 @ 0.5%.

Boron: These boron-deficient leaves show a light general chlorosis.
Boron deficiency results in necrosis of meristematic tissues in the
growing region, leading to loss of apical dominance and the
development of a rosette condition. These deficiency symptoms are
similar to those caused by calcium deficiency. The leaves are unusually
brittle and tend to break easily. Also, there is often a wilting of the
younger leaves even under an adequate water supply, pointing to a
disruption of water transport caused by boron deficiency.

Correction Measure: Foliar spray of borax @ 0.2%.

Calcium: The calcium-deficient leaves show necrosis around the base
of the leaves. The very low mobility of calcium is a major factor
determining the expression of calcium deficiency symptoms in plants.
Classic symptoms of calcium deficiency include blossom-end rot of
tomato. Symptoms show soft dead necrotic tissue at rapidly growing
areas, which is generally related to poor translocation of calcium to the
tissue rather than a low external supply of calcium. This ultimately
results in the margins of the leaves growing more slowly than the rest of
the leaf, causing the leaf to cup downward. Plants under chronic
calcium deficiency have a much greater tendency to wilt than non-
stressed plants.

Correction Measure: Foliar spray of 2% Calcium sulphate twice at

weekly intervals.

75
Copper: The copper-deficient leaves are curled, and their petioles
bend downward. Copper deficiency may be expressed as a light overall
chlorosis along with the permanent loss of turgor in the young leaves.
Recently matured leaves show netted, green veining with areas
bleaching to a whitish gray. Some leaves develop sunken necrotic
spots and have a tendency to bend downward.

Correction Measure: Foliar spray of 0.5% CuSO4 twice at fortnightly

interval.
Iron: The iron-deficient leaves show strong chlorosis at the base of the
leaves with some green netting. The most common symptom for iron
deficiency starts out as an interveinal chlorosis of the youngest leaves,
evolves into an overall chlorosis, and ends as a totally bleached leaf.
Because iron has a low mobility, iron deficiency symptoms appear first
on the youngest leaves. Iron deficiency is strongly associated with
calcareous soils, anaerobic conditions, and it is often induced by an
excess of heavy metals.

Correction Measure: Foliar spray of FeSO4 @ 0.5%.

Source:
Epstein and Bloom (2004). Plant Nutrition, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.
http://5e.plantphys.net/images/ch05/wt0501d_s.jpg
http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/agriculture/agri_min_fldcrops_vegetables.html

76
Physiological and nutritional disorders

Other than various pest‟ problems in tomato production, farmers are facing problems related to
abiotic factors such as nutrient imbalance and environmental extremes. These factors affect
plants fruits adversely resulting in poor quality of fruits fetching low market value. Some of the
common disorders, possible causes and their remedies are briefly summerised here.

Blossom-end rot:
Blossom-end rot (BER) is caused by a
localized Ca deficiency in the developing fruit.
It begins with light tan, water-soaked areas
that can then enlarge and turn black and
leathery in appearance. Most often the
problem occurs at the blossom end of the fruit.
Factors like low soil Ca, high N rates, using
ammoniacal sources of N, high concentrations
of soluble K and Mg in the soil, high salinity,
low humidity, inadequate or excess soil
moisture, damage to root system by Fruit showing symptoms of BER, top left fruit
nematodes, diseases etc. increases the BER showing mild BER, others showing severe
problem.
Correction measure: Soil applications of Ca
materials, proper fertilization and good water
management can prevent the problem.
Cat-face:
Cat-facing is a generic term used to describe a
tomato fruit that has a gross deformity and is
usually not marketable. The defect is usually
located on the blossom end of the fruit. The
deformity is starts occurring during the
formation of the flower that results in the fruit
not developing normally. Low temperatures, Fruit showing Cat-faced fruit with
herbicide drifts, heavy thrips feeding and little cat-facing into fruit hole on blossom end
leaf disease are some of the causes of cat-
faced fruits.
Correction measure: Varieties should be
selected that historically have had little
problem with cat-facing, avoiding spray drift,
water logging etc. can reduce the problem.

77
Cracking:
Cracking occurs when the internal expansion
is faster than the expansion of the epidermis
and the epidermis splits. Varieties differ greatly
in their susceptibility to cracking.
Correction measure: Control is through
selecting tolerant varieties or by reducing
fluctuations in soil moisture. Cracking may
also be reduced by maintaining good foliage
cover, since exposed fruit are more
susceptible. Fruit showing both radial and concentric
cracking
Gray wall (blotchy ripening):
Internally gray wall is characterized by dark
necrotic areas usually in the vascular tissue of
the outer walls. Outward symptoms show up
as grayish appearance caused by partial
collapse of the wall tissue; hence the term
gray wall is used to describe. It typically
develops on green fruit prior to harvest but can
develop later. Fruits affected are typically not
marketable due to blotchy appearance as fruit
ripens. Gray wall is more of a problem during
cool and short days. There are variety Fruit showing gray wall necrotic areas
differences in susceptibility. High N may
increase the problem
Correction measure: Application of adequate
K may reduce the problem.

Internal White Tissue:

Fruit affected by this disorder usually show no
outward symptoms. When ripe fruits are cut,
white hard areas especially in the vascular
region are present in the outer walls. Under
severe conditions, fruit may also show white
tissue in cross-wall and center of fruit. High
temperatures during the ripening period in the
field seem to trigger the symptoms.
Correction measure: Application of adequate
K fertilization may reduce it.
Fruit showing internal white tissue
in walls and center

78
Irregular Ripening:
Irregular ripening is a fruit ripening disorder
caused by feeding of nymphs of the silver leaf
whitefly (Bemisia argentifolii) on the tomato
foliage. Green fruit show no symptoms, but as
fruit ripens, color fails to develop uniformly
(Figure 8). Color often develops along locule Adult silver leaf Fruit showing
walls with intermediate areas remaining green whiteflies feeding symptoms of irregular
or yellow, producing a star-burst appearance. on collard leaf ripening
Correction measure: This disorder can be
controlled if nymphs of white fly are controlled.
Pox and Fleck:
In most cases when a fruit is affected both
disorders are found together but are
considered separate problems. Pox is
described as small cuticular disruptions found
at random on the fruit surface. Fleck, develops
as small irregular shaped green spots at
random on the surface of immature fruit, which
becomes gold in color as fruit ripens. Fruits
severely affected with pox and fleck are not
marketable. Both conditions seem to be
Tomato fruit showing Pox and Fleck
genetic in nature, the disorders only show up
symptoms
under certain environmental conditions. There
are differences between varieties as to
susceptibility to pox and fleck.
Correction measure: Control is through
selecting tolerant varieties.

Puffiness:
When this problem is slight, it may be
impossible to detect puffiness until fruit are
cut. When fruit are cut, open cavities are
observed between the seed gel area and the
outer wall. Fruits are also very light in relation
to size. This problem is caused by any factor Note flattened areas on Fruit severely
that affects fruit set, including inadequate sidewalls of fruit caused affected by puffiness,
pollination, fertilization, or seed development. by puffiness note large open
Most common causes are too low or high areas
temperatures during fruit set. Other factors
such as high N, low light, or rainy conditions
can also cause seed set problems.
Correction measure: Application of balanced

79
N doses may reduce the problem.

Zebra Stripe:
Zebra stripe can be characterized as a series
of dark green spots arranged in a line from the
stem end to the bloom end. At times it seems
the spots coalesce together and form
elongated markings. Many times the dark
green areas will disappear when fruit ripens.
This problem seems to be variety related. It is
probably a genetic defect that only develops
under certain environmental conditions. Zebra
stripe may be linked to pox and fleck. Zebra stripe spots may form
elongated areas

Zippering:
Zippering is described as a fruit having thin
scars that extend partially or fully from the
stem scar area to the blossom end. The
longitudinal scar has small transverse scars
along it. At times there may be open holes in
the locules in addition to the zipper scar.
Usually an anther that is attached to the newly
forming fruit causes the zipper scar. Some
people feel that a zipper is formed when the Zippering with open hole in fruit
“blooms” stick to the fruit and do not shed
properly but this may not be a cause.
Correction measure: The only control is to
select varieties that are not prone to zippering.

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XII. Safety measures

A. At the time of harvest:Pick tomatoes at 2-3 day intervals during warm weather and at
weekly intervals during cool weather. Waiting period for all the pesticides, if any, should be
observed without fail. Pick tomatoes from the plants by twisting them rather than pulling them to
avoid damage. Fruits are generally removed from the upper portion of the plant. Vines and fruit
should be completely dry when mature green fruit are harvested. Otherwise, fruit may develop
sunken, blackened areas during ripening. Vine-ripes must be hand harvested every other day. A
common recommendation for fresh market tomatoes is to harvest green matures when about
10% of the fruit on the first hand is at the breaker stage of maturity. When immature greens are
picked, the eating quality is reduced even though these tomatoes can be gassed to redness
with ethylene. But the sugar and acid content, which determine the taste of the tomato, are low,
resulting in a flavour-less fruit. Mature green tomatoes develop flavour to the same extent as
fruit left on the plant another 24 hours, until colour appears.

B. Post-harvest storage
Usually, tomatoes are packed after harvest and sent to fresh market. Otherwise, fresh market
tomatoes are dropped into a water tank after harvest to clean the fruit. The improper tank
procedures can spread the disease and increase storage losses. Disease spread can be
minimized by not allowing 1) fruit to submerge deeply or to float more than one layer deep in the
tank; 2) pressure from deeper submersion forces pathogen-containing water through the stem
scar into the fruit; 3) removing fruit after two minutes; 4) slightly chlorinating the water; and 5)
warming tank temperature to a few degrees above fruit temperature (cool water constricts the
fruit, pulling in pathogens).

In general, the length of storage depends on the harvest stage. Mature green fruits can
be stored up to 30 days at cool temperatures, e.g. 10 °C. Ripe fruits can be kept for about a
week. Commercial crops of fresh market tomatoes picked at the mature green stage are
ripened artificially and uniformly by dipping the fruits in ethephon 39% SL @ 2500 ppm.

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 XIII. Do’s and Don’ts in IPM

S. No. Do’s Don’ts

1. Deep ploughing is to be done on bright sunny Do not plant or irrigate the field after
days during the months of May and June. ploughing, at least for 2-3 weeks, to allow
The field should be kept exposed to sun light at desiccation of weed‟s bulbs and/or rhizomes
least for 2-3 weeks of perennial weeds.

2. Adopt crop rotation. Avoid growing monocrop.

3. Grow only recommended varieties. Do not grow varieties not suitable for the
season or the region.
4 Sow early in the season Avoid late sowing as this may lead to
reduced yields and incidence of white grubs
and diseases.
5 Always treat the seeds with approved Do not use seeds without seed treatment with
chemicals/bio products for the control of seed biocides/chemicals.
borne diseases/pests.

6. Sow in rows at optimum depths under proper Do not sow seeds beyond 5-7 cm depth.
moisture conditions for better establishment.

7. Apply only recommended herbicides at Pre-emergent as well as soil incorporated

recommended dose, proper time, as appropriate herbicides should not be applied in dry soils.
spray solution with standard equipment along Do not apply herbicides along with irrigation
with flat fan or flat jet nozzles. water or by mixing with soil, sand or urea.

8. Maintain optimum and healthy crop stand which Crops should not be exposed to moisture
would be capable of competing with weeds at a deficit stress at their critical growth stages.
critical stage of crop weed competition

82
 .

9 Use NPK fertilizers as per the Avoid imbalanced use of fertilizers.

soil test recommendation.

10 Use micronutrient mixture after sowing based test Do not apply any micronutrient mixture after
recommendations. sowing without test recommendations.
11 Conduct AESA weekly in the morning preferably Do not take any management decision
before 9 a.m. Take decision on management without considering AESA and P: D ratio
practice based on AESA and P: D ratio only.

12 Install pheromone traps at appropriate period. Do not store the pheromone lures at normal
room temperature (keep them in refrigerator).

13 Release parasitoids only after noticing adult moth Do not apply chemical pesticides within
catches in the pheromone trap or as pheromone seven days of release of parasitoids.
trap or as per field observation

83
14 Apply HaNPV or SINPV at recommended dose Do not apply NPV on late instar larva and
when a large number of egg masses and early during day time.
instar larvae are noticed. Apply NPV only in the
evening hours after 5 pm.

15 In case of pests which are active during night like Do not spray pesticides at midday since,
Spodoptera spray recommended biocides/ most of the insects are not active during this
chemicals at the time of their appearance in the period.
night.

16 Spray pesticides thoroughly to treat the Do not spray pesticides only on the upper
undersurface of the leaves, particularly for mites, surface of leaves.
whiteflies, Spodoptera etc.

17 Apply short persistent pesticides to avoid Do not apply pesticides during preceding 7
pesticide residue in the soil and produce. days before harvest.

18 Follow the recommended procedure of trap crop Do not apply long persistent on trap crop,
technology. otherwise it may not attract the pests and
natural enemies.

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XIV. Safety parameters in pesticide usage

S. Pesticide Classifica Colour of WHO First Aid Symptoms Treatment of Waiting

No. tion as toxicity classificati measures poisoning poisoning period
per triangle on of from last
insecticid hazard application
e rules to harvest
(days)
Organophosphate insecticides
1 Dimethoate Highly Class II Mild-anorexia, For extreme --
toxic Moderately headache, symptoms of OP
hazardous dizziness, poisoning,
weakness, injection of
anxiety, tremors atropine (2-4 mg
of tongue and for adults, 0.5-1.0
eyelids, miosis, mg for children) is
impairment of recommended.
visual acuity Repeated at 5-10
minute intervals
until signs of
atropinization
occur.
Carbamate insecticides
2 Carbofuran Extremely Class I b Constriction of Atropine injection- --
toxic highly pupils, 1-4 mg. repeat 2
hazardous salivation, mg when
profuse symptoms begin
sweating, to recur (15-16
muscle min interval)
incordination, excessive
nausea, salivation- good
vomiting,diarrhe sign, more
a, epigastric atropine needed
pain, tightness
in chest
Neonicotinoids

85
3 Imidacloprid Highly Have person Harmful if No specific 3
toxic sip a glass of swallowed, antidote.
water if able absorbed Treatment is
to swallow. through skin or essentially
Do not induce inhaled. Avoid symptomatic.
vomiting breathing vapor
unless told to or spray mist.
do so by a Causes
doctor, do not moderate eye
give anything irritation.
by mouth to
an
unconscious
person
4 Thiamethoxa Have person No specific 5
m sip a glass of antidote.
water if able Treatment is
to swallow. essentially
Do not induce symptomatic.
vomiting
unless told to
do so by a
poison control
center or
doctor. Do not
give anything
by mouth to
an
unconscious

Insect growth regulators

5 Novaluron Have person Causes No specific 1-3
sip a glass of substantial but antidote.
water if able temporary eye Treatment is
to swallow. injury. essentially
Do not induce symptomatic.

86
 vomiting
unless told to
do so by a
poison control
center or
doctor. Do not
give anything
by mouth to
an
unconscious

Anthranilic diamides
6 Flubendiamid Slightly Unlikely ----------- Treat 5
e toxic produce symptomatically
acute as there is no
hazard known specific
antidote
Other classes insecticides
7 Indoxacarb Have person Altered blood No specific 5
sip a glass of chemistry antidote.
water if able Abnormal Treatment is
to swallow. decrease in essentially
Do not induce number of red symptomatic.
vomiting blood cells
unless told to (anaemia)
do so by a which could
doctor. Do not produce
give anything tiredness, rapid
by mouth to heartbeat,
an dizziness, pale
unconscious skin, leg
person cramps,
shortness of
breath, Central
nervous system
effects

87
Fungicides
8 Captan Moderatel Class III Headache, No specific 6
y toxic slightly palpitation, antidote.
hazardous nausea, Treatment is
vomiting, essentially
flushed face, symptomatic
irritation of
nose,throat,
eyes and skin
etc.
9 Mancozeb Slightly Unlikely Headache, No specific 10
toxic produce palpitation, antidote.
acute nausea, Treatment is
hazard vomiting, essentially
flushed face, symptomatic
irritation of
nose,throat,
eyes and skin
etc.
10 Copper Moderatel Class III Headache, No specific --
oxychloride y toxic slightly palpitation, antidote.
hazardous nausea, Treatment is
vomiting, essentially
flushed face, symptomatic
irritation of
nose,throat,
eyes and skin
etc.

88
XV. Basic precautions in pesticides usage

A. Purchase
1. Purchase only just required quantity e.g. 100, 250, 500, 1000 g/ml for single
application in specified area.
2. Do not purchase leaking containers, loose, unsealed or torn bags.
3. Do not purchase pesticides without proper/approved labels.
4. While purchasing insist for invoice/bill/cash memo
B. Storage
1. Avoid storage of pesticides in house premises.
2. Keep only in original container with intact seal.
3. Do not transfer pesticides to other containers.
4. Never keep them together with food or feed/fodder.
5. Keep away from reach of children and livestock.
6. Do not expose to sunlight or rain water.
7. Do not store weedicides along with other pesticides.
C. Handling
1. Never carry/ transport pesticides along with food materials.
2. Avoid carrying bulk pesticides (dust/granules) on head shoulders or on the back.
D. Precautions for preparing spray solution
1. Use clean water.
2. Always protect your nose, eyes, mouth, ears and hands.
3. Use hand gloves, face mask and cover your head with cap.
4. Use polythene bags as hand gloves, handkerchiefs or piece of clean cloth as mask
and a cap or towel to cover the head (Do not use polythene bag contaminated with
pesticides).
5. Read the label on the container before preparing spray solution.
6. Read the label on the container before preparing spray solution.
7. Prepare the spray solution as per requirement
8. Do not mix granules with water
9. Concentrated pesticides must not fall on hands etc. while opening sealed container.
Do not smell pesticides.
10. Avoid spilling of pesticides while filling the sprayer tank.
11. Do not eat, drink, smoke or chew while preparing solution
12. The operator should protect his bare feet and hands with polythene bags
E. Equipment
1. Select right kind of equipment.
2. Do not use leaky and defective equipment
3. Select right kind of nozzles
4. Don‟t blow/clean clogged nozzle with mouth. Use old tooth brush tied with the
sprayer and clean with water.
5. Do not use same sprayer for weedicide and insecticide.
F. Precautions for applying pesticides
1. Apply only at recommended dose and dilution

89
 2. Do not apply on hot sunny day or strong windy condition
3. Do not apply just before the rains and after the rains.
4. Do not apply against the windy direction
5. Emulsifiable concentrate formulations should not be used for spraying with battery
operated ULV sprayer
6. Wash the sprayer and buckets etc. with soap water after spraying
7. Containers buckets etc. used for mixing pesticides should not be used for domestic
purpose
8. Avoid entry of animals and workers in the field immediately after spraying
9. Avoid tank mixing of different pesticides
G. Disposal
1. Left over spray solution should not be drained in ponds or water lines etc. throw it in
barren isolated area if possible
2. The used/empty containers should be crushed with a stone/stick and buried deep
into soil away from water source.
3. Never reuse empty pesticides container for any other purpose.

XVI. Pesticide application techniques

Equipment
Category A: Stationary, crawling pest/disease
Vegetative Insecticides  Lever operated knapsack
stage and sprayer (Droplets of big
i) for crawling fungicides size)
and soil borne  Hollow cone nozzle @ 35
pests to 40 psi
 Lever operating speed = 15
to 20 strokes/min
or
ii) for small  Motorized knapsack
sucking leaf sprayer or mist blower
borne pests (Droplets of small size)
 Airblast nozzle
 Operating speed: 2/3rd
throttle
Reproductive Insecticides  Lever operated knapsack
stage and sprayer (Droplets of big
fungicides size)
 Hollow cone nozzle @ 35
to 40 psi
 Lever operating speed = 15
to 20 strokes/min

90
Category B: Field flying pest/airborne pest
Vegetative Insecticides  Motorized knapsack
stage and sprayer or mist blower
Reproductive fungicides (Droplets of small size)
stage  Airblast nozzle
(Field Pests)  Operating speed: 2/3rd
throttle
Or
 Battery operated low
volume sprayer (Droplets of
small size)
Spinning disc nozzle
Mosquito/ Insecticides  Fogging machine and ENV
locust and and (Exhaust nozzle vehicle)
spatial fungicides (Droplets of very small
application size)
(migratory  Hot tube nozzle
Pests)
Category C: Weeds
Post- Weedicide  Lever operated knapsack
emergence sprayer (Droplets of big
application size)
 Flat fan or floodjet nozzle
@ 15 to 20 psi
 Lever operating speed = 7
to 10 strokes/min
Pre- Weedicide  Trolley mounted low
emergence volume sprayer (Droplets of
application small size)
 Battery operated low
volume sprayer (Droplets of
small size)

XVII. Operational, calibration and maintenance guidelines in brief

1. For application rate and

dosage see the label and
leaflet of the particular
pesticide.

91
2. It is advisable to check the
output of the sprayer
(calibration) before
commencement of spraying
under guidance of trained
person.

3. Clean and wash the machines

and nozzles and store in dry
place after use.

4. It is advisable to use
protective clothing, face mask
and gloves while preparing
and applying pesticides.

Do not apply pesticides

without protective clothing and
wash clothes immediately
after spray application.
5. Do not apply in hot or windy
conditions.

6. Operator should maintain

normal walking speed while
undertaking application.

92
7. Do not smoke, chew or eat
while undertaking the spraying
operation

8. Operator should take proper

bath with soap after
completing spraying

9. Do not blow the nozzle with

mouth for any blockages.
Clean with water and a soft
brush.

XVIII. References

http://www.postharvest.com.au/Produce_Information.htm
http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu/pfvegetable/Eggplant/
http://nhb.gov.in/vegetable/brinjal/bri0v08.pdf
http://www.ikisan.com/Crop%20Specific/Eng/links/ap_chilliHarvestingandStorage.shtml
http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu/pfvegetable/ChilePeppers/
http://www.icar.org.in/files/reports/icar-dare-annual-reports/2009-10/Post-harvest-
Management.pdf
http://www.farmerfred.com/plants_that_attract_benefi.html
http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in
NHM manual for post harvest management and integrated pest management:
http://www.nhm.nic.in
AVRDC the world vegetable center: http://www.avrdc.org
FAO Regional Vegetable IPM Programme in South & Southeast Asia:
http://www.vegetableipmasia.org/CropsSites.html
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research: http://www.iihr.ernet.in
Fiedler, A., Tuell, J., Isaacs, R. and Doug Landis . Attracting beneficial insects with native
flowering plants. January 2007. Extension bulletin. E-2973.
Acharya N. G. Agricultural University, Hyderabad: http://www.angrau.ac.in
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad: http://www.uasd.edu
Jawarharlal Nehru Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur: http://www.jnkvv.nic.in
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana: http://www.pau.edu
Personal communication with Dr. Krishnamurthy, IIHR, Bangalore

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http://www.haifa-group.com/files/Guides/tomato/Tomato.pdf
http://www.haifa-group.com/files/Guides/tomato/Tomato.pdf
http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r783301511.html
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/00-055.htm
http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/biological-control-cutworm-cottton
Olson, S. M. 2012. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida,
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.

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