Review of AC circuit fundamentals

Power in Ac circuits
Electrical power consumed by a resistance in an AC circuit is different to the power consumed by a
reactance as reactances do not dissipate energy.

In a DC circuit, the voltages and currents are generally constant, that is not varying with time as there is
no sinusoidal waveform associated with the supply. However in an AC circuit, the instantaneous values
of the voltage, current and therefore power are constantly changing being influenced by the supply. So
we can not calculate the power in AC circuits in the same manner as we can in DC circuits, but we can
still say that power (p) is equal to the voltage (v) times the amperes (I).

Another important point is that AC circuits contain reactance, so there is a power component as a result
of the magnetic and/or electric fields created by the components. The result is that unlike a purely
resistive component, this power is stored and then returned back to the supply as the sinusoidal
waveform goes through one complete periodic cycle.

Thus, the average power absorbed by a circuit is the sum of the power stored and the power returned
over one complete cycle. So a circuits average power consumption will be the average of the
instantaneous power over one full cycle with the instantaneous power, p defined as the multiplication of
the instantaneous voltage, v by the instantaneous current, i. Note that as the sine function is periodic
and continuous, the average power given over all time will be exactly the same as the average power
given over a single cycle.

Let us assume that the waveforms of the voltage and current are both sinusoidal, so we recall that:

Sinusoidal Voltage Waveform

As the instantaneous power is the power at any instant of time, then:

Applying the trigonometric product-to-sum identity of:

and θ = θv – θi (the phase difference between the voltage and the current waveforms) into the above
equation gives:

Where V and I are the root-mean-squared (rms) values of the sinusoidal waveforms, v and i
respectively, and θ is the phase difference between the two waveforms. Therefore we can express the
instantaneous power as being:
Instantaneous AC Power Equation

This equation shows us that the instantaneous AC power has two different parts and is therefore the
sum of these two terms. The second term is a time varying sinusoid whose frequency is equal to twice
the angular frequency of the supply due to the 2ω part of the term. The first term however is a constant
whose value depends only on the phase difference, θ between the voltage, (V) and the current, (I).
As the instantaneous power is constantly changing with the profile of the sinusoid over time, this makes
it difficult to measure. It is therefore more convenient, and easier on the maths to use the average or
mean value of the power. So over a fixed number of cycles, the average value of the instantaneous
power of the sinusoid is given simply as:

Where V and I are the sinusoids rms values, and θ (Theta) is the phase angle between the voltage and
the current. The units of power are in watts (W).
The AC Power dissipated in a circuit can also be found from the impedance, (Z) of the circuit using the
voltage, Vrms or the current, Irms flowing through the circuit as shown.

Example:
The voltage and current values of a 50Hz sinusoidal supply are given as: vt = 240 sin(ωt +60o)Volts and
it = 5 sin(ωt -10o)Amps respectively. Find the values of the instantaneous power and the average
power absorbed by the circuit.
Solution:
From above, the instantaneous power absorbed by the circuit is given as:

Applying the trigonometric identity rule from above gives:

The average power is then calculated as:

You may have noticed that the average power value of 205.2 watts is also the first term value of the
instantaneous power p(t) as this first term constant value is the average or mean rate of energy change
between the source and load.
AC Power in a Purely Resistive Circuit
We have seen thus far, that in a dc circuit, power is equal to the product of voltage and current and this
relationship is also true for a purely resistive AC circuit. Resistors are electrical devices that consume
energy and the power in a resistor is given by p = VI = I2R = V2/R. This power is always positive.

Consider the following purely resistive (that is infinite capacitance, C = ∞ and zero inductance, L = 0)
circuit with a resistor connected to an AC supply, as shown.
Purely Resistive Circuit

When a pure resistor is connected to a sinusoidal voltage supply, the current flowing through the
resistor will vary in proportion to the supply voltage, that is the voltage and current waveforms are “in-
phase” with each other. Since the phase difference between the voltage waveform and the current
waveform is 0o, the phase angle resulting in cos 0o will be equal to 1.
Then the electrical power consumed by the resistor is given by:
Electrical Power in a Pure Resistor

.
The unit ‘watt’ is named after JamesWatt..
As the voltage and current waveforms are in-phase, that is both waveforms reach their peak values at
the same time, and also pass through zero at the same time, the power equation above reduces down
to just: V*I. Therefore the the power at any instant can be found by multiplying together the two
waveforms to give the volt-ampere product. This is called the “Real Power”, (P) measured in watts, (W),
Kilowatt (kW), Megawatt (MW), etc.
AC Power Waveforms for a Pure Resistor

The diagram shows the voltage, current and corresponding power waveforms. As the voltage and
current waveforms are both in-phase, during the positive half-cycle, when the voltage is positive, the
current is also positive so the power is positive, as a positive times a positive equals a positive. During
the negative half-cycle, the voltage in negative, so to is the current resulting in the power being positive,
as a negative times a negative equals a positive.
Then in a purely resistive circuit, electrical power is consumed ALL the time that current is
flowing through the resistor and is given as: P = V*I = I2R watts. Note that both V and I can be
their rms values where: V = I*R and I = V/R
Question:
An instantaneous current, i =250sinωt mA flows through a pure resistance of 5kohms . Find the power
dissipated in the resistor.

Solution
Power dissipated, P =I 2R
where I is the r.m.s. value of current.
If i =250sinωt mA, then Im=0.250A i.e (250/1000 A) and
r.m.s. current, I =(0.707×0.250)A.
Hence,
power P=(0.707×0.250)2(5000)=156.2watts
Class work: What is rms value of current and for voltage?

AC Power in a Purely Inductive Circuit

In a purely inductive (that is infinite capacitance, C = ∞ and zero resistance, R = 0) circuit of L Henries,

purely inductive coil, a “back” emf is produced by the coil due to its self-inductance. This self-
the voltage and current waveforms are not in-phase. Whenever a changing voltage is applied to a

inductance opposes and limits any changes to the current flowing in the coil.
The effects of this back emf is that the current cannot increase immediately through the coil in-phase
with the applied voltage causing the current waveform to reach its peak or maximum value some time
after that of the voltage. The result is that in a purely inductive circuit, the current always “lags” (ELI)
behind the voltage by 90o (π/2) as shown.
Purely Inductive Circuit

The waveforms above shows us the instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current across a purely
inductive coil as a function of time. Maximum current, Imax occurs at one full quarter of a cycle (90o)
after the maximum (peak) value of the voltage. Here the current is shown with its negative maximum
value at the start of the voltage cycle and passes through zero increasing to its positive maximum value
when the voltage waveform is at its maximum value at 90o.
Thus as the voltage and current waveforms are no longer rising and falling together, but instead a
phase shift of 90o (π/2) is introduced in the coil, then the voltage and current waveforms are “out-of-
phase” with each other as the voltage leads the current by 90o. Since the phase difference between the
voltage waveform and the current waveform is 90o, then the phase angle resulting in cos 90o = 0.
Therefore the electrical power stored by a pure inductor, QL is given by
Real Power in a Pure Inductor

Clearly then, a pure inductor does not consume or dissipate any real or true power, but as we have
both voltage and current the use of cos(θ) in the expression: P = V*I*cos(θ) for a pure inductor is no
longer valid. The product of the current and the voltage in this case is imaginary power, commonly
called “Reactive Power”, (Q) measured in volt-amperes reactive, (VAr), Kilo-voltamperes reactive
(KVAr), etc.
Voltamperes reactive, VAr should not be confused with watts, (W) which is used for real power. VAr
represents the product of the volts and amperes that are 90o out-of-phase with each other. To identify
the reactive average power mathematically, the sine function is used. Then the equation for the average
reactive power in an inductor becomes:
Reactive Power in a Pure Inductor

Like real power (P), reactive power, (Q) also depends on voltage and current, but also the phase angle
between them. It is therefore the product of the applied voltage and the component part of the current
which is 90o out-of-phase with the voltage as shown.
AC Power Waveforms for a Pure Inductor

In the positive half of the voltage waveform between the angle of 0o and 90o, the inductor current is
negative while the supply voltage is positive. Therefore, the volts and ampere product gives a negative
power as a negative times a positive equals a negative. Between 90o and 180o, both current and
voltage waveforms are positive in value resulting in positive power. This positive power indicates that
the coil is consuming electrical energy from the supply.

In the negative half of the voltage waveform between 180o and 270o, there is a negative voltage and
positive current indicating a negative power. This negative power indicates that the coil is returning the
stored electrical energy back to the supply. Between 270o and 360o, both the inductors current and the
supply voltage are both negative resulting in a period of positive power.
Then during one full-cycle of the voltage waveform we have two identical positive and negative pulses
of power whose average value is zero so no real power is used up since the power alternately flows to
and from the source. This means then that the total power taken by a pure inductor over one full-
cycle is zero, so an inductors reactive power does not perform any real work.
AC Power in a Purely Capacitive Circuit

A purely capacitive (that is zero inductance, L = 0 and infinite resistance, R = ∞) circuit of C Farads,
has the property of delaying changes in the voltage across it. Capacitors store electrical energy in the
form of an electric field within the dielectric so a pure capacitor does not dissipate any energy but
instead stores it.
In a purely capacitive circuit the voltage cannot increase in-phase with the current as it needs to
“charge-up” the capacitors plates first. This causes the voltage waveform to reach its peak or maximum
value some time after that of the current. The result is that in a purely capacitive circuit, the current
always “leads” (ICE) the voltage by 90o (ω/2) as shown.
Purely Capacitive Circuit

The waveform shows us the voltage and current across a pure capacitor as a function of time.
Maximum current, Im occurs a one full quarter of a cycle (90o) before the maximum (peak) value of the
voltage. Here the current is shown with its positive maximum value at the start of the voltage cycle and
passes through zero, decreasing to its negative maximum value when the voltage waveform is at its
maximum value at 90o. The opposite phase shift to the purely inductive circuit.
Thus for a purely capacitive circuit, the phase angle θ = -90o and the equation for the average reactive
power in a capacitor becomes:
Reactive Power in a Pure Capacitor

Where –V*I*sin(θ) is a negative sine wave. Also the symbol for capacitive reactive power is QC with the
same unit of measure, the volt-ampere reactive (VAR) as that of the inductor. Then we can see that just
like a purely inductive circuit above, a pure capacitor does not consume or dissipate any real or true
power, P.
AC Power Waveforms for a Pure Capacitor
In the positive half of the voltage waveform between the angle of 0o and 90o, both the current and
voltage waveforms are positive in value resulting in positive power being consumed. Between 90o and
180o, the capacitor current is negative and the supply voltage is still positive. Therefore, the volt-ampere
product gives a negative power as a negative times a positive equals a negative. This negative power
indicates that the coil is returning stored electrical energy back to the supply.
In the negative half of the voltage waveform between 180o and 270o, both the capacitors current and
the supply voltage are negative in value resulting in a period of positive power. This period of positive
power indicates that the coil is consuming electrical energy from the supply. Between 270o and 360o,
there is a negative voltage and positive current indicating once again a negative power.
Then during one full-cycle of the voltage waveform the same situation exists as for the purely inductive
circuit in that we have two identical positive and negative pulses of power whose average value is zero.
Thus the power delivered from the source to the capacitor is exactly equal to the power returned to the
source by the capacitor so no real power is used up since the power alternately flows to and from the
source. This means then that the total power taken by a pure capacitor over one full-cycle is
zero, so the capacitors reactive power does not perform any real work.
Power in Combined R-L, R-C, R-L-C Circuits.
For an R–L, R–C or R–L–C series a.c. circuit, the average power P is given by:
P = VI cosφ watts
or P = I2R watts
Series Resistance-Capacitance Circuit

Series Resistance-Indictance Circuit

In the RL series circuit above, we can see that the current is common to both the resistance and the
inductance while the voltage is made up of the two component voltages, VR and VL. The resulting
voltage of these two components can be found either mathematically or by drawing a vector diagram.
To be able to produce the vector diagram a reference or common component must be found and in a
series AC circuit the current is the reference source as the same current flows through the resistance
and the inductance. The individual vector diagrams for a pure resistance and a pure inductance are
given as:
Vector Diagrams for the Two Pure Components

Voltage and current in a resistive circuit are both in phase and therefore vector VR is drawn
superimposed to scale onto the current vector. Also from above it is known that the current lags the
voltage in an AC inductance (pure) circuit therefore vector VL is drawn 90o in front of the current and to
the same scale as VR as shown.
Vector Diagram of the Resultant Voltage

From the vector diagram above, we can see that line OB is the horizontal current reference and line OA
is the voltage across the resistive component which is in-phase with the current. Line OC shows the
inductive voltage which is 90o in front of the current therefore it can still be seen that the current lags the
purely inductive voltage by 90o. Line OD gives us the resulting supply voltage. Then:
V equals the r.m.s value of the applied voltage.
I equals the r.m.s. value of the series current.
VR equals the I.R voltage drop across the resistance which is in-phase with the current.
VL equals the I.XL voltage drop across the inductance which leads the current by 90o.

As the current lags the voltage in a pure inductance by exactly 90o the resultant phasor diagram drawn
from the individual voltage drops VR and VL represents a right angled voltage triangle shown above as
OAD. Then we can also use Pythagoras theorem to mathematically find the value of this resultant
voltage across the resistor/inductor ( RL ) circuit.
As VR = I.R and VL = I.XL the applied voltage will be the vector sum of the two as follows:

The RL Impedance Triangle

Question:
A series circuit of resistance 60 ohms and inductance 75mH is connected to a 110V, 60Hz supply.
Calculate the power dissipated.

Solution:
Example:
A solenoid coil with a resistance of 30 ohms and an inductance of 200mH is connected to a 230VAC,
50Hz supply. Calculate: (a) the solenoids impedance, (b) the current consumed by the solenoid, (c) the
phase angle between the current and the applied voltage, and (d) the average power consumed by the
solenoid.

Solution:
Data given: R = 30Ω, L = 200mH, V = 230V and ƒ = 50Hz.
(a) Impedance (Z) of the solenoid coil:
(b) Current (I) consumed by the solenoid coil:

(c) The phase angle, θ:

(d) Average AC power consumed by the solenoid coil:

Series RLC Circuit

The series RLC circuit above has a single loop with the instantaneous current flowing through
the loop being the same for each circuit element. Since the inductive and capacitive reactance’s
XL and XC are a function of the supply frequency, the sinusoidal response of a series RLC
circuit will therefore vary with frequency, ƒ. Then the individual voltage drops across each circuit
element of R, L and C element will be “out-of-phase” with each other as defined by:

i(t) = Imax sin(ωt)

 The instantaneous voltage across a pure resistor, VR is “in-phase” with current
The instantaneous voltage across a pure inductor, VL “leads” the current by 90o
The instantaneous voltage across a pure capacitor, VC “lags” the current by 90o
Therefore, VL and VC are 180o “out-of-phase” and in opposition to each other.
For the series RLC circuit above, this can be shown as:

the amplitude of the source voltage across all three components in a series RLC circuit is made
up of the three individual component voltages, VR, VL and VC with the current common to all
three components. The vector diagrams will therefore have the current vector as their reference
with the three voltage vectors being plotted with respect to this reference as shown below.
Individual Voltage Vectors

This means then that we can not simply add together VR, VL and VC to find the supply voltage,
VS across all three components as all three voltage vectors point in different directions with
regards to the current vector. Therefore we will have to find the supply voltage, VS as the
Phasor Sum of the three component voltages combined together vectorially.
Phasor Diagram for a Series RLC Circuit

We can see from the phasor diagram on the right hand side above that the voltage vectors
produce a rectangular triangle, comprising of hypotenuse VS, horizontal axis VR and vertical axis
VL – VC Hopefully you will notice then, that this forms our old favourite the Voltage Triangle and
we can therefore use Pythagoras’s theorem on this voltage triangle to mathematically obtain
the value of VS as shown.
Voltage Triangle for a Series RLC Circuit

But from ohm's law,

Hence

Please note that when using the above equation, the final reactive voltage must always be
positive in value, that is the smallest voltage must always be taken away from the largest
voltage we can not have a negative voltage added to VR so it is correct to have VL – VC or VC –
VL. The smallest value from the largest otherwise the calculation of VS will be incorrect.
The Impedance of a Series RLC Circuit
As the three vector voltages are out-of-phase with each other, XL, XC and R must also be “out-
of-phase” with each other with the relationship between R, XL and XC being the vector sum of
these three components. This will give us the RLC circuits overall impedance, Z. These circuit
impedance’s can be drawn and represented by an Impedance Triangle as shown below.
The Impedance Triangle for a Series RLC Circuit

Real Power in AC Circuits

Real power (P), also known as true or active power, performs the “real work” within an electrical circuit.
Real power, measured in watts, defines the power consumed by the resistive part of a circuit. Then real
power, (P) in an AC circuit is the same as power, P in a DC circuit. So just like DC circuits, it is always
calculated as I2*R, where R is the total resistive component of the circuit.

As resistances do not produce any phasor difference (phase shift) between voltage and current
waveforms, all the useful power is delivered directly to the resistance and converted to heat, light and
work. Then the power consumed by a resistance is real power which is fundamentally the circuits
average power.
To find the corresponding value of the real power the rms voltage and current values are multiplied by
the cosine of the phase angle, θ as shown.
Real Power P = I2R = V*I*cos(θ) Watts, (W)
But as their is no phase difference between the voltage and the current in a resistive circuit, the phase
shift between the two waveforms will be zero (0). Then:

Where real power (P) is in watts, voltage (V) is in rms volts and current (I) is in rms amperes.
Reactive Power in AC Circuits
Reactive power (Q), (sometimes called wattless power) is the power consumed in an AC circuit that
does not perform any useful work but has a big effect on the phase shift between the voltage and
current waveforms. Reactive power is linked to the reactance produced by inductors and capacitors
and counteracts the effects of real power. Reactive power does not exist in DC circuits.

Unlike real power (P) which does all the work, reactive power (Q) takes power away from a circuit due
to the creation and reduction of both inductive magnetic fields and capacitive electrostatic fields,
thereby making it harder for the true power to supply power directly to a circuit or load.
The power stored by an inductor in its magnetic field tries to control the current, while the power stored
by a capacitors electrostatic field tries to control the voltage. The result is that capacitors “generate”
reactive power and inductors “consume” reactive power. This means that they both consume and return
power to the source so none of the real power is consumed.
To find reactive power, the rms voltage and current values are multiplied by the sine of the phase angle,
θ as shown.
Reactive Power Q = I2X = V*I*sin(θ) volt-amperes reactive, (VAr’s)
As there is a 90o phase difference between the voltage and the current waveforms in a pure reactance
(either inductive or capacitive), multiplying V*I by sin(θ) gives a vertical component that is 90o out-of-
phase with each other, so
Where reactive power (Q) is in volt-amperes reactive, voltage (V) is in rms volts and current (I) is in rms
amperes.

Apparent Power in AC Circuits

We have seen above that real power is dissipated by resistance and that reactive power is supplied to a
reactance. As a result of this the current and voltage waveforms are not in-phase due to the difference
between a circuits resistive and reactive components.
Then there is a mathematical relationship between the real power (P), and the reactive power (Q),
called the complex power. The product of the rms voltage, V applied to an AC circuit and the rms
current, I flowing into that circuit is called the “volt-ampere product” (VA) given the symbol S and whose
magnitude is known generally as apparent power.
The three elements which make up power in an AC circuit can be represented graphically by the three
sides of a right-angled triangle, in much the same way as the previous impedance triangle. The
horizontal (adjacent) side represents the circuits real power (P), the vertical (opposite) side represents
the circuits reactive power (Q) and the hypotenuse represents the resulting apparent power (S), of the
power triangle as shown.
Power Triangle of an AC Circuit

Where:
P is the I2*R or Real power that performs work measured in watts, W
Q is the I2*X or Reactive power measured in volt-amperes reactive, VAr
S is the I2*Z or Apparent power measured in volt-amperes, VA
θ is the phase angle in degrees. The larger the phase angle, the greater the reactive power
Cos(θ) = P/S = W/VA = power factor, p.f.
Sin(θ) = Q/S = VAr/VA
Tan(θ) = Q/P = VAr/W
Power Factor in AC Circuits
Power factor, cos(θ), is an important part of an AC circuit that can also be expressed in terms of circuit
impedance or circuit power. Power factor is defined as the ratio of real power (P) to apparent power (S),
and is generally expressed as either a decimal value, for example 0.95, or as a percentage: 95%.
Power factor defines the phase angle between the current and voltage waveforms, were I and V are the
magnitudes of rms values of the current and voltage. Note that it does not matter whether the phase
angle is the difference of the current with respect to the voltage, or the voltage with respect to the
current. The mathematical relationship is given as:

We said previously that in a pure resistive circuit, the current and voltage waveforms are in-phase with
each other so the real power consumed is the same as the apparent power as the phase difference is
zero degrees (0o). So the power factor will be:
Power Factor, pf = cos 0o = 1.0
Then we can write the relationship between the real power, the apparent power and the circuits power
factor as:

Question:
A wound coil that has an inductance of 180mH and a resistance of 35Ω is connected to a 100V 50Hz
supply. Calculate: a) the impedance of the coil, b) the current, c) the power factor, and d) the apparent
power consumed.
Also draw the resulting power triangle for the above coil.
Solution:
Data given: R = 35Ω, L = 180mH, V = 100V and ƒ = 50Hz.
(a) Impedance (Z) of the coil:

(b) Current (I) consumed by the coil:

(c) The power factor and phase angle, θ:

(d) Apparent power (S) consumed by the coil:

(e) Power triangle for the coil:

Question:
A series RLC circuit containing a resistance of 12Ω, an inductance of 0.15H and a capacitor of 100uF
are connected in series across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the total circuit impedance, the circuits
current, power factor and draw the voltage phasor diagram.
Causes of low Power Factor
The main cause of low Power factor is Inductive Load. As in pure inductive circuit, Current lags 90°
from Voltage, this large difference of phase angle between current and voltage causes zero power
factor. Basically, all those circuit having Capacitance and inductance (except resonance circuit (or Tune
Circuit) where inductive reactance = capacitive reactance (XL = Xc), so the circuit becomes a resistive
circuit), power factor would be exist over there because Capacitance and inductance causes in
difference of phase angle (θ) between current and voltage.
There are a lot of disadvantages of low Pf and we must improve Pf .
Following are the causes of low Power factor:
1. Single phase and three phase induction Motors
2. Varying Load in Power System(As we know that load on power system is varying. During low
load period, supply voltage is increased which increase the magnetizing current which cause
the decreased power factor)
3. Industrial heating furnaces
4. Electrical discharge lamps (High intensity discharge lighting) Arc lamps (operate a very low
power factor)
5. Transformers
6. Harmonic Currents
Power factor correction
Power factor correction is the term given to a technology that has been used since the turn of the 20th
century to restore the power factor to as close to unity as is economically viable.
Thus, it comes as no surprise that one way to increase power factor is to add
capacitors to the system. This--and other ways of increasing power factor--are listed
below:
i. Installing capacitors (KVAR Generators):Installing capacitors decreases the magnitude of
reactive power (KVAR), thus increasing your power factor.
ii. Minimizing operation of idling or lightly loaded motors: We already talked about the fact
that low power factor is caused by the presence of induction motors. But, more specifically, low
power factor is caused by running induction motors lightly loaded.
iii.
iv. Avoiding operation of equipment above its rated voltage.
v. Replacing standard motors as they burn out with energy-efficient motors.

Benefits of power factor improvement

Environmental benefit: Reduction of power consumption due to improved energy efficiency. Reduced
power consumption means less greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel depletion by power stations.
i. Reduction of electricity bills
ii. Extra kVA available from the existing supply
iii. Reduction of I2R losses in transformers and distribution equipment
iv. Reduction of voltage drop in long cables.
v. Extended equipment life – Reduced electrical burden on cables and electrical components
Polyphase System
Polyphase System is a combination of two or more than two voltages having same magnitude and
frequency but displaced from each other by an equal electrical angle. As poly means, many (more than
one) and phase means windings or circuits. Each of them has a single alternating voltage of the same
magnitude and frequency.
The angular displacement between the adjacent voltages is called a Phase Difference and depends
upon the number of phases.

However, the above equation does not hold good for the two-phase system where the voltages are
displaced by an angle of 90 degrees electrical.
Thus, in other words, a Polyphase System can be defined as an AC system having a group of (two or
more than two) equal voltages of same frequency arranged to have an equal phase difference between
the adjacent EMFs.
Single phase systems are employed for the operation of almost all the domestic and commercial
applications. For examples – Fans, Televisions, Refrigerators, Washing machines, Mixer-grinder,
Computers, Exhaust Fans, Lamps, Electric Toasters, Electric Irons, etc. But the single phase system
has its limitations in the field of generation, transmission, distribution and industrial applications. Thus,
because of such limitations single phase system is replaced by Polyphase System.
Single phase System
The single phase requires two wires for completing the circuit, i.e., the conductor and the neutral. The
conductor carries the current and the neutral is the return path of the current. The single phase supplies
the voltage up to 230 volts. It is mostly used for running the small appliances like a fan, cooler, grinder,
heater, etc.

Three Phase Systems

The three phase system consist four wires, three conductors and one neutral. The conductors are out
of phase and space 120º apart from each other. The three phase system is also used as a single phase
system. For the low load, one phase and neutral can be taken from the three phase supply.
The three phase supply is continuous and never completely drops to zero. In three phase system
power can be drawn either in a star or delta configuration. The star connection is used for long distance
transmission because it has neutral for the fault current.

The delta connection consists three phase wires and no neutral.

Key Differences Between Single Phase and Three Phase

1. In single phase supply, the power flows through one conductor whereas the three phase supply
consists three conductors for power supply.
2. The single phase supply requires two wires (one phase and one neutral) for completing the
circuit. The three phase requires three phase wires and one neutral wire for completing the
circuit.
3. The single phase supplies the voltage up to 230V whereas the three phase supply carries the
voltage up to 415V.
4. The maximum power is transferred through three phases as compared to single phase supply.
5. The single phase has two wire which makes the network simple whereas the three phase
network is complicated as it consists four wires.
6. The single phase system has only one phase wire, and if the fault occurs on the network, then
the power supply completely fails. But in three phase system the network has three phases,
and if the fault occurs on any one of the phases, the other two will continuously supply the
power.
 7. The efficiency of the single phase supply is less as compared to three phase supply. Because
the three phase supply requires less conductor as compared to single phase supply for the
equivalent circuit.
8. The single phase supply requires more maintenance and become costly as compared to three
phase supply.
9. The single phase supply is mostly used in the house and for running the small loads. The three
phase supply is used in large industries and for running the heavy loads.

Phase Sequence in 3 phase systems

In three phase system, the order in which the voltages attain their maximum positive value is called
Phase Sequence. There are three voltages or EMFs in three phase system with the same magnitude,
but the frequency is displaced by an angle of 120 deg electrically.
Taking an example, if the phases of any coil are named as R, Y, B then the Positive phase sequence
will be RYB, YBR, BRY also called as clockwise sequence and similarly the Negative phase sequence
will be RBY, BYR, YRB respectively and known as an anti-clockwise sequence.

It is essential because of the following reasons:-

1. The parallel operation of three phase transformer or alternator is only possible when its phase
sequence is known.
2. The rotational direction of three phase induction motor depends upon its sequence of phase on
three phase supply and thus to reverse its direction the phase sequence of the supply given to
the motor has to be changed.

Advantages of 3 Phase Over Single Phase System

The three-phase system has three live conductors which supply the 440V to the large consumers.
While the single phase system has one live conductor which is used for domestic purposes. The
following are the main advantages of 3 Phase system over Single Phase system.
i. Higher Rating : The rating, i.e. the output of a three-phase machine is nearly 1.5 times the
rating (output) of a single phase machine of the same size.
ii. Constant Power: In single phase circuits, the power delivered is pulsating. Even when the
voltage and current are in phase, the power is zero twice in each cycle. Whereas, in the
 polyphase system, the power delivered is almost constant when the loads are in balanced
condition.
iii. Power Transmission Economics: The three phase system requires only 75% of the weight of
conducting material of that required by single phase system to transmit the same amount of
power over a fixed distance at a given voltage.
iv. Superiority of 3 Phase Induction Motors: The three Phase induction motors have a
widespread field of applications in the industries because of the following advantages are given
below.
v. Size and Weight of alternator: The 3 Phase Alternator is small in size and light in weight as
compared to a single phase alternator.
vi. Requirement of Copper and Aluminium: 3 Phase system requires less copper and
aluminium for the transmission system in comparison to a single phase transmission system.
vii. Frequency of Vibration: In 3 phase motor, the frequency of vibrations is less as compared to
single phase motor because in single phase the power transferred is a function of current and
varies constantly.
viii. Dependency: A single phase load can be efficiently fed by a 3 phase load or system, but 3
phase system cannot depend or feed by a single phase system.
ix. Torque: A uniform or constant torque is produced in a 3 phase system, whereas in a single
phase system pulsating torque is produced.
Generation of three-phase emf

Fig showing a section of 3 phase AC generator

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, we know that whenever a coil is rotated in a
magnetic field, there is a sinusoidal emf induced in that coil.
In a three – phase a.c. generator three coils are fastened rigidly together and displaced from each other
by 120o. It is made to rotate about a fixed axis in a uniform magnetic field. Each coil is provided with a
separate set of slip rings and brushes.
Now, we consider 3 coil C1(R-phase), C2(Y-phase) and C3(B-phase), which are displaced 1200 from
each other on the same axis. This is shown in fig. above. The coils are rotating in a uniform magnetic
field produced by the N and S poles in the counter clockwise direction with constant angular velocity.
According to Faraday’s law, an emf is induced in three coils. The emf induced in these three coils will
have phase difference of 1200. i.e. if the induced emf of the coil C1 has phase of 00, then induced emf in
the coil C2 lags that of C1 by 1200 and C3 lags that of C2 1200.

The above equation can be represented by their phasor diagram as in the figure below

Important definitions
Phase Voltage: It is defined as the voltage across either phase winding or load terminal. It is denoted
by Vph.
Phase voltage VRN, VYN and VBN are measured between R-N, Y-N, B-N for star connection and
between R-Y, Y-B, B-R in delta connection.
Line voltage: It is defined as the voltage across any two-line terminal. It is denoted by VL. Line voltage
VRY, VYB, VBR measure between R-Y, Y-B, B-R terminal for star and delta connection both.
 Three Phase Star Connection System Three Phase Delta Connection System

Phase current : It is defined as the current flowing through each phase winding or load. It is denoted
by Iph. Phase current IR(ph), IY(ph) and IB(Ph) measured in each phase of star and delta connection.
respectively.
Line current: It is defined as the current flowing through each line conductor. It denoted by IL. Line
current IR(line), IY(line), and IB((line) are measured in each line of star and delta connection.
Phase sequence:The order in which three coil emf or currents attain their peak values is called the
phase sequence. It is customary to denoted the 3 phases by the three colours. i.e. red (R), yellow (Y),
blue (B).
Balance System: A system is said to be balance if the voltages and currents in all phase are equal in
magnitude and displaced from each other by equal angles.
Unbalance System: A system is said to be unbalance if the voltages and currents in all phase are
unequal in magnitude and displaced from each other by unequal angles.
Balance load: In this type the load in all phase are equal in magnitude. It means that the load will have
the same power factor equal currents in them.
Unbalance load: In this type the load in all phase have unequal power factor and currents

Relation between line and phase values for voltage and current in case of balanced delta
connection.
For Delta (Δ) or Mesh connection, starting end of one coil is connected to the finishing end of
other phase coil and so on which giving a closed circuit.
Circuit Diagram
 Three Phase Delta Connection

• i.e. current in each line is vector difference of two of the phase currents.
Phasor Diagram of Three Phase Delta Connection
Relation between line and phase values for voltage and current in case of balanced star
connection.
In the Star Connection, the similar ends (either start or finish) of the three windings are connected to a
common point called star or neutral point.

Circuit Diagram of Three Phase Star Connection

Relation between line and phase voltage

• For delta connection,
• i.e. line voltage is vector difference of two of the phase voltages. Hence,

Phasor Diagram of Three Phase Star Connection

Measurement of power in balanced 3-phase circuit by two-watt meter method
This is the method for 3-phase power measurement in which sum of reading of two wattmeter gives
total power of system.
 Circuit Diagram of Power Measurement by Two-Watt Meter in Three Phase Star Connection

The load is considered as an inductive load and thus, the phasor diagram of the inductive load is drawn
below

Phasor Diagram of Power Measurement by Two-Watt Meter in Three Phase Star Connection

Thus, the sum of the readings of the two wattmeter is equal to the power absorbed in a 3phase
balanced system.
Determination of Power Factor from Wattmeter Readings
As we know that

Effect of power factor on wattmeter reading:

Measurement of Three Phase Power by One Wattmeter Method

Limitation of this method is that it cannot be applied on unbalanced load. So under this
condition we have:

Circuit diagram:

Two switches are given which are marked as 1-3 and 1-2, by closing the switch 1-3 we get
reading of wattmeter as

Similarly the reading of wattmeter when switch 1-2 is closed is

Question.
A 3-phase, 10 kVA load has a PF of 0.342. The power is measured by two wattmeter method. Find the
reading of each wattmeter when the PF is (i) Lagging and (ii) Leading

Solution:
 Transients
When a circuit possesses energy storing elements such as inductance and capacitance,
the energy state of the circuit can be disturbed by changing the position of the switch connecting the
elements to the source. There is a transitional period during which the branch current and element
voltages change from their former values to new ones.
This period is called the transient.

RC Circuit

Current and Voltage Growth in RC Circuit

Circuit diagram for charging a capacitor

Let us assume the capacitor is initially uncharged. When we push the switch, as the capacitor is
uncharged, no voltage gets developed across the capacitor, thus the capacitor will behave as short
circuit. At that moment the charge just starts accumulating in the capacitor. The current through the
circuit will only be limited by resistance R.
So, the initial current is V/R. Now gradually the voltage is being developed across the capacitor, and
this developed voltage is in the opposite of the polarity of the battery. As a result the current in the
circuit gets gradually decreased. When the voltage across the capacitor becomes equal and opposite of
the voltage of the battery, the current becomes zero. The voltage gradually increases across the
capacitor during charging. Let us consider the rate of increase of voltage across the capacitor is dv/dt at
any instant t. The current through the capacitor at that instant is

Applying, Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, in the circuit at that instant, we can write,

Integrating both side we get,

Now, at the time of switching on the circuit, voltage across the capacitor was zero. That means, v = 0 at
t = 0.
Putting these values in above equation, we get

After getting the value of A, we can rewrite the above equation as,
Now, we know that,

This is the expression of charging current I, during process of charging. The current and voltage of the
capacitor during charging is shown below

Here in the above figure, Io is the initial current of the capacitor when it was initially uncharged during
switching on the circuit and Vo is the final voltage after the capacitor gets fully charged.

Putting t = RC in the expression of charging current (as derived above), we get,

So at the time t = RC, the value of charging current becomes 36.7% of initial charging current (V / R =
Io) when the capacitor was fully uncharged. This time is known as the time constant of the capacitive
circuit with capacitance value C farad along with the resistance R ohms in series with the capacitor. The
value of voltage developed across that capacitor at the time constant is

Here Vo is the voltage finally developed across the capacitor after the capacitor is fully charged and it is
same as source voltage (V = Vo).

Current and Voltage Decay in RC Circuit

Let us connect a charged capacitor of capacitance C farad in series with a resistor of resistance R
ohms. We then short circuit this series combination through switching on the push switch as shown.
As soon as the capacitor is short circuited, it starts discharging.
Discharging means, the capacitor giving up the stored charge in it.
Let us assume, the voltage of the capacitor at fully charged condition is V volt. As soon as the capacitor
is short circuited, the discharging current of the circuit would be, – V / R ampere. But after the instant of
switching on that is at t = +0 the current through the circuit is

As per Kirchhoff’s’ Voltage Law, we get,

Integrating both sides, we get,

Where, A is the constant of integration and, at t = 0, v = V,

After, calculating value of A, we get,

We know form, KVL of the circuit,

If we plot these discharging current and voltage in graph, we get,

Hence the capacitor current exponentially reaches to zero from its initial value and the capacitor voltage
reaches exponentially to zero from its initial value during discharging.
Example 3.1: A 20mF capacitor is charged to a p.d of 400V and then discharged through a
100,000W resistor. Determine:
(a) the time constant
(b) the initial value of discharged current
Solution
(a) T = RC = 100 000 x 20 = 2s
100 000
(b) Initial value of discharge current is
V/R = 400/100 000 = 4mA
Example 3.2: An 8mF capacitor is connected in series with a 0.5MW resistor across a 200V
d.c supply. Calculate:
(a) the time taken for the P.d across the capacitor to grow to 160V:
(b) the current and the P.d across the capacitor 4s after it is connected to the supply
Solution
(a) T = RC = 0.5 x 106 x 8 x 10-6 = 4s

⇒ e-t/4 = 0.2
From v = V(1 – e-t/RC)

From mathematical table

t/4 = 1.61
\ t = 6.44s
(b) At t = 4s
v = 200(1 – e-4/4) = 200( 1 – 0.68) = 126.4V
and i = v/R e-t/RC
= 400 e-1 = 147mA

Example 3.3: A 15mF capacitor in series with a 10KW resistor is connected across a 300V
d.c supply. The fully charged capacitor is disconnected from the supply and is discharged by
connecting a 11200W resistor across it terminals. Determine (i) the initial value of the
charging current, and (ii) the initial value of the discharge current.

Solution
(i) Initial value of charging current, I0 = V/R = 300 = 30mA
10 x 103
(ii) The initial value of discharging current is given by
i = V/R, where R = 11200W
\ i = 300 = 26.7mA
11200

RL Circuit
Growth of current
Suppose in the beginning we close the switch in the up position as shown in below in the figure

Switch is now closed and battery E,inductance L and resistance R are now connected in series
Because of self induced emf current will not immediately reach its steady value but grows at a rate
depending on inductance and resistance of the c circuit
Let at any instant I be the c current in the circuit increasing from 0 to a maximum value at a rate of
increase dI/dt
Now the potential difference across the inductor is
Vop=LdI/dt
and across resistor is
Vpq=IR
Since
V=Vop+Vpq
so we have,

Thus rate of increase of current would be,

In the beginning at t=0 when circuit is first closed current begins to grow at a rate,

from the above relation we conclude that greater would be the inductance of the inductor, more slowly
the current starts to increase. When the current reaches its steady state value I ,the rate of increase of
current becomes zero then from equation (7) we have,
0=(V-IR)/L
or,
I=V/R
From this we conclude that final steady state current in the circuit does not depend on self inductance
rather it is same as it would be if only resistance is connected to the source
Now we will obtain the relation of current as a function of time Again consider equation (6) and
rearrange it so that

let V/R=Imax ,the maximum current in the circuit .so we have

Integrating equation (8) on both sides we have

where C is a constant and is evaluated by the value for current at t=0 which is i=0
so,
C=-ln(V/R)=-ln Imax ....................... putting this value of C in equation (9) we get,

This equation shows the exponential increase of current in the circuit with the passage of time

If we put t=τL=L/R is equation 10 then,

Hence, the time in which the current in the circuit increases from zero to 63% of the maximum value of
Imax is called the constant or the decay constant of the circuit.
For LR circuit, decay constant is,
τL=L/R
Again from eqn 8,

This suggests that rate of change current per sec depends on time constant.
Higher is the value of decay constant ,lower will be the rate of change of current and vice versa.

Decay of current
When the switch S is thrown down to b as shown below in the figure ,the L-R circuit is again closed and
battery is cut off

In this condition the current in the circuit begins to decay, Again from equation (8) since V=0 this time,
so the equation for decay is

Integrating on both sides

In this case initially at time t=0 current I=Imax so
C1=ln I0
Putting this value of C1 in equation (12)

Hence current decreases exponentially with time in the circuit in accordance with the above equation
after the battery are cutoff from the circuit.
Figure below shows the graph between current and time

If in equation (13)
t=τL=L/R
then
I=Imaxe-1=.37Imax
hence the time in which the current decrease from the maximum value to 37% of the maximum value
Imax is called the time constant of the circuit
Essense of connecting a resistor in parallel with an inductor.
Let us consider the circuit shown in figure above . A discharge resistor RD is connected in
parallel with the inductive circuit. When the switch S is connected to A, the current becomes E/R. When
the switch is moved to position B, the circuit is disconnected from the supply.
When the position of the switch is change from A to B, the circuit in the inductive circuit is switched off
and a voltage is induced in it. Arcing is produced at the time of charging the position of the switch and
there is a possibility of damaging the insulation because the induced voltage may be many times
greater than the applied voltage. To avoid this arcing, a discharge resistor RD is connected as shown
above

Example: A coil having a resistance of 4W and a constant inductance of 2H is switched

across a 20V d.c supply. Calculate:
(a) the time constant
(b) the final value of the current
Solution
(a) T = L/R = 2/4 = 0.5s
(b) I = V/R = 20/5 = 5A

Example: A coil having 10W resistance and 14H inductance is connected across a
d.c voltage of 140V. After the current has reached its final value, how much time it would
take for the current to reach a value of 8A after switching off the supply.
Solution
i = I e-t/T
where i = 8A, and T = L/R = 14/10 = 1.4s
and I = V/R = 140/10 = 14A

⇒ e-t/1.4 = 8/14
Then 8 = 14 e-t/1.4

so t = 0.783s

Magnetic Coupling
Magnetic Coupling
Magnetic coupling occurs, when there is no physical connection between two coils (or inductors). This
coupling can be of either aiding type or opposing type. It is based on whether the current enters at the
dotted terminal or leaves from the dotted terminal.
Coupling of Aiding type
Consider the following electrical equivalent circuit of transformer. It is having two coils and these are
called as primary and secondary coils.

The currents flowing through primary and secondary coils are i1 and i2 respectively. In this case, these
currents enter at the dotted terminal of respective coil. Hence, the induced voltage in each coil will be
having positive polarity at the dotted terminal due to the current flowing in another coil.
Apply KVL around primary coil.

eqn 1
Apply KVL around secondary coil.

eqn 2
In Equation 1 and Equation 2, the self-induced voltage and mutually induced voltage have the same
polarity. Hence, the above transformer circuit is an example of magnetic coupling, which is of aiding
type.

Coupling of Opposing Type

Consider the following electrical equivalent circuit of transformer.
The currents flowing through primary and secondary coils are i1 and i2 respectively. In this case, the
current, i1 enters at the dotted terminal of primary coil. Hence, it induces a voltage in secondary coil.
So, positive polarity of the induced voltage is present at the dotted terminal of this secondary coil.
In the above circuit, the current, i2 leaves from the dotted terminal of secondary coil. Hence, it induces
a voltage in primary coil. So, negative polarity of the induced voltage is present at the dotted terminal of
this primary coil.
Apply KVL around primary coil.

eqn 3
Apply KVL around secondary coil.

eqn 4

In Equation 3 and Equation 4, self-induced voltage and mutually induced voltage are having opposite
polarity. Hence, the above transformer circuit is an example of magnetic coupling, which is of opposing
type.
Mutual Inductance
Definition: Mutual Inductance between the two coils is defined as the property of the coil due to which it
opposes the change of current in the other coil, or you can say in the neighboring coil. When the
current in the neighboring coil is changing, the flux sets up in the coil and because of this changing flux
emf is induced in the coil called Mutually Induced emf and the phenomenon is known as Mutual
Inductance.
Coefficient Of Coupling
The fraction of magnetic flux produced by the current in one coil that links with the other coil is called
coefficient of coupling between the two coils. It is denoted by (k).
Two coils are taken coil A and coil B, When current flows through one coil it produces flux; the whole
flux may not link with the other coil coupled, and this is because of leakage flux by a fraction (k) known
as Coefficient Of Coupling.

k=1 when the flux produced by one coil completely links with the other coil and is called magnetically
tightly coupled.
k=0 when the flux produced by one coil does not link at all with the other coil and thus the coils are said
to be magnetically isolated.
Consider two magnetic coils A and B.
When current I1 flows through coil A.

Considering coil B in which current I2 flows

Multiplying equation (1) and (2)

Ideal Transformer
The transformer which is free from all types of losses is known as an ideal transformer. It is an
imaginary transformer which has no core loss, no ohmic resistance and no leakage flux. The ideal
transformer has the following important characteristic.
1. The resistance of their primary and secondary winding becomes zero.
2. The core of the ideal transformer has infinite permeability. The infinite permeable means less
magnetising current requires for magnetising their core.
3. The leakage flux of the transformer becomes zero, i.e. the whole of the flux induces in the core
of the transformer links with their primary and secondary winding.
4. The ideal transformer has 100 percent efficiency, i.e., the transformer is free from hysteresis
and eddy current loss.
The above mention properties are not possible in the practical transformer. In an ideal transformer,
there is no power loss. Therefore, the output power is equal to the input power.
Since El ∞ N2 and E1 ∞ N1, also E1 is similar to V1 and E2 is similar to V2 Therefore, transformation
ratio will be given by the equation shown below