CHEMISTRY OL (EDEXCEL) 4XCH1 (UNIT 1) NOTES

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Chapter name PAGE
1. Principles of chemistry

a States of matter 2

b Elements, compounds and mixtures 11

c Atomic structure 21

d The Periodic Table 25

e Chemical formulae, equations and calculations 30

2. Inorganic chemistry

a Reactivity series 55

b Extraction and uses of metals 65

c Acids, alkalis and titrations 68

d Acids, bases and salt preparation 77

3. Physical chemistry

a Energetics 84

4. Organic chemistry

a Introduction 96

b Crude oil 101

c Alkanes 107

d Alkenes 109

Periodic table 112

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Chapter one
Principles of chemistry
a) States of matter
Matter:
It is anything that occupies a volume and has mass.

States of matter
Matter exists in three forms: Solids, Liquids and Gases.

Diagram

Arrangement of
Regular arrangement Randomly arranged Randomly arranged
particles
Strong forces of Weaker attractive forces No intermolecular
Intermolecular forces
attraction than solids forces
Vibrate about a fixed Move quickly in all
Movement of particles Slide over each other
position directions
Closeness of particles Very close Close Far apart
No fixed volume
Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume Expand or compress to
fill the container
Density High Moderate to high Low
No definite shape No definite shape
Shape Definite shape Takes the shape of the Takes the shape of the
container container
Fluidity Does not flow Generally flows easily Flows easily

Changes of state
Each state responds differently to change in temperature and pressure.

When temperature increases the volume increases (expansion occurs) and vice versa.

The amount of energy needed to change state from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas depends on the strength
of the forces between the particles. The stronger the forces of attraction, the more energy that is needed to

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overcome them for a state change to occur. Therefore, the stronger the forces between the particles the higher
the melting point and boiling point of the substance.

When matter changes from one state to another due to changes in temperature or pressure, the change is called
an interconversion of state. It is a physical change involving changes in the forces between the particles of the
substances, the particles themselves remain the same, as do the chemical properties of the substance.

Physical changes are relatively easy to reverse as no new substance is formed during interconversions of state.

Melting

Melting is the process when a solid changes into a liquid.

Requires heat energy which transforms into kinetic energy, allowing the particles to move.

Occurs at a specific temperature known as the melting point (m.p.) which is unique to each pure solid.

Melting point is the temperature at which a solid turns into a liquid and it has the same value as the freezing
point.

Evaporation

Evaporation is the process when a liquid changes into a gas.

Evaporation occurs only at the surface of liquids where high energy particles can escape from the liquid’s
surface at low temperatures, below the boiling point (b.p.) of the liquid.

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The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid/surface, the more quickly a liquid can evaporate.
For most liquids evaporation occurs readily over a range of temperatures and without the need for heating as the
particles at the surface absorb heat from the surroundings. The addition of heat will accelerate the process and
boiling occurs if the temperature exceeds the boiling point of the liquid.

Boiling

Boiling is the process when a liquid changes into a gas.

Requires heat which causes bubbles of gas to form below the surface of a liquid, allowing for liquid particles to
escape from the surface and within the liquid.

Occurs at a specific temperature known as the boiling point (b.p.) which is unique to each pure liquid.

Boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid boils, when the pressure of the gas created above the liquid
equals atmospheric pressure.

Freezing

Freezing is the process when a liquid changes into a solid.

This is the reverse of melting and occurs at exactly the same temperature as melting, hence the melting point
and freezing point of a pure substance are the same. Water for example freezes and melts at 0ºC.

Requires a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of thermal energy) and occurs at a specific temperature
which is unique for each pure substance.

Condensation

Condensation is the process when a gas or vapor changes into a liquid, usually on cooling.

When a gas is cooled its particles lose energy and when they bump into each other, they lack energy to bounce
away again, instead grouping together to form a liquid.

No energy is required for condensation to occur and it takes place over a range of temperatures.

Sublimation

Sublimation is the process when a solid changes directly into a gas.

This happens to only a few solids such as iodine or solid carbon dioxide.

The reverse reaction also happens and is also called sublimation (sometimes called deposition or desublimation)

Sublimation occurs at a specific temperature which is unique for a pure substance.

Sublimation may be endothermic or exothermic according to the change.

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Diffusion
It is the process by which different fluids mix as a result of the random motion of their particles.

It is also defined as the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration as a result of their random movement until equilibrium is reached.

The rate of diffusion is most rapid in gases > liquids > solids.

Examples to prove diffusion:

1- Diffusion of Bromine
We can prove it by putting some bromine liquid in a cylinder and sealing it, then putting another inverted
cylinder above it. When the bromine liquid evaporates, we remove the lid between the two cylinders; the brown
bromine gas will diffuse upwards filling the available space.

2- Diffusion of potassium manganate:

We can also prove diffusion in liquids by a very simple experiment. Pour some water in a beaker, and then add
crystals of potassium manganate in the water. After a period of time, you will find that the pink color spread
throughout the water and turned it into full pink all over the solution.

Also applied if a dye is put in a beaker of water, it will spread as well because of diffusion.

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Dilution
When potassium magnate (VII) crystals are dissolved in water, the solution can be diluted several times.
The color fades but does not disappear until a lot of dilutions have been done.
This indicates that there are a lot of particles in a small amount of potassium manganate (VII) and therefore the
particles must be very small.

Diffusion and dilution provide evidence for the kinetic theory of matter.

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Solutions:

Solubility:
Solubility is a measurement of how much of a substance will dissolve in a given volume of a liquid.
Solubility of a gas depends on pressure and temperature.

Different substances have different solubilities.

Solubility can be expressed in g per 100 g of solvent.

Factors affecting solubility:

- Solubility of solids is affected by temperature.
• As temperature increases, solids usually become more soluble.
- Solubility of gases is affected by temperature and pressure.
• As pressure increases, gases become more soluble.
• As temperature increases, gases become less soluble.

Solubility Curves
Solubility graphs or curves represent solubility in g per 100 g of water plotted against temperature.
To plot a solubility curve, the maximum mass of solute that can be dissolved in 100 g of water before a
saturated solution is formed, is determined at a series of different temperatures.

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Example:
Use the solubility curve to answer these questions:
1. Determine how much potassium nitrate will dissolve in 20 g of water at 50°C?
2. 200 cm3 of saturated lead (II) nitrate solution was prepared at a temperature of 90°C. What mass of lead
(II) nitrate crystals form if the solution was cooled to 40°C?

1. At 50°C, the solubility of potassium nitrate is 68 g per 100 g of water.

So scaling, 68 x (20 / 100) = 13.6 g of potassium nitrate will dissolve in 20 g of water.

2. Solubility of lead (II) nitrate at 90°C is 118 g / 100 g water, and 64 g / 100 g water at 40°C.
Therefore, for mass of crystals formed = 118 – 64 = 54 g (for 100 cm3 of solution).
However, 200 cm3 of solution was prepared, so total mass of lead (II) nitrate crystallized = 2 x 54 =
108 g.

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Practical: Investigation of the solubility of a solid in water at a specific temperature
Aim:
To measure the solubility of a salt at different temperatures.

Method:
-Prepare two beakers, one as a hot water bath and one as an ice bath.
-Using a small measuring cylinder, measure out 4 cm3 of distilled water into a boiling tube.
-On a balance weigh out 2.6 g of ammonium chloride and add it to the boiling tube.
-Place the boiling tube into the hot water bath and stir until the solid dissolves.
-Transfer the boiling tube to the ice bath and allow it to cool while stirring.
-Note the temperature at which crystals first appear and record it in a table of results.
-Add 1 cm3 of distilled water then warm the solution again to dissolve the crystals.
-Repeat the cooling process again noting the temperature at which crystals first appear.
-Continue the steps until a total of 10 cm3 of water has been added.

Results:

Graph:
Use the results to plot a solubility curve for ammonium chloride at different temperatures.
Solubility is on the y-axis and temperature is on the x-axis.

Conclusion:
The shape of the graph will allow to state how the solubility varies with temperature.

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b) Elements, compounds and mixtures

Element
A substance made of atoms that all contain the same number of protons (one type of atom) and cannot be split
into anything simpler by physical or chemical means.

There is a limited number of elements and all elements are found on the Periodic Table E.g. hydrogen, carbon,
nitrogen.

Compound
A pure substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined together.

The composition is always the same.

The formation involves a chemical reaction.

The properties are very different from the elements present in the compound.

There is an unlimited number of compounds.

Compounds cannot be separated into their elements by

physical means.

Can only be broken down by chemical reactions.

Example: copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4), calcium

carbonate (CaCO3), carbon dioxide (CO2).

Mixture
A combination of two or more substances (elements and/or compounds) that are not chemically combined.

The composition can be varied.

No chemical change takes place when they are made.

The properties of the substances making the mixture are still present.

Mixtures can be separated by physical methods such as filtration or evaporation.

Example: Sand and water, oil and water, sulphur powder and iron filings.

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Pure substance:
It is a substance that has no particles of any other substance mixed with it (i.e. impurities).

Impure substance (mixture):

It is a substance which is mixed with other unwanted substance(s) (unwanted substances are called impurities)
Impurities decrease the melting point and increase the boiling point of a substance, so as the amount of
impurities increase, the wider and bigger the change in melting and boiling points.

To check if a substance is pure, you have to check its melting point (if solid) and boiling point (if liquid or gas).

Pure substances have sharp boiling and melting points, while those of impure substances are ranging.
Example: Pure water (Boils at 100oC and freezes at 0oC).

Some liquids evaporate extremely quickly at room temperature and are said to be volatile liquids.
Example: Ethanol’s boiling point is 78oC.

Important notes:
• To know the state of matter at a certain temperature:
- Certain temperature ˂ Melting point and Boiling point → Solid
- Melting point ˂ Certain temperature ˂ Boiling point → Liquid
- Melting point and Boiling point ˂ Certain temperature → Gas

• Questions on the particle theory of matter show interconversion of states with a reversible arrow: ⇌, which
means that the process can go forwards and backwards.

Heating and cooling curves

Changing the state of a matter is a physical change and it is done by either heating or cooling (depending on the
kinetic particle theory).

Heating curves:
On heating, the particles of a solid start to vibrate faster and faster in their mean positions, and the solid begins
to expand.

Once the melting point is reached, the inter-molecular bonds

between the particles begin to breakdown.

The temperature of the substance at this point remains constant

until all the solid has turned into a liquid because the energy
received by the system is cancelled out by the energy used to
break intermolecular bonds.

Once all the solid has turned to liquid, the temperature starts to
rise again, and the liquid begins to expand until the boiling point
is reached.

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At the boiling point, the intermolecular bonds between the liquid molecules start to break down to form gas.

At the boiling point, the temperature of the substance remains constant until all of the liquid has vaporized since
the energy absorbed by the substance is cancelled by the energy used for the breakdown of intermolecular
bonds.

The following curve is obtained if this phenomenon is plotted - the heating curve:

Cooling curves:
On cooling, the particles of a gas move slower and slower and
the gas contracts.

The particles are now closer together, and inter-molecular bonds

start to form between them once the condensation point is
reached.

The temperature of the substance stops falling; the energy

released by bond formation cancels out the energy lost due to
cooling.

Once all the gas has turned into liquid, the temperature starts to
fall again, and the liquid begins to contract until the freezing
point is reached.

At the freezing point, inter-molecular bonds between the liquid molecules start to develop to form a solid.

At the freezing point, the temperature remains constant until all of the liquid has solidified since the energy
released due to bond formation cancels out the energy lost due to cooling.

The following curve is obtained if this phenomenon is plotted - the cooling curve:

Note:
The melting point in heating curve is itself the freezing point in the cooling curve.

The boiling point in heating curve is itself the condensation point in the cooling curve.

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Separation techniques
The choice of the method of separation depends on the nature of the substances being separated.

Mixtures

Solid/Solid Solid/Liquid Liquid/Liquid

Magnetic Soluble Insoluble Miscible Immiscible

Filtration Chromatography
Yes No Crystallization
Evaporation Decantation Simple distillation Separating funnel
Use different
Use magnet Evaporation Fractional
solvent Simple distillation
Crystallization distillation

Crystallization
Crystallization can be used to separate a solute from a solution. For example, it could be used to separate
sodium chloride from a sodium chloride solution. The solution is heated in an evaporating basin to boil off
some of the water until an almost saturated solution is formed. This can be tested by dipping a glass rod into the
solution and seeing if crystals form quickly on its surface when it is removed. The Bunsen burner is then turned
off and the crystals allowed to form as more water evaporates and the solution cools. The crystals can now be
removed from the mixture by filtration. They are then washed with distilled water to remove any impurities and
then allowed to dry.

Filtration
Used to separate an undissolved solid from a mixture of the solid and a liquid/solution (e.g. sand from a mixture
of sand and water). Centrifugation can also be used for this mixture.
Filter paper is placed in a filter funnel above another beaker, where the mixture of insoluble solid and liquid is
poured into the filter funnel. Filter paper will only allow small liquid particles to pass through in the filtrate.
Solid particles are too large to pass through the filter paper so will stay behind as a residue.

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Simple distillation
Used to separate mixtures of different boiling points such as a liquid and soluble solid from a solution (e.g.
water from a solution of saltwater) or a pure liquid from a mixture of liquids.
The solution is heated and pure water evaporates producing a vapor which rises through the neck of the round-
bottomed flask. The vapor passes through the condenser, where it cools and condenses, turning into pure water
which is collected in a beaker. After all the water is evaporated from the solution, only the solid solute will be
left behind.

Simple distillation can be used to separate the products of fermentation, such as alcohol and water.
However, more effective separation is to use fractional distillation where the liquids are closer to boiling point
and a higher degree of purity is required.

Fractional distillation
Used to separate two or more liquids with different boiling points that are miscible with one another (e.g.
ethanol and water from a mixture of the two).
The solution is heated to the temperature of the substance with the lowest boiling point. This substance will rise
and evaporate first, and vapors will pass through a condenser, where they cool and condense, turning into a
liquid that will be collected in a beaker.
All of the substance is evaporated and collected, leaving behind the other component(s) of the mixture.
For water and ethanol: Ethanol has a boiling point of 78ºC and water of 100ºC. The mixture is heated until it
reaches 78ºC, at which point the ethanol boils and distills out of the mixture and condenses into the beaker.
When the temperature starts to increase to 100ºC heating should be stopped. Water and ethanol are now
separated.

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An electric heater is safer to use when there are flammable liquids present.
The separation of the components in petroleum is achieved by fractional distillation on an industrial scale.
Fractional distillation of crude oil is not carried out in school laboratories due to the toxic nature of some of the
components of the crude oil, but it can sometimes be simulated using a synthetic crude oil made specially for
the demonstration.

Example:

Answer:
The correct answer is D because:
The difference in solubility in water means the first step is to make a solution.
The magnesium chloride will dissolve, but the solid calcium sulfate will be left behind.
The mixture is filtered to remove the calcium sulfate and then evaporated and crystallized to obtain magnesium
chloride crystals.

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Chromatography
(Paper Chromatography)
This technique is used to separate substances that have different solubilities in a given solvent (e.g. different
colored inks that have been mixed to make black ink).

Steps:
1. Draw a line with a pencil across a piece of chromatography paper; this line should be about 1 cm from the
bottom of the paper. Do not use a pen as the colors in the ink may move up the chromatography paper with the
solvent.
2. Put a spot (use a teat pipette or a capillary tube) of the mixture of dyes on the pencil line and allow it to dry.
3. Suspend the chromatography paper in a beaker that contains a small amount of solvent (mobile phase) so that
the bottom of the paper (stationary phase) goes into the solvent. It is important that the solvent is below the
pencil line so that the inks/colorings don’t just dissolve in the solvent.
4. Put a lid (such as a watch glass) on the beaker so that the atmosphere becomes saturated with the solvent.
This is to stop evaporation of the solvent from the surface of the paper.
5. When the solvent has moved up the paper to about 1 cm from the top, remove the paper from the beaker and
draw a pencil line to show where the solvent got to. The highest level of the solvent on the paper at any time is
called the solvent front.
6. Leave the paper to dry so that all the solvent evaporates.

Which solvent you use depends on what substances are present in the mixture. A suitable solvent is usually
found by experimenting with different ones.
The dyes that make up the mixture will be different in two important ways:
a. The affinity they have for the paper (how well they ‘stick’ to the paper)
b. How soluble they are in the solvent which moves up the paper.

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Interpret Simple Chromatograms:
If two or more substances are the same, they will produce identical chromatograms.
It is common practice to include a known compound as a reference spot.
This can help match up to an unknown spot or set of spots in order to identify it.
If the substance is a mixture, it will separate on the paper to show all the different components as separate spots.
An impure substance will show up with more than one spot, a pure substance should only show up with one
spot.

Retention Factor (Rf) Values:

These values are used to identify the components of mixtures where the Rf value of a particular compound is
always the same.
Calculating the Rf value allows chemists to identify unknown substances because it can be compared with Rf
values of known substances under the same conditions.
Calculation:
The formula to calculate the retention factor is:

The Rf value is a ratio and therefore has no units

The Rf value will always lie between 0 and 1; the closer it is to 1, the more soluble is that component in the
solvent.

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Example:

Answer:
The correct answer is C because:
Soluble solids are separated by gently heating the solution until the solvent evaporates and the solid crystallizes.
Notice the question asks for the separation of the solid, not the liquid from the solution. If it asked for the
liquid, B would be the correct answer.

Note:
Paper chromatography is the name given to the overall separation technique.
Chromatogram is the name given to the visual output of a chromatography run. This is the piece of
chromatography paper with the visibly separated components after the run has finished.

Practical: Investigate paper chromatography using inks & food colorings:

Objective:
Investigate how paper chromatography can be used to separate and identify a mixture of food colorings.

Hypothesis:
Rf values can be used to identify the components of an unknown mixture by comparison with Rf values of
known substances.

Materials:
A 250 cm3 beaker
A wooden spill
A rectangle of chromatography paper
Four known food colorings labelled A–D
An unknown mixture of food colorings labelled U
Five glass capillary tubes
Paper clip
Ruler & pencil

Method:
-Use a ruler to draw a horizontal pencil line 2 cm from the end of the chromatography paper.
-Use a different capillary tube to put a tiny spot of each coloring A, B, C and D on the line.
-Use the fifth tube to put a small spot of the unknown mixture U on the line.
-Make sure each spot is no more than 2-3 mm in diameter and label each spot in pencil.
-Pour water into the beaker to a depth of no more than 1 cm and clip the top of the chromatography paper to the
wooden spill. The top end is the furthest from the spots.

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-Carefully rest the wooden spill on the top edge of the beaker. The bottom edge of the paper should dip into the
solvent.
-Allow the solvent to travel undisturbed at least three quarters of the way up the paper.
-Remove the paper and draw another pencil line on the dry part of the paper as close to the wet edge as possible.
This is called the solvent front line.
-Measure the distance in mm between the two pencil lines. This is the distance travelled by the water solvent.
-For each of food color A, B, C and D; measure the distance in mm from the start line to the middle of the spot.

Results:
Record your results in a suitable table.

Evaluation:
The Rf values of food colors A, B, C and D should be compared to that for the unknown sample as well as a
visual comparison being made.

Conclusion:
The use of chromatography and Rf values is a viable method of identifying unknown mixtures given reference
material.

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c) Atomic structure
Atoms & Molecules

Atomic structure
Atoms are the smallest particles which constitute the elements.

Protons, Neutrons & Electrons

Each atom is made of subatomic particles called protons, neutrons and electrons.

It was also discovered that in the center of the atom, there is a nucleus which contains protons and neutrons.
Protons and neutrons are said to be nucleons, because together they make the nucleus.

Around the nucleus there are energy shells in which electrons are orbiting the nucleus very fast.

Their size is so tiny that we can’t really compare their masses in conventional units such as kilograms or grams,
so a unit called the relative atomic mass is used.

One relative atomic mass unit is equal to 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
All other elements are measured relative to the mass of a carbon-12 atom and since these are ratios, the relative
atomic mass has no units.
Hydrogen for example has a relative atomic mass of 1, meaning that 12 atoms of hydrogen would have exactly
the same mass as 1 atom of carbon.

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Each type of these subatomic particles has its own physical properties.

Important note:
The mass of the atom is located in the nucleus as the mass of the electrons is neglected (negligible).

The nucleus is positively charged.

The atom is neutrally charged since it has equal number of positive protons and negative electrons.

Defining Proton Number

The atomic number (or proton number) or Z is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

It is also the number of electrons present in an atom and determines the position of the element on the Periodic
Table.

Defining Nucleon Number

Nucleon number (or mass number) or A is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

The nucleon number minus the proton number gives you the number of neutrons of an atom.

Note that protons and neutrons can collectively be called nucleons.

The atomic number and mass number for every element is on the Periodic Table.

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Example:

This represents the helium atom:

Its symbol is He
Its mass number is 4
Its atomic number is 2
It has 2 protons, 2 neutrons (4-2) and 2 electrons

Note:
-Both the atomic number and the mass number are given on the periodic table, but it can be easy to confuse
them. Think MASS = MASSIVE as the mass number is always the bigger of the two numbers, the other
smaller one is thus the atomic / proton number.

-The number of protons of an unknown element can be calculated by using its mass number and number of
neutrons:

-The mass and atomic numbers can be used to find the number of neutrons in ions and atoms:

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Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons (atomic number) and
electrons but a different number of neutrons (mass number).

Relative atomic mass:

The average mass of a large number of atoms of an element is called the relative atomic mass (Ar). This
quantity takes into account the percentage of abundance of all the isotopes of an element which exists.

The strict definition of relative atomic mass (Ar) is:

“The average mass of naturally occurring atoms of an element on a scale where a carbon-12 atom has a mass of
exactly 12 units”.

So, in calculating relative atomic mass you must take into account the different isotopic masses of the same
elements, but also their % of abundance in the element.

Therefore, you need to know the percentage (%) of each isotope of an element in order to accurately calculate
the relative atomic mass.

Example:
The table shows information about the Isotopes in a sample of rubidium with 72% 85Rb and 28% 87Rb.
Use information from the table to calculate the relative atomic mass of this sample of Rubidium. Give your
answer to one decimal place.

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d) The periodic table

Elements are arranged on the Periodic table in order of increasing atomic number where each element has one
proton more than the element preceding it.

Hydrogen has 1 proton, helium has 2 protons, lithium has 3 etc.

The table is arranged in vertical columns called Groups (showing the number of electrons in the outer shell of
an atom) numbered I – VII with a final group called group 0 (instead of group 8) and in rows called Periods
which are numbered 1 – 7 (showing the number of energy shells and atom has).

Elements in the same group have the same amount of electrons in their outer shell, which gives them similar
chemical properties.

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The zigzag line separates metals from nonmetals with the nonmetals on the right. So, we can see that most of
the elements are metals.

Note:
The proton number is unique to each element and could be considered as an element’s “fingerprint”.
Electrons come and go during chemical processes but the proton number doesn’t change.

Metals and nonmetals:

We can use properties such as electrical conductivity and acid-base character to classify elements as metals or
non-metals where the vast majority of elements are metals.

Electron Build-Up & Structure

We can represent the structure of the atom in two ways: using diagrams called electron shell diagrams or by
writing out a special notation called the electronic configuration.

Electron shell diagrams

Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells (or energy levels) and each shell has a different amount of energy
associated with it.

The further away from the nucleus then the more energy a shell has.

Electrons occupy the shell closest to the nucleus which can hold only 2 electrons and which go in separately.
When a shell becomes full, electrons then fill the next shell.

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The second shell can hold 8 electrons and the third shell can hold 18 electrons and the electrons organize
themselves in pairs in these shells.

The outermost shell of an atom is called the valence shell and an atom is much more stable if it can manage to
completely fill this shell with electrons.

Electronic configuration
The arrangement of electrons in shells can also be explained using numbers.

There is a clear relationship between the outer shell electrons and how the Periodic Table is designed.
- The number of notations in the electronic configuration will show the number of shells of electrons the atom
has, showing the Period in which that element is in, i.e. the number of occupied electron shells is equal to the
period number.

- The last notation shows the number of outer electrons the atom has, showing the Group that element is in. i.e.
the number of outer shell electrons is equal to the group number in groups I to VIII.
Elements in the same Group have the same number of outer shell electrons (Valence electrons).
This rule holds true for all elements except helium; although is in group 0, it has only one shell, the first and
innermost shell, which holds only 2 electrons.

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Electronic configuration of the first twenty elements:

Note:
- Although the third shell can hold up to 18 electrons, the filling of the shells follows a more complicated
pattern after potassium and calcium. For these two elements, the third shell holds 8 and the remaining
electrons (for reasons of stability) occupy the fourth shell first before filling the third shell.

Electronic configuration and reactivity:

We can use the group number to predict how elements will react as the number of valence shell electrons in an
element influences how the element reacts.
Therefore, elements in the same group react similarly. By observing the reaction of one element from a group,
you can predict how the other elements in that group will react.

By reacting two or more elements from the same group and observing what happens in those reactions you can
make predictions about reactivity and establish trends in reactivity in that group; For example, lithium, sodium
and potassium are in group 1 and can all react with elements in group 7 to form an ionic compound.
The group 1 metals become more reactive as you move down the group while the group 7 elements show a
decrease in reactivity moving down the group.

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Noble gases

- The noble gases are in Group VIII (or Group 0).

- They are non-metals and have very low melting and boiling points.
- They are all monoatomic, colorless, nonflammable gases.
- The Group 0 elements all have full outer shells. This electronic configuration is extremely stable so
these elements are unreactive and are inert.
- Electronic configurations of the noble gases:
• He: 2
• Ne: 2,8
• Ar: 2,8,8
• Kr: 2,8,18,8
• Xe: 2,8,18,18,8

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e) Chemical formulae, equations and calculations

Formulae
Molecular Formulae
Element symbols
Each element is represented by its own unique symbol as seen on the Periodic Table, e.g. H is hydrogen.

Where a symbol contains two letters, the first one is always in capital letters and the other is small, e.g. sodium
is Na, not NA.

Atoms combine together in fixed ratios that will give them full outer shells of electrons.

The chemical formula tells you the ratio of atoms, e.g. H2O is a compound containing 2 hydrogen atoms which
combine with 1 oxygen atom.

The chemical formula can be deduced from the relative number of atoms present, e.g. If a molecule contains 3
atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of nitrogen then the formula would be NH3.

Diagrams or models can also be used to represent the chemical formula.

Chemical formulae
The structural formula tells you the way in which the atoms in a particular molecule are
bonded.

This can be done by either a diagram (displayed formula) or written (simplified structural formula).

The molecular formula tells you the actual number of atoms

of each element in one molecule of the compound or
element e.g. H2 has 2 hydrogen atoms, HCl has 1 hydrogen
atom and 1 chlorine atom.

Example: Butane

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Deducing formulae by Combining power (valency)
The concept of valency is used to deduce the formulae of compounds (either molecular compounds or ionic
compounds).

Valency or combining power tells you how many bonds an atom can make with another atom or how many
electrons its atoms lose, gain or share, to form a compound e.g. carbon is in Group IV so a single carbon atom
can make 4 single bonds or 2 double bonds.

The following valencies apply to elements in each group.

Example:
Aluminum sulfide

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Empirical Formulae
The molecular formula is the formula that shows the number and type of each atom in a molecule. e.g. the
molecular formula of ethanoic acid is C2H4O2.

The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element present in one molecule
or formula unit of the compound e.g. the empirical formula of ethanoic acid is CH2O.

Organic molecules, such as ethanoic acid, often have different empirical and molecular formulae.

The formula of an ionic compound is always an empirical formula.

Deducing Formulae of Ionic Compounds:

The formulae of these compounds can be calculated if you know the charge on the ions

The Periodic Table can help work out the charge on many elements:
Group I elements form ions with a 1+ charge
Group II elements form ions with a 2+ charge
Group III elements form ions with a 3+ charge
Group V elements form ions with a 3- charge
Group VI elements form ions with a 2- charge
Group VII elements form ions with a 1- charge

Below are some other common ions and their charges

Note that a Roman numeral next to the element tells you the charge on the ion, e.g. copper(II) ions have a
charge 2+

There are several common compound ions included in the table. Some chemists call these polyatomic ions.

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The overall sum of the charges of an ionic compound should be 0. You therefore need to work out the ratio of
the ions to ensure this is the case.

When you write the formula of a compound ion it is necessary to use brackets around the compound ion where
more than one of that ion is needed in the formula. For example copper(II) hydroxide is Cu(OH)2

Example
Sodium bromide

Aluminum fluoride

Aluminum oxide

Magnesium nitrate

Finding formulae from the structure of compounds

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The names of compounds

Naming ionic compounds:

Naming covalent compounds:

Writing Word Equations & Symbol Equations

Word equations
These show the reactants and products of a chemical reaction using their full chemical names.

The arrow (which is spoken as “goes to” or “produces”) implies the conversion of reactants into products.

Reaction conditions or the name of a catalyst can be written above the arrow.

An example of a word equation for neutralization is:

sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water
The reactants are sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid while the products are sodium chloride and water.

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Writing and balancing chemical equations

Chemical equations use the chemical symbols of each reactant and product.

These are the steps to follow, when writing an equation:

1 Write the equation in words.

2 Now write it using symbols. Make sure all the formulae are correct.
Note that:
The following non-metals must be written as diatomic molecules (i.e. molecules that contain two atoms): H2,
N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2.

3 Check that the equation is balanced, for each type of atom in turn.
When balancing equations, there needs to be the same number of atoms of each element on either side of the
equation.
Work across the equation from left to right, checking one element after another.
When balancing equations, you cannot change any of the formulae, only the amount of each atom or molecule.
This is done by changing the numbers that go in front of each chemical species (Left to it).
If there is a group of atoms, for example a nitrate group (NO3-) that has not changed from one side to the other,
then count the whole group as one entity rather than counting the individual atoms.

4 Add the state symbols.

State symbols
State symbols are written after each formula in chemical equations to show which physical state each substance
is in.
Brackets are used and they are not usually subscripted although you may come across them written in this way.
Aqueous should remind you of the word 'aqua' and means the substance is dissolved in water. In other words, it
is a solution.

Sometimes it can be hard to know what the correct state symbol is and we have to look for clues in the identity
of substances in a reaction.
Generally, unless they are in a solution:
Metal compounds will always be solid, although there are a few exceptions.
Ionic compounds will usually be solids.
Non-metal compounds could be solids, liquids or gases, so it depends on chemical structure.
Precipitates formed in solution count as solids.

Note:
Be careful when writing the state symbol of solutions of liquids. For example, ethanol, or common alcohol, is a
liquid at room temperature, so if it is pure alcohol, then you would be using (l) as the state symbol; but most of
the time alcohol is used as a solution in water so (aq) is symbol to use.

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Example 1: Calcium burns in chlorine to form calcium chloride, a solid. Write an equation for the reaction,
using the steps above.
1 calcium + chlorine → calcium chloride
2 Ca + Cl2 → CaCl2
3 Ca: 1 atom on the left and 1 atom on the right. Cl: 2 atoms on the left and 2 atoms on the right. Therefore, the
equation is balanced.
4 Ca(s) + Cl2(g) → CaCl2(s)

Example 2: Hydrogen chloride is formed by burning hydrogen in chlorine. Write an equation for the reaction.
1 hydrogen + chlorine → hydrogen chloride
2 H2 + Cl2 →HCl
3 H: 2 atoms on the left and 1 atom on the right. Cl: 2 atoms on the left and 1 atom on the right.
The equation is not balanced. It needs another molecule of hydrogen chloride on the right. So a 2 is put in front
of the HCl.
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
The equation is now balanced.
4 H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)

Balancing Ionic Equations

In aqueous solutions ionic compounds dissociate into their ions, meaning they separate into the component ions
that formed them e.g. hydrochloric acid and potassium hydroxide dissociate as follows:

It is important that you can recognize common ionic compounds and their constituent ions. These include:
Acids such as HCl and H2SO4
Group I and Group II hydroxides e.g. sodium hydroxide
Soluble salts e.g. potassium sulfate, sodium chloride

Example:
Write the ionic equation for the reaction of aqueous chlorine and aqueous potassium iodide.

Examples of chemical equations:

Acid-base neutralization reaction:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ⟶ NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Redox reaction:
2Fe2O3(aq) + 3C(s) ⟶ 4Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

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Relative Masses of atoms and molecules

Relative Atomic Mass

The symbol for the relative atomic mass is Ar.

The relative atomic mass for each element can be found in the Periodic Table along with the atomic number.

The relative atomic mass is shown underneath the atomic symbol and is larger than the atomic number (except
for hydrogen where they are the same).

Atoms are too small to accurately weigh but scientists needed a way to compare the masses of atoms. The
carbon-12 is used as the standard atom and has a fixed mass of 12 units. It is against this atom which the masses
of all other atoms are compared.

Relative atomic mass (Ar) can therefore be defined as:

The average mass of the isotopes of an element compared to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of C.
The relative atomic mass of carbon is 12. The relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24 which means that
magnesium is twice as heavy as carbon. The relative atomic mass of hydrogen is 1 which means it has one
twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom.

Relative molecular (formula) mass

The symbol for the relative molecular mass is Mr and it refers to the total mass of the molecule.
To calculate the Mr of a substance, you have to add up the relative atomic masses of all the atoms present in the
formula.
Relative formula mass is used when referring to the total mass of an ionic compound.

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Reacting masses
Two laws of chemistry
1 Elements always react in the same ratio, to form a given compound
The ratio of the mass of calcium and oxygen reacting will always be the same, regardless of the units. e.g. 80 g
of calcium will react with 32 g of oxygen to form 112 g of calcium oxide. Or, 40 tonnes of calcium will react in
excess oxygen to form 56 tonnes of calcium oxide.

2 The total mass does not change, during a chemical reaction

So total mass of reactants = total mass of products.
The Law of Conservation of mass tells us that mass cannot be created or destroyed.

In a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants equals the total mass of the products.

We can use this, along with relative atomic/formula masses to perform calculations to identify the quantities of
reactants or products involved in a chemical reaction.

Example:
1) 2Ca + O2 → 2CaO
Relative atomic masses: Ca = 40; O = 16
Using the balanced symbol equation shows that 2 x 40 = 80 units of mass of calcium react with 2 x 16 = 32
units of mass of oxygen to form 2 x (40 + 16) = 112 units of mass of CaO:
2Ca + O2 → 2CaO
80 + 32 = 112

2) Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide produced when 32 g of methane, CH4, reacts completely in excess
oxygen:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
Relative atomic masses, Ar: H = 1; C = 12; O = 16
In terms of relative mass the equation is:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
12 +(4 x 1) + 2 x (2 x 16) → 12 + (2 x 16) + 2 x (2x1+16)
16 + 64 → 44 + 36
So 16 g of methane would react in excess oxygen to form 44 g of carbon dioxide.
Therefore, 32 g of methane would produce 44 x 2 = 88 g of carbon dioxide.

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The mole and Avogadro’s constant

Mole:
Chemical amounts are measured in moles.

The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance.

One mole of a substance contains the same number of the stated particles, atoms, molecules, or ions as one mole
of any other substance.

A mole of a substance is the amount that contains the same number of units as the number of carbon
atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12.

One mole contains 6.02 x 1023 particles (e.g. atoms, ions, molecules); this number is known as the Avogadro
Constant
Example:
One mole of sodium (Na) contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms of sodium
One mole of hydrogen (H2) contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules of hydrogen
One mole of sodium chloride (NaCl) contains 6.02 x 1023 formula units of sodium chloride

The mass of 1 mole of a substance is known as the molar mass.

For an element, it is the same as the relative atomic mass written in grams.
For a compound it is the same as the relative formula mass or relative molecular mass in grams.

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Linking Moles, Mass & Mr

You can find the mass of one mole of any substance by these steps:
1 Write down the symbol or formula of the substance.
2 Find its Ar or Mr.
3 Express that mass in grams (g).

Example 1: Calculate the mass of 0.5 moles of bromine atoms.

The Ar of bromine is 80, so 1 mole of bromine atoms has a mass of 80 g. So 0.5 moles of bromine atoms have a
mass of 0.5 x 80 g, or 40 g.

Example 2: Calculate the mass of 0.5 moles of bromine molecules.

A bromine molecule contains 2 atoms, so its Mr is 160. So 0.5 moles of bromine molecules have a mass of 0.5 x
160 g, or 80 g.

Example 3: How many moles of oxygen molecules are in 64 g of oxygen?

The Mr of oxygen is 32, so 32 g of it is 1 mole. Therefore 64 g is 64/32 moles, or 2 moles of oxygen molecules.

Calculating masses from equations

These are the steps to follow:
1 Write the balanced equation for the reaction. (It gives moles.)
2 Write down the Ar or Mr for each substance that takes part.
3 Using Ar or Mr, change the moles in the equation to grams.
4 Once you know the theoretical masses from the equation, you can then find any actual mass.

Example: Hydrogen burns in oxygen to form water. What mass of oxygen is needed for 1 g of hydrogen, and
what mass of water is obtained?
1 The equation for the reaction is: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l)
2 Ar: H = 1, O = 16. Mr: H2 = 2, O2 = 32, H2O = 18.
3 So, for the equation, the amounts in grams are:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l)
2x2g + 32 g → 2 x 18 g
4g + 32 g → 36 g
4 But you start with only 1 g of hydrogen, so the actual masses are:
1g 32/4 g 36/4 g or
1g 8g 9g
So 1 g of hydrogen needs 8 g of oxygen to burn, and gives 9 g of water.

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Working out equations from masses
If you know the actual masses that react, you can work out the equation for the reaction. Just change the masses
to moles.

Example: Iron reacts with a solution of copper (II) sulfate (CuSO4) to give copper and a solution of iron sulfate.
The formula for the iron sulfate could be either FeSO4 or Fe2(SO4)3. 1.4 g of iron gave 1.6 g of copper.
Write the correct equation for the reaction.
1 Ar: Fe = 56, Cu = 64.
2 Change the masses to moles of atoms: 1.4/56 moles of iron atoms gave 1.6/64 moles of copper atoms, or
0.025 moles of iron atoms gave 0.025 moles of copper atoms, so 1 mole of iron atoms gave 1 mole of copper
atoms.
3 So the equation for the reaction must be:
Fe + CuSO4 → Cu + FeSO4
4 Add the state symbols to complete it:
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → Cu(s) + FeSO4(aq)

Linking Moles, Avogadro’s number and number of particles

Example: In 15.7 g of water (Mr = 18):

a. How many molecules are there?
b. How many atoms are there?

Answer - part a
The molar mass of water is 18 g/mol
The number of moles is found by mass ÷ molar mass
This comes to 15.7 g ÷ 18 g/mol = 0.872 mol
There are 6.02 x 1023 molecules of water in 1 mole of water
In 0.872 moles of water, there are 6.02 x 1023 x 0.872 = 5.25 x 1023 molecules

Answer - part b
In each molecule of water there are 3 atoms (2 hydrogen atoms, one oxygen atom)
The number of atoms in 15.7 g = 3 x 5.25 x 1023 = 1.58 x 1024 atoms

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Limiting Reactants
A chemical reaction stops when one of the reactants is used up.

The reactant that is used up first is the limiting reactant, as it limits the duration and hence the amount of
product that a reaction can produce.

The amount of product is therefore directly proportional to the amount of the limiting reactant added at the
beginning of a reaction.

The limiting reactant is the reactant which is not present in excess in a reaction.

In order to determine which reactant is the limiting reactant in a reaction, we have to consider the ratios of each
reactant in the balanced equation.

When performing reacting mass calculations, the limiting reactant is always the number that should be used as it
indicates the maximum possible amount of product.

The steps are:

1. Write the balanced equation for the reaction.
2. Calculate the moles of each reactant.
3. Compare the moles & deduce the limiting reactant.

Example:
9.2 g of sodium is reacted with 8.0 g of sulfur to produce sodium sulfide, Na2S. Which reactant is in excess and
which is the limiting reactant? Relative atomic masses (Ar): Na = 23; S = 32

Answer:
Step 1: Write the balanced equation and determine the molar ratio.
2Na + S → Na2S so the molar ratio of Na:S is 2:1
Step 2: Calculate the moles of each reactant.
Moles = Mass ÷ Molar Mass
Moles Na = 9.2 ÷ 23 = 0.40
Moles S = 8.0 ÷ 32 = 0.25
Step 3: Compare the moles.
To react completely 0.40 moles of Na requires 0.20 moles of S and since there are 0.25 moles of S, then S is in
excess. Na is therefore the limiting reactant.

The Mole & Volume of Gas

Avogadro’s Law states that at the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal amounts of gases occupy
the same volume of space.

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At room temperature and pressure, the volume occupied by one mole of any gas was found to be 24 dm3 or
24,000 cm3. This is known as the molar gas volume at RTP.

RTP stands for “room temperature and pressure” and the conditions are 20ºC and 1 atmosphere (atm).

From the molar gas volume the following formula triangle can be derived:

If the volume is given in cm3 instead of dm3, then divide by 24,000 instead of 24:

To find the volume of a gas

Volume = Moles x Molar Volume

To find the moles of a gas

Moles = Volume ÷ Molar Volume

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Calculating gas volumes from equations
From the equation for a reaction, you can tell how many moles of a gas take part. Then you can use Avogadro’s
Law to work out its volume.

In these examples, all volumes are measured at rtp.

Example 1: What volume of hydrogen will react with 24 dm3 of oxygen to form water?
1 The equation for the reaction is: 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
2 So 2 volumes of hydrogen react with 1 of oxygen, or 2 x 24 dm3 react with 24 dm3, so 48 dm3 of hydrogen
will react.

Example 2: When sulfur burns in air it forms sulfur dioxide. What volume of this gas is produced when 1 g of
sulfur burns? (Ar: S = 32.)
1 The equation for the reaction is: S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
2 32 g of sulfur atoms = 1 mole of sulfur atoms, so 1 g = 1/32 mole or 0.03125 moles of sulfur atoms.
3 1 mole of sulfur atoms gives 1 mole of sulfur dioxide molecules so 0.03125 moles give 0.03125 moles.
4 1 mole of sulfur dioxide molecules has a volume of 24 dm3 at rtp so 0.03125 moles has a volume of 0.03125
x 24 dm3 at rtp, or 0.75 dm3. So 0.75 dm3 (or 750 cm3) of sulfur dioxide are produced.

The concentration of a solution

A solid substance that dissolves in a liquid is called a solute, the liquid is called a solvent and the two when
mixed together form a solution.

Most chemical reactions occur between solutes which are dissolved in solvents, such as water or an organic
solvent.

Concentration simply refers to the amount of solute there is in a specific volume of the solvent.

The greater the amount of solute in a given volume, the greater the concentration.

The amount of solute can be expressed in grams or moles.

Typically, concentration is expressed in terms of the amount of substance in grams or moles dissolved in 1 dm3
of solution, therefore the units of concentration are either: g/dm3 or mol/dm3.

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Calculating Concentration
Concentration refers to the amount of solute there is in a specific volume of the solvent.

Finding the concentration in g/dm3

Concentration can be measured in grams per cubic decimeter.

1 decimetre cubed (dm3) = 1000 cm3.

1 decimetre cubed (dm3) is the same as 1 litre.
You may be given data in a question which needs to be converted from cm3 to dm3 or the other way around.
To go from cm3 to dm3: Divide by 1000
To go from dm3 to cm3: Multiply by 1000

Example:
A student dissolved 10 g of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, in 2 dm3 of distilled water. Calculate the concentration
of the solution in g/dm3

Finding the concentration in moles

It is more useful to a chemist to express concentration in terms of moles per unit volume rather than mass per
unit volume.

Concentration can therefore be expressed in moles per decimeter cubed and calculated using the following
equation:

We can modify the concentration formula to include moles.

The units in the answer can be written as mol/dm3 (this can also be written as mol dm-3).

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You may have to convert from g/dm3 into mol/dm3 and vice versa depending on the question.
To go from g/dm3 to mol/dm3: Divide by the molar mass in grams.
To go from mol/dm3 to g/dm3: Multiply by the molar mass in grams.

Example 1:
Calculate the concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, in mol/dm3, when 80 g is dissolved in
500 cm3 of water. Relative atomic masses, Ar: Na= 23; H= 1; O= 16

Example 2:
25.0 cm3 of 0.050 mol/dm3 sodium carbonate was completely neutralized by 20.00 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric
acid. Calculate the concentration in mol/dm3 of the hydrochloric acid.

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Finding the amount of solute

Example:
Calculate the amount of solute, in moles, present in 2.5 dm3 of a solution whose concentration is 0.2 mol/dm3.

Titration Calculations
Titrations are a method of analyzing the concentration of solutions.

Acid-base titrations are one of the most important kinds of titrations.

They can determine exactly how much alkali is needed to neutralize a quantity of acid – and vice versa.

You may be asked to calculate the moles present in a given amount, the concentration or volume required to
neutralize an acid or a base.

Once a titration is completed and the average titre has been calculated, you can now proceed to calculate the
unknown variable using the formula triangle as shown below.

Example:
A solution of 25.0 cm3 of hydrochloric acid was titrated against a solution of 0.100 mol/dm3 NaOH and 12.1
cm3 were required for complete reaction. Determine the concentration of the acid.

Answer:
Step 1: Write the equation for the reaction:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of the NaOH
Moles = (volume ÷ 1000) x concentration
Moles of NaOH = 0.012 dm3 x 0.100 mol/dm3 = 1.21 x 10-3 mol
Step 3: Deduce the number of moles of the acid

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Since the acid reacts in a 1:1 ratio with the alkali, the number of moles of HCl is also 1.21 x 10-3 mol
This is present in 25.0 cm3 of the solution (25.0 cm3 = 0.025 dm3)
Step 4: Find the concentration of the acid
Concentration = moles ÷ volume (dm3)
Concentration of HCl =1.21 x 10-3 mol ÷ 0.025 dm3 = 0.0484 mol/dm3

Calculating Empirical & Molecular Formulae

Calculating Empirical Formula

The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element present in one molecule
or formula unit of the compound. E.g. the empirical formula of ethanoic acid is CH2O.

Organic molecules often have different empirical and molecular formulae.

The formula of an ionic compound is always an empirical formula.

Example 1:
A compound that contains 10 g of hydrogen and 80 g of oxygen. What is its empirical formula of this
compound?

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Example 2:
Substance X was analyzed and found to contain 31.58% carbon, 5.26% hydrogen and 63.16% oxygen by mass.
What is the empirical formula of substance X? Relative atomic masses, Ar: C = 12; H = 1; O = 16

Note:
The molar ratio must be a whole number. If you don't get a whole number when calculating the ratio of atoms in
an empirical formula, such as 1.5, multiply that and the other ratios to achieve whole numbers.

Calculating Molecular Formula

Molecular formula gives the actual numbers of atoms of each element present in the formula of the compound.

To calculate the molecular formula:

Step 1: Find the relative formula mass of the empirical formula
Step 2: Use the following equation:

Step 3: Multiply the number of each element present in the empirical formula by the number from step 2 to find
the molecular formula.

Example:
The empirical formula of X is C4H10S1. The relative formula mass (Mr) of X is 180. What is the molecular
formula of X? (Relative atomic mass, Ar: Carbon : 12 Hydrogen : 1 Sulfur : 32 )

Answer:
Step 1: - Calculate the relative formula mass of the empirical formula. Mr = (12 x 4) + (1 x 10) + (32 x 1) = 90
Step 2: - Divide relative formula mass of X by relative formula mass of empirical formula 180 / 90 = 2
Step 3: - Multiply each number of elements by 2 → (C4x2) + (H10x2) + (S1x2)
Molecular Formula of X = C8H20S2

Deducing formulae of hydrated salts

The formula of hydrated salts can be determined experimentally by weighing a sample of the hydrated salt,
heating it until the water of crystallization has been driven off, then reweighing the now anhydrous salt.
From the results, you can determine the mass of anhydrous salt and the mass of the water of crystallization.

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Applying a similar approach to deducing empirical formulae, the formula of the hydrated salt can be calculated.

Example:
11.25 g of hydrated copper sulfate, CuSO4 x H2O, is heated until it loses all of its water of crystallization. It is
reweighed and its mass is 7.19 g. What is the formula of the hydrated copper(II) sulfate?

Calculating Percentage Yield, Percentage by Mass & Percentage Purity

Percentage Yield
Yield is the term used to describe the amount of product you get from a reaction.

In practice, you never get 100% yield in a chemical process for several reasons; These include:
1. Some reactants may be left behind in the equipment.
2. The reaction may be reversible and in these reactions a high yield is never possible as the products are
continually turning back into the reactants.
3. Some products may also be lost during separation and purification stages such as filtration or distillation.
4. There may be side reactions occurring where a substance reacts with a gas in the air or an impurity in
one of the reactants.
5. Products can also be lost during transfer from one container to another.

Actual & Theoretical Yield

The actual yield is the recorded amount of product obtained. The theoretical yield is the amount of product that
would be obtained under perfect practical and chemical conditions.

It is calculated from the balanced equation and the reacting masses.

The percentage yield compares the actual yield to the theoretical yield.

For economic reasons, the objective of every chemical producing company is to have as high a percentage yield
as possible to increase profits and reduce costs and waste.

To calculate percentage yield the following equation is used:

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Example:
Copper (II) sulfate may be prepared by the reaction of dilute sulfuric acid on copper (II) oxide. A student
prepared 1.6 g of dry copper (II) sulfate crystals. Calculate the percentage yield if the theoretical yield is 2.0 g.

Answer:
Actual yield of copper (II) sulfate = 1.6 g
Percentage yield of copper (II) sulfate = (1.6 / 2.0) x 100
Percentage yield = 80%

Note:
Percentage yield cannot be greater than 100%, if you calculate a percentage higher than this, you have made an
error! The most common error is to divide the theoretical yield by the actual yield so you may just need to swap
the number around in your calculation.

Percentage mass
You may be asked to find the percentage by mass of an element within a compound. This can be found by
calculating the relative formula mass of the compound and then using the following equation:

Example:
Calculate the percentage by mass of iron in iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3. Relative atomic masses, Ar: Fe = 56, O = 16

Answer:
Step 1: Calculate the relative formula mass of the compound → (2 × 56) + (3 × 16) = 160
Step 2: Work out the total Ar of the element you have been asked about in the question, in this case, iron
2 × 56 = 112
Step 3: Divide the total Ar of the element by the Mr of the compound, then multiply by 100. → (112 ÷ 160) ×
100 = 70%

Percentage Purity
A pure substance has nothing else mixed with it. Often, the product you are trying to obtain may become
contaminated with unwanted substances such as unreacted reactants, catalysts and other impurities.

To calculate the percentage purity the following equation is used:

Example:
A sample of lead (II) bromide was made. It weighed 15 g. The sample was found to be impure and only
contained 13.5 g of lead (II) bromide. Calculate the percentage purity of the lead (II) bromide.

Answer:
The total mass of the substance is 15 g
The mass of the pure substance is 13.5 g
To calculate the percentage purity: (13.5 / 15 ) x 100
Percentage purity = 90 %

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Practical: Finding formulae of compounds

a) The formula of hydrated salts:

Aim:
To determine the formula of hydrated copper sulfate, CuSO4 X H2O.

Diagram:

Method:
-Measure the mass of evaporating dish.
-Add a known mass of hydrated salt.
-Heat over a Bunsen burner, gently stirring, until the blue salt turns completely white, indicating that all the
water has been lost.
-Record the mass of the evaporating dish and its contents.

Practical tip:
Avoid overheating the salt as it could decompose and give you a larger mass change.

Calculations:
Mass of the white anhydrous salt: Measure the mass of white anhydrous salt remaining.
Mass of water: Subtract the mass of the white anhydrous salt remaining from the mass of known hydrated salt.
Step 1 – Divide the mass of the copper sulfate and the water by their respective molar masses.
Step 2 – Simplify the ratio of water to copper sulfate:

3 – Represent the ratio in the form ‘salt x H2O’.

Notes:
It is unlikely that you will get a whole number for the number of moles of water in the ratio, so you will need to
round up or down to the nearest whole number.

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b) The formula of metal oxide by combustion:
Aim:
To determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide by combustion of magnesium.

Diagram:

Method:
-Measure the mass of the crucible with the lid.
-Add a sample of magnesium into the crucible and measure the mass with the lid (calculate the mass of the
metal by subtracting the mass of the empty crucible).
-Strongly heat the crucible over a Bunsen burner for several minutes.
-Lift the lid frequently to allow sufficient air into the crucible for the magnesium to fully oxidize without letting
magnesium oxide smoke escape.
-Continue heating until the mass of the crucible remains constant (maximum mass), indicating that the reaction
is complete.
-Measure the mass of the crucible and its contents (calculate the mass of metal oxide by subtracting the mass of
the empty crucible).

Working out the empirical formula:

Mass of metal:
Subtract the mass of the crucible from magnesium and the mass of the empty crucible.
Mass of oxygen:
Subtract the mass of the magnesium used from the mass of magnesium oxide.
Step 1 – Divide each of the two masses by the relative atomic masses of the elements.
Step 2 – Simplify the ratio

Ratio = x : y
Step 3 – Represent the ratio in the form ‘MxOy’ e.g, MgO

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c) The formula of metal oxide by reduction:
Aim:
To determine the formula of copper (II) oxide by reduction with methane.

Diagram:

Method:
Measure mass of the empty boiling tube.
Place metal oxide into a horizontal boiling tube and measure the mass again.
Support the tube in a horizontal position held by a clamp.
A steady stream of natural gas (methane) is passed over the copper (II) oxide and the excess gas is burned off.
The copper (II) oxide is heated strongly using a Bunsen burner.
Heat until metal oxide completely changes color, meaning that all the oxygen has been removed.
Measure mass of the tube remaining metal powder and subtract the mass of the tube.

Working out empirical formula:

Mass of Metal:
Measure mass of the remaining metal powder.
Mass of Oxygen:
Subtract mass of the remaining metal powder from the mass of metal oxide.
Step 1 – Divide each of the two masses by the relative atomic masses of elements.
Step 2 – Simplify the ratio:

Step 3 – Represent the ratio in the form ‘MxOy’ e.g, CuO.

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Chapter two
Inorganic chemistry
a) Reactivity series
Chemical properties of metals:
The chemistry of the metals is studied by analyzing their reactions with water and acids.
Based on these reactions a reactivity series of metals can be produced.
The series can be used to place a group of metals in order of reactivity based on the observations of their
reactions with water and acids.

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Reactions of metals with water, steam, acid and air (oxygen):

Reaction with air (oxygen):

Some reactive metals, such as the alkali metals, react easily with oxygen.
Silver, copper and iron can also react with oxygen although much more slowly.

Reaction with cold water and steam:

Some metals react with water, either warm or cold, or with steam.
- Metals that react with cold water form a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Potassium, sodium and calcium all undergo reactions with cold water as they are the most reactive
metals.

- Metals that react with steam form metal oxide and hydrogen gas.
Metals just below calcium in the reactivity series do not react with cold water but will react with steam.

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Reaction with acids:
Only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute acids.
Unreactive metals below hydrogen, such as gold, silver and copper, do not react with acids.
The more reactive the metal then the more vigorous the reaction will be.
Metals that are placed high on the reactivity series such as potassium and sodium are very dangerous and react
explosively with acids.

Metal displacement reactions:

The reactivity of metals decreases going down the reactivity series. This means that a more reactive metal will
displace a less reactive metal from its compounds.

Example:
a. Reacting a metal with a metal oxide (by heating).
b. Reacting a metal with an aqueous solution of a metal compound.

a. Reacting a metal with a metal oxide (by heating)

Example: It is possible to reduce copper (II) oxide by heating it with zinc where the reducing agent in the
reaction is zinc:

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b. Reacting a metal with an aqueous solution of a metal compound
The reactivity between two metals can be compared using displacement reactions in salt solutions of one of the
metals. This is easily seen as the more reactive metal slowly disappears from the solution, displacing the less
reactive metal.
Example: Magnesium is a reactive metal and can displace copper from a copper sulfate solution. Magnesium
loses its electrons more easily and the ion of the less reactive metal, copper, will gain these electrons to form
elemental copper. This is easily seen as the more reactive metal slowly disappears from the solution, displacing
the less reactive metal.

The blue color of the CuSO4 solution fades as colorless magnesium sulfate solution is formed. Copper coats the
surface of the magnesium and also forms solid metal which falls to the bottom of the beaker.

By combining different metals and metal salts solutions it is possible to come up with a relative reactivity order.

Note:
Displacement reactions occur when the solid metal is more reactive than the metal that is in the compound.

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Rusting of iron
Definition and concept:
Rust is a chemical reaction between iron, water and oxygen to form the compound hydrated iron (III) oxide
(rust).
Oxygen and water must be present for rust to occur.
During rusting, iron is oxidized.

Investigating rusting:
To investigate the conditions required for rusting, prepare three test tubes as shown in the diagram. The oil in
the 2nd tube provides a barrier to prevent oxygen diffusing into the boiled water and the water has been boiled to
remove any dissolved oxygen. The calcium chloride (drying agent) in the 3rd tube is used to remove any
moisture in the air. After a few days, the iron nail in the 1st tube will be the only nail to show signs of rust.

The nail on the left rusts as it is in contact with both air (which contains oxygen) and water.
The nail in the middle does not rust as it is not in contact with air.
The nail on the right does not rust as it is not in contact with water (calcium chloride absorbs any water
molecules present due to moisture).
The results show that both air and water must be present for rusting to occur.

Damage to iron structures:

Rust is a soft solid substance that flakes off the surface of iron easily, exposing fresh iron below which then
undergoes rusting. This means that over time all of the iron rusts and its structure becomes weakened.

Preventing rust:
• Barrier methods:
Rust can be prevented by coating iron with barriers that prevent the iron from coming into contact with water
and oxygen. However, if the coatings are washed away or scratched, the iron is once again exposed to water and
oxygen and will rust.

Only iron or steel (an alloy made from iron) can rust. If any other metal oxidizes in air causing the metal to
break down, you should say that the metal has corroded.

Painting, oiling and greasing, plastic coatings and electroplating are examples of barrier methods used to protect
metals against rust.

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• Sacrifical protection and galvanizing:
Iron can be prevented from rusting using the reactivity series.

- Sacrificial Protection:
A more reactive metal can be attached to a less reactive metal. The more reactive metal will oxidize and
therefore corrode first, protecting the less reactive metal from corrosion. E.g. using zinc bars on the side of steel
ships:

Zinc is more reactive than iron therefore will lose its electrons more easily than iron and is oxidized more
easily:

The iron stays protected as it accepts the electrons released by zinc, remaining in the reduced state and thus it
does not undergo oxidation
The electrons donated by the zinc react with hydrogen ions in the water producing hydrogen gas:

Zinc therefore reacts with oxygen and water and corrodes instead of the iron

- Galvanizing:
Galvanizing is a process where the iron to be protected is coated with a layer of zinc. This can be done by
electroplating or dipping it into molten zinc. ZnCO3 is formed when zinc reacts with oxygen and carbon dioxide
in the air and protects the iron by the barrier method. If the coating is damaged or scratched, the iron is still
protected from rusting by sacrificial protection.

Note:
If the metal is higher in the reactivity series than iron, it will be suitable for sacrificial protection as it will be
oxidized instead of iron. If it is lower in the reactivity series than iron, it would not be suitable as iron would be
oxidized, causing it to rust.

Corrosion and rusting are not the same process. Corrosion is the general term used to describe the degradation
of metal surfaces whereas rusting is the specific type of corrosion that happens to iron.

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Oxidation & Reduction (redox reactions)

Oxidation and reduction take place together at the same time in the same reaction. These are called redox
reactions.

• Gain or loss of oxygen:

Oxidation is a reaction in which oxygen is added to an element or a compound.
Reduction is a reaction in which oxygen is removed from an element or compound.

Example: Identifying the loss and gain of oxygen in an equation.

zinc oxide + carbon → zinc + carbon monoxide

In this reaction, the zinc oxide has been reduced since it has lost oxygen.
The carbon atom has been oxidized since it has gained oxygen.

Names using oxidation numbers

Transition elements can bond in different ways by forming ions with different charges.
When naming, the charge on the ion is shown by using a Roman numeral after the element's name, e.g. iron can
form ions with a 2+ charge, called iron (II) ions or a 3+ charge, called iron (III) ions.

The Roman numeral is the oxidation number of the element.

When iron reacts with oxygen to form iron oxide, the formula depends on the oxidation state of the iron ions.
The compound where iron has a 2+ charge has the formula FeO and is called iron (II) oxide.
The compound where iron has a 3+ charge has the formula Fe2O3 and is called iron (III) Oxide.

• Electron transfer:

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Redox reactions can also be defined in terms of electron transfer.
Oxidation is a reaction in which an element, ion or compound loses electrons.
The oxidation number of the element is increased.
This can be shown in a half equation, e.g. when silver reacts with chlorine, silver is oxidized to silver ions:

Reduction is a reaction in which an element, ion or compound gains electrons.

The oxidation number of the element is decreased.
This can be shown in a half equation, e.g. when oxygen reacts with magnesium, oxygen is reduced to oxide
ions:

Example: Identifying Redox Reactions

zinc + copper sulphate → zinc sulphate + copper

It is clear that zinc has been oxidized as it has lost electrons.

Copper ions have been reduced as they have gained electrons.

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Practical: Investigate Metals Reacting with Acids

Aim:
To investigate the reactions between dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acids with the metals magnesium, iron and
zinc.

Diagram:

Method:
-Wear some safety glasses before handling acids.
-Using a small measuring cylinder, add 5 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid to each of three test tubes.
-Add about 1 cm3 length of magnesium ribbon to the first tube, observe and note down what you see.
-Use a lighted splint to test for any gases given off.
-To the second test tube add a few pieces of iron filings and to the third some zinc turnings.
-Observe what happens, test for any gases and note down your observations.
-Repeat the experiment with dilute sulfuric acid.

Results:

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Conclusions:
-The metals can be ranked in reactivity order Mg > Zn > Fe.
-The three metals react in the same with both acids.
-Hydrogen and a metal salt solution is produced.

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b) Extraction and uses of metals

The Earth’s crust contains metals and metal compounds such as gold, copper, iron oxide and aluminum oxide.
Useful metals are often chemically combined with other substances forming ores. A metal ore is a rock that
contains enough of the metal to make it worthwhile extracting. They have to be extracted from their ores
through processes such as electrolysis, using a blast furnace or by reacting with more reactive material. In many
cases the ore is an oxide of the metal, therefore the extraction of these metals is a reduction process since
oxygen is being removed. Common examples of oxide ores are iron and aluminum ores which are called
hematite and bauxite respectively.

Unreactive metals do not have to be extracted chemically as they are often found as the uncombined element.
This occurs as they do not easily react with other substances due to their chemical stability. They are known as
native metals and examples include gold and platinum which can both be mined directly from the Earth’s crust.

The position of the metal on the reactivity series influences the method of extraction:
The most reactive metals are at the top of the series.
The tendency to become oxidized is thus linked to how reactive a metal is and therefore its position on the
reactivity series.
Metals higher up are therefore less resistant to oxidation than the metals placed lower down which are more
resistant to oxidation.
- Those metals placed higher up on the series (above carbon) have to be extracted using electrolysis.
- Metals lower down on the series can be extracted by heating with carbon which reduces them.

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Uses of metals

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Alloys
Definition:
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or metal with a non-metal such as carbon that are not chemically
combined i.e. it is not a compound.

Properties:
Alloys often have properties that can be very different from the metals they contain; for example, they can have
more strength, hardness or resistance to corrosion or extreme temperatures. These enhanced properties can
make alloys more useful than pure metals.
Alloys contain atoms of different sizes, which distorts the normally regular arrangements of atoms in metals.
This makes it more difficult for the layers to slide over each other, so alloys are usually much harder than the
pure metal.

Note:
Brass is a common example of an alloy which contains 70% copper and 30% zinc.

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c) Acids, alkalis and titrations

ACIDS and BASES
ACIDS
Taste Sour taste (when edible)
Properties

Effect Corrosive
pH value Below 7
Ions When acids are added to water, they form positively charged hydrogen ions (H+)
Hydrochloric Acid
Example

Rules

Only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute acids.
The name of the salt is related to the name of the acid used, as it depends on the anion
Reactions

within the acid.

Metal

Metal oxides and metal hydroxides (alkalis) can act as bases.

When they react with acid, a neutralization reaction occurs.

Bases

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Metal
carbonates

Acids are proton donors as they ionize in solution producing protons, which are H+
ions.
These H+ ions make the aqueous solution acidic.
Proton transfer

Concept

Acids can be either strong or weak, depending on how many H+ ions they produce
when dissolved in water.
Strong acids completely dissociate (or ionize) in water, producing solutions of a very
Strong low pH.
Strong acids include hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid
(HNO3)
Strength

Weak acids partially dissociate (or ionize) in water and produce pH values which are
closer to the middle of the pH scale, whilst still being below 7.
Weak acids include carbonic acid (H2CO3), phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and all organic
acids such as ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) and propanoic acid (CH3CH2COOH).
For weak acids, there is usually an equilibrium set-up between the molecules and
Weak their ions once they have been added to water.

The equilibrium lies to the left, indicating a high concentration of intact acid
molecules, with a low concentration of H+ ions in the solution.

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A concentrated solution of an acid is one that contains a higher number of acid
molecules per dm3 of solution.
It does not necessarily mean that the acid is strong though, as it may be made from a
Effect of
weak acid which does not dissociate completely.
concentration
For example a dilute solution of HCl will be more acidic than a concentrated solution
of ethanoic acid, since most of the HCl molecules dissociate but very few of the
CH3COOH do.

BASES
Taste Bitter
A base which is water-soluble is referred to as an alkali.
Bases are usually oxides or hydroxides of metals.

Bases/alkalis
Properties

pH value Above 7
Ions When alkalis are added to water, they form negative hydroxide ions (OH-)
Metal hydroxide: Sodium Hydroxide

Example Metal oxide: MgO

Metal carbonate: CaCO3
Ammonium salts: (NH4)2CO3, NH4OH
When bases react with an acid, a neutralization reaction occurs.
Reactions

Acids

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Ammonium salts undergo decomposition when warmed with an alkali. Even though
ammonia is itself a weak base, it is very volatile and can easily be displaced from the
salt by another alkali. A salt, water and ammonia are produced.

Ammonium
salts This reaction is used as a chemical test to confirm the presence of the ammonium ion
(NH4+).
Alkali is added to the substance with gentle warming followed by the test for
ammonia gas using damp red litmus paper. The damp litmus paper will turn from red
to blue if ammonia is present.
Bases are proton acceptors as they accept the protons which are donated by the acid.
Proton transfer

Concept

Neutralization Reactions
When acids are added to water, they form positively charged hydrogen ions (H+). The presence of H+ ions is
what makes a solution acidic.
When alkalis are added to water, they form negative hydroxide ions (OH-). The presence of the OH- ions is
what makes the aqueous solution an alkali.

The pH scale is a numerical scale which is used to show how acidic or alkaline a solution is. In other words, it is
a measure of the amount of ions present in the solution.

A neutralization reaction occurs when an acid reacts with an alkali.

When these substances react together in a neutralization reaction, the H+ ions react with the OH- ions to
produce water. For example, when hydrochloric acid is neutralized a sodium chloride and water are produced:

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The net ionic equation of acid-alkali neutralizations, and what leads to a neutral solution, since water has a pH
of 7, is:

Note:
Not all reactions of acids are neutralizations. For example, when a metal reacts with an acid, although a salt is
produced there is no water formed so it does not fit the definition of neutralization.

Hydrogen Ion Concentration & pH

The pH scale
The pH scale is a numerical scale which is used to show how acidic or alkaline a solution is. It goes from 1 - 14
(extremely acidic substances can have values of below 1).

All acids have pH values of below 7, all alkalis have pH values of above 7.
A solution with a pH of 7, such as water, is described as being neutral.

The more hydrogen ions the stronger the acid, but the lower the pH.
The higher the concentration of hydroxide ions in a solution the higher the pH.
So pH is a measure of the concentration of H+ ions in solution, but they have an inverse relationship.

The pH scale is logarithmic, meaning that each change of 1 on the scale represents a change in concentration by
a factor of 10. Therefore, an acid with a pH of 3 has ten times the concentration of H+ ions than an acid of pH 4.
An acid with a pH of 2 has 10 x 10 = 100 times the concentration of H+ ions than an acid with a pH of 4.

Note:
Acid strength is reflected in how many hydrogen ions are in solution. The more hydrogen ions, the lower the pH
and vice-versa.

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Indicators
Indicators are used to distinguish between acids and alkalis.
Many plants contain substances that can act as indicators and the most common one is litmus which is extracted
from lichens.
Synthetic indicators are organic compounds that are sensitive to changes in acidity and appear different colors
in acids and alkalis.
• Phenolphthalein and methyl orange are synthetic indicators frequently used in acid-alkali
titrations.

Synthetic indicators are used to show the endpoint in titrations as they have a very sharp change of color
when an acid has been neutralized by alkali and vice-versa.

• Litmus is not suitable for titrations as the color change is not sharp and it goes through a purple
transition color in neutral solutions making it difficult to determine an endpoint.
Litmus is very useful as an indicator paper and comes in red and blue versions, for dipping into solutions
or testing gases.

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• Universal indicator
Universal indicator is a mixture of different indicators which is used to measure the pH. A drop is added
to the solution and the color is matched with a color chart which indicates the pH which matches
specific colors

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Acid-base titration
Uses:
-Titrations are a method of analyzing the concentration of solutions.
They can determine exactly how much alkali is needed to neutralize a quantity of acid – and vice versa.
You may be asked to calculate the moles present in a given amount, the concentration or volume required to
neutralize an acid or a base.
-Titrations can also be used to prepare salts.

Materials:
25 cm3 volumetric pipette
Pipette filler
50 cm3 burette
250 cm3 conical flask
Small funnel
0.1 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide solution
Sulfuric acid – concentration unknown
A suitable indicator
Clamp stand, clamp & white tile

Steps:
1. Use the pipette and pipette filler and place exactly 25 cm3 sodium hydroxide solution into the conical flask.
2. Place the conical flask on a white tile so the tip of the burette is inside the flask.
3. Add a few drops of a suitable indicator to the solution in the conical flask.
4. Perform a rough titration by taking the burette reading and running in the solution in 1 – 3 cm3 portions,
while swirling the flask vigorously.

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5. Quickly close the tap when the end-point is reached (sharp color change) and record the volume, placing your
eye level with the meniscus.
6. Now repeat the titration with a fresh batch of sodium hydroxide.
7. As the rough end-point volume is approached, add the solution from the burette one drop at a time until the
indicator just changes color.
8. Record the volume to the nearest 0.05 cm3.
9. Repeat until you achieve two concordant results (two results that are within 0.1 cm3 of each other) to increase
accuracy.

Results:
Record your results in a suitable table, e.g:

Note:
Use a funnel to fill the burette but be sure to remove it before starting the practical as it can drip liquid into the
burette, making the initial reading false.

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d) Acids, bases and salt preparations

Solubility Rules
Salts are prepared by different methods, depending on whether the salt is soluble or insoluble so it is important
to know the solubility of salts.

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• Preparing soluble salts
Reacting a dilute acid and alkali (soluble base)

Method:
- Use a pipette to measure the alkali into a conical flask and add a few drops of indicator (thymolphthalein
or methyl orange).
- Add the acid into the burette and note the starting volume.
- Add the acid very slowly from the burette to the conical flask until the indicator changes to the
appropriate color.
- Note and record the final volume of acid in the burette and calculate the volume of acid added (starting
volume of acid - final volume of acid).
- Add this same volume of acid into the same volume of alkali without the indicator.
- Heat the resulting solution in an evaporating basin to partially evaporate, leaving a saturated solution
(crystals just forming on the sides of the basin or on a glass rod dipped in and then removed).
- Leave to crystallize, decant excess solution and allow crystals to dry.

Note:
When evaporating the solution some water is left behind to allow for water of crystallization in some salts and
also to prevent the salt from overheating and decomposing.

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• Preparing insoluble salts
Insoluble salts can be prepared using a precipitation reaction.

The solid salt obtained is the precipitate, thus in order to successfully use this method the solid salt being
formed must be insoluble in water.

The preparation of a soluble salt follows this pattern:

The method involves measuring out a fixed volume of one solution and then adding the second salt solution
until it is in a slight excess. This ensures the maximum amount of precipitate will be obtained.
The precipitate is recovered by filtration and then it must be washed with distilled water to remove reactants
that are contaminating the residue (recovered solid). It is then left to dry.

This method is a good way to prepare silver and lead (II) salts which are often insoluble where the starting
material will usually be the nitrate of silver or lead (II) since all nitrates are soluble.

Note:
This reaction is also known as a double decomposition reaction.

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Practical: Prepare pure, dry, hydrated Copper (II) sulfate crystals
Adding acid to a solid metal, insoluble base or insoluble carbonate

Acid = dilute sulfuric acid

Insoluble base = copper (II) oxide

Aim:
To prepare a pure, dry sample of hydrated copper (II) sulfate crystals.

Materials:
1.0 mol / dm3 dilute sulfuric acid
Copper (II) oxide
Spatula & glass rod
Measuring cylinder & 100 cm3 beaker
Bunsen burner
Tripod, gauze & heatproof mat
Filter funnel & paper, conical flask
Evaporating basin and dish.

Practical tip:
The base is added in excess to use up all of the acid, which would become dangerously concentrated during the
evaporation and crystallization stages.

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Method:
-Add 50 cm3 dilute acid into a beaker and warm gently using a Bunsen burner.
-Add the copper (II) oxide slowly to the hot dilute acid and stir until the base is in excess (i.e. until the base
stops dissolving and a suspension of the base forms in the acid).
-Filter the mixture into an evaporating basin to remove the excess base.
-Gently heat the solution in a water bath or with an electric heater to evaporate the water and to make the
solution saturated.
-Check the solution is saturated by dipping a cold glass rod into the solution and seeing if crystals form on the
end.
-Leave the filtrate in a warm place to dry and crystallize.
-Decant excess solution and allow the crystals to dry.

Results:
Hydrated copper (II) sulfate crystals should be bright blue and regularly shaped.

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Practical: Prepare Lead (II) sulfate
Aim:
To prepare a dry sample of lead (II) sulfate.

Diagram:

Method:
Soluble Salt 1 = lead (II) nitrate
Soluble Salt 2 = potassium sulfate

-Measure out 25 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm3 lead (II) nitrate solution and add it to a small beaker.
-Measure out 25 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm3 of potassium sulfate add it to the beaker and mix together using a stirring
rod.
-Filter to remove precipitate from mixture.
-Wash filtrate with distilled water to remove traces of other solutions.
-Leave in an oven to dry.

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Equation of reaction:

Note:
Care should be taken with handling lead salts as they are toxic.

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Chapter three
Physical chemistry
a) Energetics
Calorimetry
Calorimetry is a technique used to measure changes in enthalpy of chemical reactions.

Types of calorimetry experiments:

a. Enthalpy changes of reactions in solution
b. Enthalpy changes of combustion

a. Reactions in solution:
The principle of these calorimetry experiments is to carry out the reaction with an excess of one reagent and
measure the temperature change over the course of a few minutes.

This technique is suitable for reaction such as dissolving, displacement and neutralization.

For the purposes of the calculations, some assumptions are made about the experiment:
- That the specific heat capacity of the solution is the same as pure water, i.e. 4.18 J/g/°C.
- That the density of the solution is the same as pure water, i.e. 1 g/cm3.
- The specific heat capacity of the container is ignored.
- The reaction is complete.
- There are negligible heat losses.

A calorimeter can be made up of a polystyrene drinking cup, a vacuum flask or metal can.

-A fixed volume of one reagent is added to the calorimeter and the initial temperature taken with a thermometer.
-An excess amount of the second reagent is added and the solution is stirred continuously.
-The maximum temperature is recorded and the temperature rise calculated.

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 CHEMISTRY OL (EDEXCEL) 4XCH1 (UNIT 1) NOTES
b. Enthalpy of combustion experiments:
The principle here is to use the heat released by a combustion reaction to increase the heat content of water.

A typical simple calorimeter is used to measure the temperature changes to the water.

-A fixed volume of water is measured and transferred to the copper can.

-The spirit burner containing, for example, an alcohol, is weighed on a 2 d.p. balance.
-The initial temperature of the water is measured and recorded.
-The alcohol is ignited and the water is stirred continuously.
-When the temperature has risen by about 20 degrees the flame is extinguished and the spirit burner is re-
weighed.
-The final temperature of the water is recorded.

Sources of error:
1. Not all the heat produced by the combustion reaction is transferred to the water.
2. Some heat is lost to the surroundings.
3. Some heat is absorbed by the calorimeter.
4. Incomplete combustion

- To minimize the heat losses, the copper calorimeter should not be placed too far above the flame and a
lid placed over the calorimeter.
Shielding can be used to reduce draughts.

Note:
For both types of calorimetry experiment you should be able to give an outline of the experiment and be able to
process experimental data.

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Calculating Heat Energy Change

In order the calculate heat energy changes you need to know:

- The mass of the substance being heated.
- The temperature change.
- The specific heat capacity of the substance.

The specific heat capacity, c, is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1°C.
The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/g/°C.
The heat energy change, Q, can be calculated by:

Where: Q = the heat energy change, J

m = the mass of the substance being heated, g
c = the specific heat capacity, J/g/°C
ΔT = the temperature change, °C

Note:
The temperature change in degrees Celsius is the same as the temperature change in Kelvin.

Example 1:
Excess iron powder was added to 100.0 cm3 of 0.200 mol dm-3 copper (II) sulfate solution in a calorimeter. The
reaction equation was as follows.

The maximum temperature rise was 7.5 oC. Determine the heat energy change of the reaction, in kJ.

Answer:
The solution is assumed to have the same density as water, so 100.0 cm3 has a mass of 100 g

Example 2:
1.023 g of propan-1-ol (M = 60.11 g mol-1) was burned in a spirit burner and used to heat 200 g of water in a
copper calorimeter. The temperature of the water rose by 30 oC. Calculate the heat energy change for the
combustion of propan-1-ol using this data.

Answer:

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Calculating Molar Enthalpy Change

Definition:
It is the heat energy change per mole of substance.

Symbol:
ΔH

Unit:
KJ per mole

Rule:
If is found by first determining the heat energy change for the reaction, q, and then dividing by the number of
moles, n, of the substance

Example:
The energy from 0.01 mol of propan-1-ol was used to heat up 250 g of water. The temperature of the water rose
from 25 °C to 37 °C (the specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/g/°C). Calculate the molar enthalpy of
combustion.

Answer:

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Exothermic and endothermic reactions

Chemical reactions occur so that elements can achieve a more stable energy state by gaining a full outer shell of
electrons. This is done by chemical bonding where old bonds are broken, and new bonds are formed.

This process involves the transfer of thermal energy into and out of reaction mixtures.

The terms used to describe this are the system (what happens in the chemical reaction) and the surroundings
(anything other than the chemicals reacting).

The energy within the system comes from the chemical bonds themselves which could be considered as tiny
stores of chemical energy.

Chemical energy is the energy released or absorbed during chemical reactions.

Point of
Exothermic reaction Endothermic reaction
comparison
Thermal energy is transferred to the Thermal energy is taken in from the
surroundings so the temperature of the surroundings so the temperature of the
surroundings increases. surroundings decreases.
Energy transfer

This energy is transferred from the chemical This energy is transferred to the chemical
energy store of the chemical system to the energy store of the chemical system and so
surroundings and so the energy of the the energy of the system increases - this
system falls - this means that the energy means the energy change is positive.
change is negative.
The overall transfer is from the
The overall transfer is from the system to the surroundings to the system.
surroundings.
Combustion, oxidation, and neutralization These types of reactions are much less
reactions are typical exothermic reactions. common than the exothermic reactions.

Hand warmers used in the wintertime are Electrolysis, thermal decomposition

Examples

based on the release of heat from an reactions and the first stages of
exothermic reaction. photosynthesis are typical endothermic
reactions.
Self-heating cans of food and drinks such as
coffee and hot chocolate also use exothermic Sports injury treatments often use cold packs
reactions in the bases of the containers. based on endothermic reactions to take heat
away from a recently injured area to prevent
swelling.

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Note

Reaction pathway diagrams (a.k.a energy level diagrams) are graphical representations of
the relative energies of the reactants and products in chemical reactions.

The energy of the reactants and products are displayed on the y-axis and the reaction
pathway is shown on the x-axis.
Reaction pathway diagram

The difference in height between the energy of reactants and products represents the overall
energy change of a reaction.

Arrows on the diagrams indicate whether the reaction is exothermic (overall reaction arrow
is downwards pointing, showing that the system has lost energy) or endothermic (overall
reaction arrow is upwards pointing, showing that the system has gained energy).

The initial increase in energy represents the activation energy (Ea).

Activation energy (Ea) is the minimum energy that colliding particles must have in order to
react.

The greater the initial rise, the more energy that is required to get the reaction going e.g.
more heat needed.

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The energy of the product is lower than the The energy of the product is higher than
reactants (as thermal energy has been the reactants (as thermal energy has been
transferred to the surroundings). taken in from the surroundings).

Reaction pathway for reaction between Reaction pathway for reaction between
methane and oxygen nitrogen and oxygen

For atoms or particles to react with each other in a chemical system they must first of all
Enthalpy change and activation energy

come into contact with each other in a collision.

A number of factors come into play when analyzing collisions such as energy, orientation,
and number of collisions per second (the frequency of collisions).

In terms of the energy of the collision, there is a minimum amount of energy required for
the collision to be successful, that is for the particles to react together.

This minimum amount of energy is called the activation energy (Ea).

Different reactions have different activation energies, depending on the chemical identities
Involved.

Reactions which have higher activation energies require more energy to start than those
with lower activation energies.

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The transfer of thermal energy during a reaction is called the enthalpy change (change in
heat energy), ΔH, of the reaction.

It is a measure of the total heat of reaction of a chemical reaction.

ΔH is either a positive or a negative value depending on whether the reaction is

exothermic or endothermic.
If more energy is released than is absorbed, If more energy is absorbed than is released,
then the reaction is exothermic. then the reaction is endothermic.

The change in energy is negative since the The change in energy is positive since the
products have less energy than the reactants. products have more energy than the
reactants.
Therefore, an exothermic reaction has a
negative ΔH value. Therefore, an endothermic reaction has a
positive ΔH value.

Whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic depends on the difference between the

energy needed to break existing bonds and the energy released when the new bonds are
Bond breaking and bond formation

formed.
Bond making is always an exothermic Bond breaking is always an endothermic
process as energy is transferred to the process as energy needs to be taken in from
surroundings as the new bond is formed. the surroundings to break the chemical
bonds.

If more energy is released during bond If more energy is absorbed to break bonds of
formation of products than is absorbed in reactants than is released to form new bonds
bond breaking of reactants, then the reaction of products, then the reaction is
is exothermic. endothermic.

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Bond energy calculation

Energy of reaction calculations
Each chemical bond has specific bond energy associated with it.

This is the amount of energy required to break the bond or the amount of energy given out when the bond is
formed. This energy can be used to calculate how much heat would be released or absorbed in a reaction.

To do this it is necessary to know the bonds present in both the reactants and products.

Method
1. Write a balanced equation if none is present already.
2. Optional - draw the displayed formula in order to identify the type and number of bonds more easily.
3. Add together all the bond energies for all the bonds in the reactants – this is the ‘energy in’.
4. Add together the bond energies for all the bonds in the products – this is the ‘energy out’.
5. Calculate the enthalpy change:

Or
Enthalpy change (∆H) = Bond breaking - Bond formation
Examples:
Example 1:

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Example 2:

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Practical: Investigating Temperature Changes

Aim:
To perform a calorimetry study of the reaction between HCl and NaOH.

Materials:
Dilute hydrochloric acid
Dilute sodium hydroxide solution
Styrofoam (polystyrene) calorimeter & lid
25 cm3 measuring cylinder
Thermometer & stirrer

Method:
-Using a measuring cylinder, place 25 cm3 of the NaOH solution into the calorimeter.
-Measure and record the temperature of the solution.
-Add 5 cm3 of the dilute HCl and stir.
-Measure and record the highest temperature reached by the mixture.
-Repeat steps 1 – 4 increasing the amount of acid added by 5 cm3 each time.

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Results:
Record your results in a suitable table, eg:..

Evaluation:
Plot a graph of the results and draw a line of best fit, using the graph to determine what volume of acid causes
the biggest change in temperature.

Conclusion:
The larger the difference in the temperature the more energy is absorbed or released.

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Chapter four
Organic chemistry
a) Introduction
Organic Chemistry is the scientific study of the structure, properties, and reactions of organic compounds.
Organic compounds are those which contain carbon. Metal carbonates, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are
not included in organic compounds.

Many of the structures are hydrocarbons.

A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains only hydrogen and carbon atoms.

Organic compounds can be represented in a number of ways:

In structural formulae, enough information is shown to

make the structure clear, but most of the actual
covalent bonds are omitted. Only important bonds are
always shown, such as double and triple bonds.
Identical groups can be bracketed together. Side
groups are also shown using brackets.

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Structural isomers

Structural isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structural formulae.
Example:
• Isomers of C5H12

• Isomers of C4H10

• Isomers of C4H8

Homologous series
This is a series or family of organic compounds that have similar features and chemical properties due to them
having the same functional group.
The functional group is a group of atoms which are bonded in a specific arrangement that is responsible for the
characteristic reactions of each member of a homologous series.

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General formula
This type of formula tells shows the composition of any member of a whole homologous series of organic
compound. General formulae can be used to work out the formula of a compound from different homologous
series if the number of carbon atoms present is known.

Characteristics of a Homologous Series

All members of a homologous series have:
- The same general formula.
- Same functional group.
- Similar chemical properties because of the presence of the same functional group.
- Graduation in their physical properties, such as melting and boiling point.
These characteristics are shown below for ethanol and propanol, which belong to homologous series, alcohols.

- The difference in the molecular formula between one member and the next is CH2.

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Nomenclature

The names of organic compounds have two parts: the prefix (or stem) and the end part (or suffix).
The prefix tells you how many carbon atoms are present in the longest continuous chain in the compound.
The suffix tells you what functional group is on the compound.

When there is more than one carbon atom where a functional group can be located, it is important to distinguish
exactly which carbon the functional group is on. Each carbon is numbered and these numbers are used to
describe where the functional group is.
When 2 functional groups are present di- is used as a prefix to the second part of the name.

Example:

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Classifying organic reactions

Substitution:
A substitution reaction takes place when one functional group is replaced by another.
Example: Methane reacts with bromine under ultraviolet light.

Addition:
An addition reaction takes place when two or more molecules combine to form a larger molecule with no other
products.
Example: Bromine will react with ethene and the bromine molecule will react and add across the double bond
of the ethene.

Combustion:
This is the scientific term for burning.
a. Complete combustion:
In a complete combustion reaction, an organic substance reacts with unlimited supply of air / oxygen to form
carbon dioxide (or carbon monoxide if incomplete combustion) and water.
Example:

b. Incomplete combustion:
If there is a limited supply of air / oxygen, the products are carbon monoxide and water.
Example:

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b) Crude oil
Petroleum:
It is also called crude oil and is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons which also contains natural gas.
It is a thick, sticky, black liquid that is found under porous rock (under the ground and under the sea).
Petroleum itself as a mixture isn't very useful but each component part of the mixture, called a fraction, is
useful and each fraction has different applications.
The fractions in petroleum are separated from each other in a process called fractional distillation.
The molecules in each fraction have similar properties and boiling points, which depend on the number of
carbon atoms in the chain. The boiling point and viscosity of each fraction increase as the carbon chain gets
longer.
The size and length of each hydrocarbon molecule determines in which fraction it will be separated into.
The size of each molecule is directly related to how many carbon and hydrogen atoms the molecule contains.
Most fractions contain mainly alkanes, which are compounds of carbon and hydrogen with only single bonds
between them.

Fractional distillation:

Fractional distillation is carried out in a fractionating column.

The fractionating column is hot at the bottom and cools at the top.
Steps:
-Crude oil enters the fractionating column and is heated so vapors rise.
-Vapors of hydrocarbons with very high boiling points will immediately turn into liquid and are tapped off at
the bottom of the column.
-Vapors of hydrocarbons with low boiling points will rise up the column and condense at the top to be tapped
off.
-The different fractions condense at different heights according to their boiling points and are tapped off as
liquids.
-The fractions containing smaller hydrocarbons are collected at the top of the fractionating column as gases.
-The fractions containing bigger hydrocarbons are collected at the lower sections of the fractionating column.

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Properties of Fractions
-Viscosity
This refers to the ease of flow of a liquid.
High viscosity liquids are thick and flow less easily.
If the number of carbon atoms increases, the attraction between the hydrocarbon molecules also increases which
results in the liquid becoming more viscous with the increasing length of the hydrocarbon chain. The liquid
flows less easily with increasing molecular mass.
-Color
As carbon chain length increases the color of the liquid gets darker as it gets thicker and more viscous.
-Melting point/boiling point
As the molecules get larger, the intermolecular attraction becomes greater.
More heat is needed to separate the molecules. With increasing molecular size there is an increase in boiling
point.
-Volatility
Volatility refers to the tendency of a substance to vaporize.
With increasing molecular size, hydrocarbon liquids become less volatile. This is because the attraction between
the molecules increases with increasing molecular size.

Trends of properties

Uses of Fractions
Refinery gas: Heating and cooking.
Gasoline: Fuel for cars (petrol).
Naphtha: Raw product for producing chemicals.
Kerosene: Making jet fuel (paraffin).
Diesel: Fuel for diesel engines (gas oil).
Fuel oil: Fuel for ships and for home heating.
Lubricating oil: Lubricants, polishes, waxes.
Bitumen: Surfacing roads.

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Fuels & Combustion:
The combustion of fossil fuels is the major source of atmospheric pollution.
Fossil fuels include: coal, oil, natural gas, oil shales and tar sands.
Non-renewable fossil fuels are obtained from crude oil by fractional distillation.
Petrol is used as a fuel in cars, kerosene is used to fuel aircraft and diesel oil is used as a fuel in some cars,
trucks and heavy vehicles such as tanks and trains.
Coal is used in power stations and also steel production.
Natural gas consists mainly of methane, CH4.
There are finite amounts of fossil fuels and they all contribute to pollution and global warming.
All these fuels contain carbon, hydrogen and small quantities of sulfur.

Combustion Products:
Pollutant Source Harmful effect
Carbon dioxide -Complete combustion (sufficient oxygen Greenhouse gas leading to global
CO2 supply) of carbon-containing fuels such as warming and climate change
fossil fuels, e.g. the complete combustion of
methane
-Respiration
-Thermal decomposition of limestone (CaCO3)
-Product of reaction between acid and carbonate
Carbon Incomplete combustion (insufficient oxygen Toxic combining with hemoglobin in
monoxide supply) of carbon-containing fuels such as the blood and prevents it from carrying
CO fossil fuels, e.g. incomplete combustion of oxygen (carboxyhemoglobin) causing
gasoline dizziness, loss of consciousness and
eventually death
Methane -Waste gases from digestive processes of Greenhouse gas leading to global
CH4 animals, decomposition of vegetation, bacterial warming and climate change
action in swamps, rice paddy fields and landfill
sites
-Natural gas
Particulates Incomplete combustion of carbon-containing Respiratory problems and cancer
fuels such as fossil fuels can also produce
particulates of carbon (soot), e.g the incomplete
combustion of methane can produce CO and C
Sulfur dioxide -Combustion of fossil fuels containing sulfur -Dissolves in rain to form acid rain that:
SO2 compounds - Kill plants, animals and fish
-Power stations are a major source of sulfur - Cause soil and lake acidity
dioxide - Pollute crops and water supplies
- Destroy statues and buildings
Nitrogen oxides -Reaction of nitrogen with oxygen in the - Irritate lungs, throats and eyes
Nitrogen dioxide presence of high temperatures, e.g. in car and causing respiratory problems
NO2 engines, high-temperature furnaces and when
Nitrogen lightning occurs
monoxide -It is also a product of bacterial action in the Produce photochemical smog
NO soil

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Acid rain:

- The sulfur dioxide produced from the combustion of fossil fuels dissolves in rainwater droplets to form
sulfuric acid.

- Nitrogen dioxide produced from car engines reacts with rain water to form a mixture of nitrous and
nitric acids, which contribute to acid rain:

- Lightning strikes can also trigger the formation of nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxides in air.
Nitrogen dioxide gas reacts with rain water and more oxygen to form nitric acid.

When the clouds rise, the temperature decreases, and the droplets get larger.
When the droplets containing these acids are heavy enough, they will fall down as acid rain.

-Dealing with Acid Rain

Acid rain is caused by oxides of nitrogen and sulfur dioxide.
• Emissions of sulfur dioxide can be reduced by either:
▪ Using fuels which contain low levels of sulfur.
▪ Flue gas desulfurization - this involves reacting the sulfur dioxide emitted from burning
fuels containing sulfur, with calcium oxide therefore removing it from the flue gas.
• Catalytic convertors in vehicles can be used to remove oxides of nitrogen.

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These compounds (NO and NO2) are formed when nitrogen and oxygen react in the high pressure and
temperature conditions of internal combustion engines and blast furnaces.
Exhaust gases also contain unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide.
Cars are fitted with catalytic converters which form a part of their exhaust systems. Their function is to render
these exhaust gases harmless.

Catalytic converters
They contain a series of transition metal catalysts including platinum and rhodium. The metal catalysts are in a
honeycomb within the converter to increase the surface area available for reaction.

A series of redox reactions occurs which neutralizes the pollutant gases.

- Carbon monoxide is oxidized to carbon dioxide:

- Oxides of nitrogen are reduced to N2 gas:

A single reaction can summarize the reaction of nitrogen monoxide and carbon monoxide within a catalytic
convertor:

- Unburned hydrocarbons can also be oxidized to carbon dioxide and water:

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Saturated & Unsaturated Compounds

Saturated compounds have molecules in which all carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds. Examples of
compounds that are saturated are alkanes.

Unsaturated compounds consist of molecules in which one or more carbon-carbon bonds are not single bonds.
They contain carbon-carbon double bonds (C=C). Examples of compounds that are unsaturated are alkenes.

Note:
Saturated compounds have Single bonds only.
Unsaturated compounds have doUble bonds.

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c) Alkanes
Bond:
Alkanes are a group of saturated hydrocarbons with single covalent bonds between carbon atoms.

General formula:
The general formula of the alkanes is CnH2n+2.

Examples:

Physical properties:
Small alkanes with up to four carbon atoms are gases at room temperature.
They are colorless compounds which have a gradual change in their physical properties as the number of carbon
atoms in the chain increases.

Chemical properties:
Alkanes are generally unreactive compounds but they do undergo combustion reactions, can react with halogens
in the presence of light in substitution reactions and can be cracked into smaller molecules.
- Combustion reactions:
a. Complete combustion:
All alkanes burn in air or oxygen. If there is enough oxygen, they burn completely to give carbon
dioxide and water.

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b. Incomplete combustion:
If there isn’t enough oxygen, there is incomplete combustion of the hydrocarbon, and you obtain
carbon monoxide or carbon (soot) instead of carbon dioxide.

- Substitution reactions:
In a substitution reaction, one atom (or group of atoms) is swapped with another atom (or group of
atoms).
Alkanes undergo a substitution reaction with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet radiation (sunlight is
a source of UV radiation). This is called a photochemical reaction. The UV light provides the activation
energy, Ea, for the reaction.
A hydrogen atom is replaced with the halogen atom. More than one hydrogen atom can be substituted
depending on the amount of ultraviolet radiation there is.

- Cracking (Will be discussed in manufacturing of alkenes)

Note:
CFC stands for chlorofluorocarbon, an important class of halogenoalkanes, previously used in fridges and air
conditioners, but gradually being phased out because of the damage they cause to the ozone layer.

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d) Alkenes
Bond:
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with carbon-carbon double bonds (C=C).

General formula:
Their general formula is CnH2n.

Examples:

Preparing alkenes (Cracking of alkanes):

Although there is use for each fraction obtained from the fractional distillation of crude oil, the amount of
longer chain hydrocarbons produced is far greater than needed. These long chain hydrocarbon molecules are
further processed to produce other products.

A process called catalytic cracking is used to convert longer-chain molecules into short chain and more useful
hydrocarbons.

Shorter chain alkanes, alkenes and hydrogen are produced from the cracking of longer chain alkanes. Kerosene
and diesel oil are often cracked to produce petrol, other alkenes and hydrogen.

Importance of cracking:
Production of alkenes which can be used to make polymers and the hydrogen used to make ammonia.

Conditions of cracking:
Temperature 600oC-700oC.
Catalyst alumina or silica.

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Steps:
-Cracking involves heating the hydrocarbon molecules to around 600°C – 700°C to vaporize them.
-The vapors then pass over a hot powdered catalyst of alumina or silica.
-This process breaks covalent bonds in the molecules as they come into contact with the surface of the catalyst,
causing thermal decomposition reactions.
-The molecules are broken up in a random way which produces a mixture of smaller alkanes and alkenes.
-Hydrogen and a higher proportion of alkenes are formed at higher temperatures and higher pressure.

Fraction Supply & Demand:

Crude oils vary considerably in their composition and some need more refining than others.
Supply is how much of a particular fraction can be produced from refining the crude oil.
Demand is how much customers want to buy.
General the demand for certain fractions outstrips the supply so this is
why cracking is necessary to convert surplus unwanted fractions into
more useful ones.
This is mostly larger, heavier fractions that are cracked into smaller
lighter fractions.

You can see from the chart that fuel oil and bitumen are surplus
fractions so they are cracked and modified to produce petrol,
kerosene and diesel.

Note:
Cracking is an endothermic reaction.

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Physical properties:
These are very similar to those of the alkanes. Remember that the small alkanes with up to four carbon atoms
are gases at room temperature. The same is true for the alkenes. They are gases up to C4H8, and the next dozen
or so are liquids.
Again, the members of the homologous series show a trend in physical properties.

Chemical properties:
The presence of the double bond, C=C, means they can make more bonds with other atoms by opening up the
C=C bond and allowing incoming atoms to form another single bond with each carbon atom of the functional
group.
Each of these carbon atoms now forms 4 single bonds instead of 1 double and 2 single bonds. This makes them
much more reactive than alkanes.

- Combustion reactions:
Same as alkanes.
- Addition reactions:
Alkenes undergo addition reactions in which atoms of a simple molecule add across the C=C double
bond where only one product is formed.

a. Addition of halogens (halogenation):

The reaction between bromine and ethene is an example of an addition reaction.

Distinguishing Between Alkanes & Alkenes (Test for unsaturation):

Alkanes and alkenes have different molecular structures. All alkanes are saturated and alkenes are unsaturated.
The presence of the C=C double bond allows alkenes to react in ways that alkanes cannot. This allows us to tell
alkenes apart from alkanes using a simple chemical test using bromine water.

Bromine water is an orange-colored solution of bromine.

When bromine water is shaken with an alkane, it will remain as an orange solution as alkanes do not have
double carbon bonds (C=C) so the bromine remains in solution.
When bromine water is shaken with an alkene, the alkene will decolorize the bromine water and turn colorless
as alkenes do have double carbon bonds (C=C). The bromine atoms add across the C=C double bond hence the
solution no longer contains the orange-colored bromine.

This reaction between alkenes and bromine is called an addition reaction.

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