KULLIYAH OF EDUCATION

COURSE TITLE (CODE):

CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

(EDEP 7605)

ASSIGNMENT:
INDIVIDUAL FINAL TERM
PAPER

TITLE:
EXPLORING PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN DEVELOPMENT

NAME OF
INSTRUCTOR:

DR SITI RAFIAH ABDUL

SUBMISSION BY:

NURUL KAMARIAH BINTI ANWAR (G2219846)

SEMESTER 2, 2023/2024
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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Child development is one of the most popular studies among psychologists, as it is the

milestone that shapes a child’s personality and behaviour in the future. ‘Development’ means

changes in a child’s physical growth and the child’s social, emotional, behaviour, thinking,

and communication skills. These areas of development are connected, and each depends on

and influences the others. Psychologists are intrigued by the complexity of children’s

development. The study of child development is a dynamic, constantly evolving field. It is

influenced by research from various areas, including developmental psychology and

cognitive neuroscience.

To explore more about child development, the researcher uses child profiling.

Profiling can be defined as the act of suspecting or targeting a person on the basis of observed

characteristics or behaviour. Child development profiling involves assessing a child's growth,

abilities, and milestones across various domains such as cognitive, physical, social,

emotional, and language development This child developmental profiling is crucial as it

helps teachers and families gain a better understanding of their child’s development and

learning progress. Parents will know whether their children grow up accordingly through

child observation. Teachers can identify a child’s learning problem through this profiling and

conduct a suitable teaching approach. A teacher's capacity to establish a supportive learning

environment, deliver instruction successfully, and engage with students appropriately is

influenced by their knowledge of child development.

Child development profiling can also help policymakers use an equity lens to consider

government policy impacts on all children. Through child development observation,

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policymakers can develop early childhood programs that serve diverse populations of

children and increase financing for relevant early learning services.

This study will explore the child's development, focusing on the early childhood

stage. The focus will be on the child’s physical, cognitive, language, social and emotional

development.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

1. To explore the physical, cognitive, language, social, and emotional development of

preschool children

2. To identify the differences between male and female preschool children in physical,

cognitive, language, social, and emotional development

RESEARCH QUESTION

3. What are the physical, cognitive, language, social, and emotional development of

preschool children?

4. What are the differences between male and female preschool children in physical,

cognitive, language, social, and emotional development?

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

In this literature review, the researcher will explore writings and past research related to child

development. The focus will be on the stages and theories of child development .

2.1 THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

2.1.1 Freud's Psychosexual Developmental Theory

Psychoanalytic theory originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. Freud came to

believe that childhood experiences and unconscious desires influenced human behaviours.

Freud's psychosexual theory states five stages of human development which are oral, anal,

phallic, latency, and genital. These psychosexual stages capture the main growth points of a

person from infancy to adulthood and focus on different facets of wants, needs, and desires.

The basis of Freud's theory suggests that a person's body has several erogenous zones,

therefore a person's libido would grow over time and look for satisfaction through different

types of behaviours using these zones, such as thumb sucking or sex. Depending on what

happens in each stage, a person will quickly move from one stop to the next or develop

fixations based on overindulging or disruption.

Freud also used the words id, ego, and superego to explain conscious and unconscious

desires. Id is an instinctive aspect of our biology where the impulsive part of us has desires

and will do anything to fulfill them. Meanwhile, ego is the mediator between the id and the

world. The ego uses reason to quell desires and fit into society. Superego is the moral high

ground, incorporating learned behaviors from caretakers and societal norms. The superego

balances the ego's perfectionism and controls the id's chaotic nature.

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 Freud believed that early experiences had the biggest influence on development,

despite the claims of certain other theories on child development that personality changes and

develops throughout life. By the age of five, personality is set, according to Freud.

2.1.2 Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory

Erikson's eight-stage theory of psychosocial development describes growth and change

throughout life, focusing on social interaction and conflicts that arise during different stages

of development. His theory is almost similar to Freud, but instead of focusing on sexual

interest as a driving force in development, Erikson believed that social interaction and

experience played decisive roles. His eight-stage theory of human development described this

process from infancy through death. At each stage, children and adults face a developmental

crisis that serves as a major turning point.

2.1.3 Behavioral Child Development Theories

Behavioral child development theory is about how children learn through their interactions

with the environment. According to behaviorist John B. Watson, any behavior can be

learned. Other theorists, including Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner also contributed to this

theory. Two important behavioral processes that influence development are classical

conditioning and operant conditioning. In classical conditioning, a previously neutral

stimulus and a stimulus that inherently and automatically elicits a response are associated.

Operant conditioning is the process of learning via punishment, positive reinforcement, or

negative reinforcement. The likelihood that a behaviour will recur in the future is determined

by its effects.

2.1.4 Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

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Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought processes. It also

looks at how these thought processes influence how we understand and interact with the

world. According to this Jean Piaget’s theory, children can be thought of as “little scientists”

who actively construct their knowledge and understanding of the world. The sensorimotor

period occurs early in life, between the ages of birth and two. An infant uses motor skills and

sensory perceptions to learn about the world during this period. During this period, children

undergo remarkable cognitive development as they acquire vast knowledge about their

surroundings.

Between the ages of two and six is the Preoperational Stage, which is characterized by

fast growth and development. Children still struggle to see things from other people's

perspectives and are unable to mentally manipulate information at this age. During this phase,

a lot of language development occurs.

The Concrete Operational Stage is a stage that occurs in youngsters between the ages

of 7 and 11 when they begin to comprehend how their minds work. Children struggle to

understand hypothetical or abstract concepts, but they start to reason logically about specific

experiences. The formal Operational Stage is the ages of 12 to adulthood during which a

person learns to think abstractly. During this phase, logical reasoning, systematic planning,

and deductive reasoning are among the other skills that develop.

2.1.5 Social Learning Theory

According to this Albert Bandura’s child development theory, children learn new behaviors

from observing other people. Bandura believed that external reinforcement was not the only

way people learned new things. Instead, intrinsic motivations and rewards such as pride,

satisfaction, and accomplishment could also lead to learning. Observational learning may take

place at any age. The people being observed are called models and the learning process is

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called modeling. Insofar as exposure to new influential, powerful models who control

resources may occur at life stage, new learning through the modelling process is always

possible. (Newman B.M. & P.R, 2007).

2.1.6 Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Vygotsky believed that children learn actively and through hands-on experiences. Cognitive

development is a socially mediated process in which children acquire cultural values, beliefs,

and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable

members of society. The MKO (more knowledgeable other) can be a teacher, parent, coach,

or even a peer who provides guidance and modeling to enable the child to learn skills within

their zone of proximal development (the gap between what a child can do independently and

what they can achieve with guidance).

2.2 STAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

There are 5 stages of child development.

2.2.1 Newborn (0-3 Months)

Communication: Newborns mostly use crying to express their demands, and they may settle

down when someone speaks to them. Around two months of age, babies start to make vowel

sounds and coo.

Physical: Newborns can track objects with their eyes and turn towards sounds. They are able

to hold items and start raising their heads for extended periods.

Social-Emotional: Newborns will attempt to gaze at you and other people, and they will start

to smile.

Cognitive: At a distance, newborns show interest in and are able to identify familiar items

and people. With repetitive activities, they could even start to become bored.

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2.2.2 Infant ( 3-12 months)

Communication: From months three to six, infants start chattering. Around months 6 to 9,

newborns will start to chuckle and imitate different noises after reaching this developmental

milestone. Infants can mimic a variety of sounds, use gestures to communicate, and

pronounce a few short phrases between the months of nine and twelve.

Physical: Infants can begin to control their head movements and bring their hands together

by the time they are three to six months old. Six to nine-month-old babies can start sitting up

on their own and can even bounce while standing. Children can start to stand, crawl, and pick

up objects on their own between the ages of nine and twelve months.

Social-Emotional: Between three and six months of age, babies start reacting to various

voice tones and facial expressions. Infants will react to different gestures (such clapping

hands) and pick up on other people's emotions between the ages of 6 and 9 months. Babies

will start to connect and form relationships with those around them, as well as express

themselves and their feelings, between the months of nine and twelve.

Cognitive: Between the months of three and six, babies start to identify familiar faces—like

those of their parents—hear music, and react to displays of warmth and love. Receptive

language development takes place in months 6 through 9, at which time newborns start to

comprehend and process the words they hear. Babies start to mimic motions, learn the word

"no," and investigate cause and effect through activities like tossing items between the

months of nine and twelve.

2.2.3 Toddler (1-3 Years)

Communication/Language : Understanding progresses faster than speech in a toddler’s

language development. Between 15 to 18 months, most toddlers know 10 times more words

than they can verbally communicate. By the age of two, however, vocabularies can span

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between 50 and 100 words and children begin using two or more words in combination. By

the age of five, children can use thousands of words to communicate and will speak in

sentences.

Cognitive :Between the ages of one and two, your child will start to identify known people

and objects and will be better able to remember recent events. At this age, especially when

playing, your child will start to mimic other people and become much more imaginative.

Socio-Emotional:The "terrible twos" label is frequently attributed to the conflicting emotions

that emerge at this age. Between the ages of 12 and 24 months, toddler continue to form close

relationships with their loved ones while simultaneously expressing a desire for greater

independence. It's likely that your child will start to enjoy "doing it myself" and want to make

more decisions for themselves.

Children start to form connections with other kids their own age and learn more about their

emotions between the ages of 2-3. At this age, children start to comprehend the distinction

between right and wrong. When it comes to boundaries and guidelines, they will frequently

go to their parents for guidance. When kids this age make a mistake, they frequently start to

feel bad about it.

2.2. 4. Preschool (3-5 Years)

Communication: By the time the kid is three years old, they will have mastered several

challenging sounds and be able to talk with greater clarity, though they will still make

mistakes with grammar. The child will begin to ask more inquiries, such as "What?" Why?

How?

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Physical: The child's gross motor abilities are strengthening every day at the age of three, and

the KCC playground is a great place to witness this! The child feels more comfortable riding

a tricycle, climbing and descending play structures, and catching balls. Children practise their

fine motor abilities in the classroom by using scissors, writing letters, drawing shapes and

using spoons and forks.

Social-Emotional: By the time they are three years old, kids start acting out in class and are

more at ease with other people. This lets the children play different activities in small groups

and use their imagination. Children still have an understanding of their bodies, emotions, and

when they have acted inappropriately.

Cognitive: The child knows their entire name and gender, can sing songs, tell tales, and has a

far superior recall. They can focus considerably better and begin reading books alone.

2.2.5 School age children

Language : Young children just starting school should be able to employ short, full

sentences with an average of five to seven words. The child's grammar and pronunciation

grow better as they progress through the primary school years. As they get older, children

employ more complicated language.

Social-Emotional: Children start to notice social cues at the age of five. They converse with

each other, like forming new friendships, argue less, take turns, can be domineering, and

express their rage verbally or physically. They still require consolation and assurance, but

they appreciate their independence. As they approach the conclusion of this age group, the

experiences and dynamic social contexts they encounter have a significant influence on them.

Cognitive: Children have a better understanding of right and wrong and how to lie starting at

the age of four. They have a better comprehension of comparisons, numbers, colours, size,

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and time, as well as words used in context (in front of, behind, etc.). The complexity of the

different subjects rises as children grow older.

3.0 OBSERVATION REPORT

Preface

I did my observation on two children at a bungalow, in its living room and its front

yard for about 30 minutes. Both children are in the early childhood stage, between 3-4 years

old. The weather on that day is sunny and breezy.

3.1 Observation 1 ( The boy)

3.1.1 Physical Development.

When I made this observation, the boy was playing in the living room with a toddler

aged 1-2 years old. The boy wears a yellow sleeveless shirt with shorts . The boy has a fair

complexion, and a lean type of body. He moved around fast and very active. The boy wears a

yellow sleeveless shirt with shorts—short hair and fair skin. The boy went to the sink and

looked into it. He took a steering wheel toy and played together with another infant aged 16

months old. The boy crawled under the table and then he picked up a toy car. Then he took a

small blue chair and climbed on it to push the water dispenser. He opened the tray at the

water dispenser, put a car inside, then took it out, and put back the tray. He then forcefully

took the car from the baby, and both of them screamed. Then the boy took the car to his

father. He took a packet of crackers, and shoved it to his father, without saying anything. His

father opened it for him, and he eats it using his right hand, munching on it. Then he gives it

back to his father, making face. The father ask if it’s spicy, he nodded his head. He then

jumped off the chair and went to the desk,climb on it. Another boy told him to get down

from the table. Then he ran to the stairs, and climb upstairs. He walk up the stairs, holding to

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the handle along the way. When he reached to the top, he ran to room on the left, pushing the

door open. Then he runs in a circle in the room, then ran out. He then squeeze a green horn.

He unzipped the wardrobe zip, zipping it up and down. Then he stand up and want to go back

down again. His father said there’s a ghost downstairs so he ran back upstairs. He then went

to the fridge,and put the steering toys on it’s door. Then the grandfather comes out of the

room and greet the boy. The boy ran towards the old man and shake hand with the man.

Bending down and kiss the man’s hand. He then turn around and ran towards the television.

He pushed the button a couple of time. He then put all his four limbs on the floor, making a

posture like a lion. He then found a ladder and climbed over it. He climbed down and ran

again, He found a donut-like toy and used his toes to move it. He then took another toy and

observe the toy closely. He then took a few tiny boys and gather it. His face is full of sweat

and smile when he look at me.

3.1.2 Cognitive Development & Languange

The boy plays with the toys he found accordingly, He shows his interest in moving toys like

the cars and the steering wheel. He moved the cars back and forth on the floor. He attached

the steering wheel at the cabinet door, and swing it left and right. Later the boy found a

donut-like toy and used his toes to move it. He then took another toy and observed the toy

closely Suddenly while he was playing with the toddler, he ran to his father who was having a

video call with his wife on the phone, and looked at his father's phone. He just screamed to

his mother who is on the phone, without saying a word. The boy took the phone and showed

the video call to the baby, The boy said nothing, except the word ‘aaah’. When his father

asked if the crackers he was eating were spicy, he nodded his head. Then he ran to the TV

cabinet, wrapped his fingers around a pencil, and look around to find paper for him to write

on. He took a paper and start scribbling on it. After a few seconds, he threw away the pencil.

Another girl came to the house. When she saw the girl,he ran out of the house, and play

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outside. He went to the lawn, picked up a ball and threw it. Then he went to the slide, climb

on it and slide down for several times.

3.1.3 Emotion Development

The boy didn’t display too much expression during the observation. He only shows intense

emotion when he tried to take control of the toy car from the other kid. He was screaming and

thumping his feet to show protest. He also shows excited emotion when talking to his mother,

also by screaming to his mother. He did catch a glance to the researcher and smile shyly.

3.1.4 Social Development

The boy knows how to play with the other kids. He ignored the toddler, but played excitedly

when the other kid (second participant) came. He didn’t communicate verbally, however he

can play with the other girl well. The girl followed the boy wherever he went to.

3.2 OBSERVATION 2(The girl)

3.2.1 Physical Development

The girl came 10 minutes after the first boy. She is fair-skinned, with a slightly chubby body

and face. In the beginning, she followed the boy around and imitated what the boy did on the

porch. She climbed up the slide stairs and pushed herself down the slide. Later, the girl

climbed up the swing and played on it, using her body movement to move the swing. Then

she jumped off the swing and ran toward a big green water container. She put her hands

inside the water container and shook them. After a while, she rode on a toy car and moved it

using her feet. She moved it in a circle at the front yard, quite fast. Then she followed the boy

and entered the house. They sat at the table, and waited for their food to be served. When the

food was served, the girl ate using her hand, chewing slowly and moving her body like

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dancing. After they finished their food, they ran to the guestroom and played there. They

take a book, and turn from one page to another, looking at the book together.

3.2.2 Cognitive and Language Development

The girl took a pencil and started writing alphabets. The handwriting didn’t show the alphabet

clearly, but it is readable. She also speaks a lot and tells others what to do. Her pronunciation

is quite clear and understandable. She said to the boy, ‘ Faisal ambik kereta tu” (Faizal, take

the car)… She also instructed her mother, “ Mak, ambik buku tu” (Mom, take the book)

pointing at a colouring book. She can colour the pictures quite well for a girl her age. After a

while, she left the book, walked to the dining room, and watched the cartoon. She sang along

and clapped her hand once in a while. She jumped excitedly when her favourite song came

out.

3.1.3 Emotion Development

The girl showcased a lot of emotions during the observation. When her mother refused to

give her the chocolate she wanted, she cried so hard and threw the toy in her hand. She also

shouted when the boy didn’t listen to her instructions. She pouted her mouth and stomped her

feet to show her anger. The girl laughed when the mother tickled her and made funny faces.

3.1.4 Social Development

The girl stayed close to the boy almost all the time. She attempted to communicate with the

boy at all time. Even though the boy didn’t speak, and just babbling most of time, but the girl

seems to be indifferent about it and followed the boy everywhere he go. She likes giving

instructions and talking like an elder sister to the other boy.

DISCUSSION

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 This child profiling study focuses on the preschool development stage, as both kids

observed are at the age of 3-4 years old. A comparison can also be made between the two kids

as they are of different genders but at the same age. In terms of physical development, both

children show that they hit the milestone, and can do whatever is supposed to be done by a

child their age. They are at a healthy height and weight. Both children can walk, run, jump,

and climb like normal preschoolers. They can eat food on their own. Their gross motor

develops well. This is a very important development because poor physical development in

young children has been shown to impact readiness for school, behaviour, social

development, and academic achievement (Preedy et.al,2020). Studies show that most

preschool children, who participate in sports and are physically active in childhood, retain

positive health and cultural habits in adulthood (Reilly,2011). However, the girl seems to

develop her fine motor better than the boy. She can draw proper structures like alphabets

using pencils, unlike the boy who can only scribble.

The girl also developed her language better than the boy. The girl can speak in full

sentences and gives instructions. On the other hand, the boy hardly makes any sound and

screams most of the time. He uses non-verbal cues when asking for something. During the

observation, the boy shoved a packet of crackers to his father and shook it, the father asked

him if he wanted to tear open the crackers, and he just nodded his head. According to

researchers, boys are about 2.7 times more likely to experience language delays when

compared to girls. (Hatleli,2020) However, as a parent or caregiver, it's crucial not to

overlook missed language milestones just because a child is a boy. The boy could be facing a

speech delay because a three-year-old must use at least 200 words, and ask for things by

name, and we can easily understand their speech if we live with them.

The same goes for the emotional development. Again the girl’s emotion develops

faster than the boy. The girl shows multiple emotions, happy, excited, anger, confused and

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others. On the other hand, the boy only shows anger and shyness. Most of time, he seems

expressionless. According to a study by Chaplin (2012), girls show more positive emotions

(g⫽–.08) and internalizing emotions (e.g., sadness, anxiety, sympathy;g⫽–.10) than boys, and

boys showing more externalizing emotions (e.g., anger; g⫽.09) than girl. This study shows

that boys usually exhibit negative emotion like show anger, and seldom showed their positive

emotions.

As for the social development, both of them socialize well for their age. They knew how to

play together, take turns when using the slide, and play with the toys together. However, they

seems to enjoy playing with their peers, rather than playing with the toddler. Early

interactions introduce children to important social skills like sharing, turn-taking, empathy,

and back-and-forth conversation. As children get older, their earliest relationships will

become a source of self-esteem that reinforces their sense of belonging.

Conclusion

This study helps the researcher to understand the development of preschool children, from

various aspects- physical, cognitive, language, social competency and emotion. The

researcher can also make a comparison between the boy and the girl that has been observed.

From this research, we can conclude that a child at this age are supposed to has a well-

developed body. They are supposed to have well-developed gross and fine motor skills at this

age. The child should be able to talk in simple sentences, and socialize with their peers. They

should also display emotions, express their feelings.

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REFERENCES

Carnavale, J. (2023) Freud's Psychosexual Theory of Development,

https://study.com/academy/lesson/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development.html

Chaplin, Tara & Aldao, Amelia. (2012). Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in

Children: A Meta-Analytic Review. Psychological bulletin. 139. 10.1037/a0030737.

Child Development: The First Five Years,

(2023),https://raisingchildren.net.au/newborns/development/understanding-development/

development-first-five-years

Digital 360, (2023), Why Is The Study Of Child Development Important For Teachers?,

https://digital360india.medium.com/why-is-the-study-of-child-development-important-for-

teachers-45d59939a537

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Early Friendships: Helping Infants & Toddlers Connect with Peers, (2024)

https://good2knownetwork.org/early-relationships-supporting-infants-toddlers-in-forming-

friendships/

Jasmin Shaikh (n.d) What Are the 5 Stages of Child Development? Signs of Delays,

https://www.medicinenet.com/what_are_the_5_stages_of_child_development/article.htm

Masnjak Kalčik, Mia. (2017). Gender Differences In Social Emotional Development And

Physical Activity Level In Preschool Children.

Stephens, C. (2024) Language and Speech Delays in Toddlers,

https://www.healthline.com/health/speech-delay-3-year-old-2

What Are the 5 Stages of Child Development and How to Foster Your Child’s Growth (2024)

https://good2knownetwork.org/early-relationships-supporting-infants-toddlers-in-forming-

friendships/

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APPENDIX 1

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