Traffic Management and Accident Investigation w/ Driving

Chapter I. Introduction to Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

The history of transportation can be conveniently--if over-simply--divided into period during

which motive power was most characteristically furnished by human and animal muscle, by such
natural forces as wind and gravity, and by fuel-operated machines

The Word Traffic

The word traffic originates from Greco-Roman word “Trafico” with reference to the movement of
people that dates back from the dawns of history: from the domesticated horse-drawn wheels to
horseless carriage. The Greek originally called the system “Trafriga” after the early horse-drawn
chariots with spoked wheels. If savants of Rome are to believed, there is no dispute that the word
“Trafico” is a Greco-Roman word, but the word traffic was created from the famous “Trafalgar Square,”
the hub-center of commerce and culture in the heart of London.

But in Latin, the word traffic is denominated as “Commercium” with reference to the movement
and control of goods in transit from un-wheeled axle to horseless carriage. This intellectual discourse
of discoveries only reinforced the universal dictum that traffic refers to the movement of people and
goods and not vehicle. Perhaps this is the missing jewels in the systematic strategies of traffic
management.

Transportation – is the movement or conveying of persons and goods from one location to another.

Nomad (Greek) – to pasture. Refers to pastoralists, groups that migrate in an established pattern to
find pasture lands for their domestic livestock.

Two types of nomads:

1. Who wonder in search for food.
2. Who observe annual cycle of pastures whose availability determined by the alteration of hot
and cold or wet and dry season.

Early Types of Transportation:

1. MANPOWER – Early man who had no domesticated animals carry their own burdens.
a. Carrying Pole - goods are carried by means of pole
b. Backload and Tumpline - goods are carried on the back
c. Sledge on Rollers – moving heavy burdens on sledge which rested on a series of rollers
d. Sledge on Runners – loads are carried on a sledge
e. Travois - device used by Native North Americans of the Great Plains for transporting
their tepees and household goods. It consisted of two poles, lashed one on either side of
a dog or, later, a horse, with one end of each pole dragging on the ground.

2. ANIMAL POWER – domesticated animals were used to carry loads

1. Ox – cattle which was first used to carry loads in Mesopotamia
2. Reindeer - first domesticated in Siberia in the beginning of Christian era. Deer draws
sledge
3. Dog - the first domesticated animal used to carry loads
4. Donkey – first domesticated in the Middle East. Donkey caravan carry goods within
Southwest Asia and Egypt.
 5. Llama - in pre-Colimbian America, the Llama was the only new world animal other
than the dog capable of domestication for transport.
6. Elephant – the Carthaginians used African elephants in their war against Rome.
Elephants were used to carry heavy loads.
7. Horse – In Europe, horses were used to draw wheeled vehicles and for riding for
sometime until the introduction of mechanized vehicles.
8. Camel - camel were used to carry loads. Two kinds of camel: two-humped bactrian
camel of Central Asia and the one-humped dromnedary camel of Arabia.
9. Yak – a long-haired type of cattle that lives at high altitude on the Tibetan platue used to
carry heavy loads where horses could not survive.

3. WIND POWER – man realized the energy from the mass of moving air and learned to
utilize such power to lift rather than to drag. Origin of air lifted transportation.
1. Ancient Chinese Kite – Based on Korean tradition, kites were first used for transport
when a Korean General used in bridge building.
2. Da Vinci’s Ornithopter - Leonardo Da Vinci made study of the flight of birds. He
dicovered ornithopter which derives its principal support and propelling from flapping
wings like those of birds.
3. Montgolfier Balloon - France Joseph Michel and Jacques Entienne Montgolfier
proposed to use balloon to transport condemned prisoners. It is constructed with linen
and inflated with hot air.
4. Siemen’s Rocket Plane – Ernst Werner Von Siemens, a electric industrialist, in 1874
designed rocket plane propelled by explosive force of gun powder.
5. Lilienthal Glider – Otto Lilienthal, German inventor , like da Vinci, he studied the flight of
birds. His chiefwork was with glider.
6. Santos Dumont’s Airship – Alberto Santos Dumont, a Brazilian inventor who designed
a lighter than air-craft balloon called airship.
7. Wright Brothers’ Flying Machine - Orville and Wilbur Wright designed the biplane
kite.
8. Lindergh’s Spirit of St. Louis – Capt. Charles Lindergh made the solo flight in an
airplane from Paris to London in May 1927. the plane was called “Spirit of St, Louis”.

Roads And Vehicle History

Wheel – it was invented in Western Asia. It was used in crude carts and wagons. It enabled to
transport burdens beyond the power of man or animals to carry or drag.
1. Solid wheels on fixed axle – it is made up to single piece of wood rotated on single
axle.
2. Sumerian chariot with flank wheels - this chariot, of 2400 BC, had solid wheels built up
of three pieces.
3. Spoked wheel – wheel with spokes, in Greek quadrica
4. Roman Carpentum – a closed two-wheeled cart
5. Italian cocchio – a travelling wagon in which the passangers were protected by a
covering of leather or cloth fixed over a wooden framework.

a. Wheeled Vehicles - requires wider roads for the movement.

b. The Invention of Bicycles – Hobby Horse (19th Century) was one of the modern ancestors of
modern bicycles. The wheels were made of wood, with tire of iron and riders push themselves
along with their feet on the ground.
c. Pneumatic Tires – inlated by air (by John Boyd Dunlop 19th Cenutury)
d. Motor Vehicle – the first transportation

Personalities in Traffic
German Baron Karl Von Drais (1817)
➢ introduced a steerable wheel, creating the “draisienne”, or “dandy horse”.
Kirkapatrick Macmillan (1838)
 ➢ a Scottish blacksmith,, made the first machine with pedals, which were attached to and
drove the rear wheel by means of crank.
John Boyd Dunlop
➢ a Scot who introduced Pneumatic tires about 19th century (about 1888).
Etienne Lenoir (1860)
➢ made possible the introduction of motorized carriages by his invention in the 1860’s and
1870’s of the Internal Combustion Engines.
Nicolaus Otto and Gottlieb Daimler
➢ pioneered the manufacture of gas engines, and later Daimier became a successful
automobile manufacturer.
Rudolf Diesel
➢ a German engineer, developed an engine which requires no electrical ignition system
or carburetor and uses other form of liquid fuel, the diesel fuel. Automobile found its
greatest popularity in the U.S., First horseless carriage (1890’s).
Henry Ford (1908)
➢ introduced the Model T which was proved popular that 1914, Ford had adopted MASS
PRODUCTION.
Felix Wankel (1956)
➢ a German mathematician, developed an advanced-type of engine, named after him,
that operates very differently from gas and diesel engines. It was started by a moving
crankshaft.
Tigris Suphrates Valle
➢ place where wheel was perfected, crude carts and wagons began to appear and later in
crete, egypt and china.
Romans - Major road builders in the ancient world.
John L. Macadam – perfected the Macadamized Road in England about 1815.
5th Century
➢ Land haulage generally declined because highways suffered from inadequate
maintenance.
The invention of Bicycle
➢ 19th century served as a nursery of Automobile builders. One of the modern ancestors
of the modern bicycle was the

Chapter II. Traffic Operation and Management

Traffic Management
➢ presupposes an understanding of the motivation behind the behavior of motorist,
commuters, and pedestrians.
➢ Any attempt to redirect their behavior without understanding will not be able to effectively
solve the traffic problems.
Management – it refers to the skillful use of means to accomplish an objective.
Traffic
➢ (French trafique/Italian traffico) which means to carry on trade, of uncertain origin.
➢ It refers to the movement of persons, goods or vehicles, either powered by combustion
system or animal drawn, from one place to another for the purpose of travel.
Traffic Way
➢ refers to the entire width between boundary lines of every way or place of which any part
is open to the use of public purposes of vehicular traffic as a matter of right or custom.

The Main Tasks Required to Improve Traffic Management

1. Consolidate the single road use handbook, all the traffic laws, rules and regulations,
guidelines, must be revised and issued yearly.
2. Ensure that each traffic user is trained and disciplined.
3. Revalidate all drivers’ licenses and all certificates of vehicle registration.
4. Clear the road network of obstructions.
5. Streamlining the traffic adjudication process.
6. Fast-track the shift to a mass transit system.
7. Complete the basic framework of the road network.
Causes of Traffic Congestion
1. Immediate - Congestion grows most obviously and at alarming rate primarily in areas
experiencing rapid population growth, which cause parallel increase in the ownership and u se
of automotive vehicles.
2. Long-Term - Commuting during certain hours add considerably to traffic congestion. The
so-called “rush-hours” are concentrated in relatively short period each day, mainly from 7:00 to
9:00 in the morning and from 5:00 to 7:00 in the evening, when most people rush to and from
work.

Road Classification
A. According to Political Subdivision
Roadway – Part of a traffic way where motor vehicles pass.
1. National Roads - These are roads/streets interconnecting provinces and/or cities.
2. Provincial Roads - These are roads/streets interconnecting municipalities and /or cities
within a province.
3. City Roads - These are roads/streets interconnecting Barangays within a city.
4. Municipal Roads - These are roads/ streets interconnecting Barangays within a
municipality.
5. Barangay Roads - These are roads/streets located withing a Barangay which connect
Sitios or places within a Barangay

B. According to Functions
1. Feeder Roads - Intended for farm-to-market roads.
2. Collector Highway
➢ It also refers to a highway that serves primarily to funnel traffic from one local highway to
another or between arterial and local highways.
➢ It is also known as collector road or distributor road which connects low-to-moderate
highways or roads to arterial highways such as those entering residential properties
3. Local Collector Roads - Intended to collect traffic from feeder road to municipal road.
4. Major Collector Roads - Intended as major arteries to collect inter-locality traffic to provincial
road.
5. Arterial Highways Roads
➢ It also refers to a highway that is used primarily by through traffic.
➢ this are high-capacity urban roads that direct traffic from collector roads to expressways or
freeways.
6. Major Highway - Serves as main artery that caters on big volumes of vehicular traffic on
national roadway.
7. Expressway - A through traffic for free-flow of vehicular movement.
8. Tunnel Road - A passage of wide section cut through a hill or sea to shorten circuitous
roadway.
9. Subway - An underground conduct running entirely under the ground for fast travel route of
commuters.
10. Skyway - A modern urban system of roadway above street level for free-flow traffic.

C. According to Topographical Terrain

1. Flat Road
2. Zigzag Road
3. Steep-Hill Climbing Road
4. Down-Hill Road
5. Winding Road
6. Mountainous Road
7. Roller Coaster Road

Shoulder – Part of a traffic way along the roadway.

Island – Those structures on the road separate that serve as guide to road users.
Pedestrian Island – An elevated island usually along the road intended for pedestrian use.
Cross walk/ pedestrian lane – Traffic lanes intended for pedestrian crossing the road.
Thruway or Throughway
➢ It is a highway that has limited entrances and exits such as the expressways, freeways or
motorways.
Curb
➢ This pertains to the elevated part of the road which serves as the edging of a street or a
pathway.

Types Of Traffic Management

1. Traditional traffic engineering tools or devices, to regulate or control traffic, such as
traffic lights, traffic signs, or pavement markings, traffic island, and other devices that could
control or direct the flow of traffic.
2. Advanced technology like the Intelligent Transportation System (ITS).

Safety Training - The three principles that have been emphasized as effective in the prevention
of traffic accidents are known as the three (3) "E's or pillars of traffic:
Engineering
Education
Enforcement
Recently, the following were added to the pillars of traffic:
Ecology/environment
Economy

Chapter III. The Pillars of Traffic

1. Traffic Engineering - The science of measuring traffic and travel the study of the basic laws
relative to the traffic law and generation. It refers to the professional practice of planning, deciding,
and operating traffic system to achieve safe and efficient transportation of persons and goods.
Functions:
▪ fact-finding, survey and recommendations of traffic rules and regulations
▪ supervision and maintenance to the application of traffic control devices
▪ planning of traffic regulation

Geometric Design
A traffic engineering phraseology for forecasting future traffic demand on target year for road
design. It is indicator dictated by development of land use, industry, economy, and population
component.

Many countries vary on the target year for road design on account of topography, development,
environment, cultural idiosyncrasies and road factors. From the viewpoint of traffic engineering, the
maximum life for road design is within the range of 15 to 25 years, and the prevailing range now is 20
years.

The geometric design of road in order to have a reliable forecast for viable projection of traffic
demand is determined by traffic generators, among others: developmental plan, economic index,
zoning schemes, land use and population growth.

The hourly, daily and annual volume of traffic is graphically taken into consideration for road
designs. Corollary, to maximize safe and speed, the physical features of the highway is considered in
the formulation of the design speed to determine road design and safety factors.

Objectives of Traffic Engineering

1. To achieve traffic efficient, free and rapid flow of traffic.
2. To prevent traffic accident.
3. To simplify police of enforcement actions and performance.
 4. To show that good police actions and performance make engineering plans effective.
5. To present the close relationship of the pillars of traffic in the improvement of traffic problems.

Application to the objectives of Traffic Engineering

1. Habitually congested commercial area.
2. Heavily traveled thoroughfares - Slow movement of vehicle
3. Congested local area and intersections.
4. Special occasions and events.
5. Disasters or emergencies.
6. School crossing.

Methods in Achieving the Objectives of Traffic Engineering

1. Planning and Geometric Design - Factor Employed in Planning.
a. Composition of traffic streams.
b. Traffic volumes for capacity.
c. Origin and destination.
2. Factors Influencing Design
a. Composition of Traffic.
b. Volume of Traffic
c. Speed of vehicles.
d. The starting, turning and stopping abilities of traffic units.
e. Performance values.
3. Regulation and Control Regulation
a. Base and confined within the boundaries of safety, public welfare and convenience.
b. Limitations impose on road users and their load.
c. Basic general rule of road use and conduct.
d. Prohibition and Restrictions.

Road Check Objectives - The objectives of road check are to detect and inspect the following:
1. Faulty vehicle equipment.
2. Registration and licensing of violations.
3. Intoxicated drivers.
4. The load or cargo of commercial transportation vehicle for load weight.

Considerations Taken When Conducting Road Checks

1. Minimum delay to motorist.
2. Thorough checking procedure.
3. Protection, safety of both motorists and police officers.
4. Timing, location and frequency.

Boulevards and Avenues Distinguished

➢ Many are in the quandary as to the whale of difference between avenue and boulevard.
There is an international acceptance that they are both national roads. Both are broad
thoroughfares, but boulevard is more prestigious in sophistication than an avenue. Often
than not, boulevard is teeming with grassplots and tress along the center, the sidewalk and
oftentimes, boulevard is with lighted post in highly urban centers of the world. It is for this
reason that the boulevard is named after great men and heroes.
Sidewalks
➢ It is an integral part of the roadways in any metropolitan cities of the world—it is also one of
the specie of geometric designs. Sidewalk is the answer for the safety of pedestrian safety.
Thus, sidewalk reduced the hazards of pedestrian to the slender yardstick of traffic
engineering.
Intersections
➢ Today, urban cities of the world walk on 2-legs man and machine. But the continuity of its
locomotion depends upon the inter-link of connecting road network at intersection to meet
traffic demand.
 ➢ The plan and design of intersection is based on traffic component, traffic volume, speed,
traffic distribution, canalizations of traffic accidents and future traffic demand.

Kinds of Intersections
1. Three-Leg Intersection
a. T-Type
b. Y-Type
2. Four-Leg Type
a. Right Angle
b. Oblique
3. Multi-Leg Intersection
4. Rotary Intersection

Fundamental Principles of Intersections

1. Intersection should be avoided on curve section, bridge, attaching part, cutting, and crest, near
entrance of tunnel and besides railroad crossing.
2. Intersection should not be greater than 4 legs. While 4-leg intersection is better than 3-leg
intersection, however, if 5-leg intersection is unavoidable it must be used only as an exit.
3. Two roads should not intersect as a small angle. Intersecting at less than 60 degrees makes
it difficult for drivers to turn at acute angle and in effect constrict his visibility particularly 10-
wheeler trucks.
4. Distances between two intersections should be based on land use of density of road network.
Factors that determine the minimum distance of two intersections—queue length by the control
of traffic signals, length of weaving section, length of turn and limit of driver’s concentration.

Definition of Filter Lane - The word filter in its literal meaning is to control or constrict the
movement of vehicle as it passes through the lane designated therefore. This traffic engineering
design is to prevent traffic gridlock at the intersection when turning left at the green arrow filter signal.
Channelization - A traffic engineering terminology that separates or regulates the conflict of traffic
movements into a definite paths of travel by means of traffic island or pavement markings for the
safe and orderly travels of both man and machine.

Principles of Channelization
1. It reduces the area of conflict in large paved intersection. In view of uncontrolled vehicle
and pedestrian movements it creates congestions and accidents.
2. The speed of traffic stream at the intersection may be controlled by the curvature
employed in the bending of the roadways. Thus the minor flows will be sent to conform to the
main traffic stream.
3. Likewise, the speed of traffic stream at the intersection may be controlled by funneling. A
scheme which not only controls the speed of entering vehicles but prevents overtaking and
passing in a conflict area.
4. It blocks prohibited turns.To divert traffic streams, islands may be employed to encourage
drivers in the strict observance of prohibited turns.
5. It provides refuge for turning, and crossing vehicles. Adequate shadowing provides safe
refuge for waiting vehicle to cross or enter and uncontrolled traffic stream.
6. It is essentially required for an effective signal control at intersection with complex turning
movement.
7. It provides location for the installation of traffic control devices at the intersection of multi
lane roadways with complex turning movements.

2. TRAFFIC EDUCATION - It is the process of giving training and practice in the actual application of
traffic safety knowledge.
Road Safety - Refers to reduced risk of accident or injury on the roads, achieved through
multidisciplinary approaches involving road engineering and traffic management, education and
training of road users, and vehicle design.

Factors Contributing to Accidents

1. Human errors include:
a. going too fast or excessive speed;
b. failing to give at junctions;
c. following too closely:
d. overtaking improperly; overtake on the left
e. misperceiving or misjudging the road situation ahead;
f. intoxication of alcohol or drug; and
g. lack of skill
2. Road deficiencies that are main contributory factors are:
a. poor design of layout and control at junctions;
b. inadequate signing, road marking, and lighting;
c. slippery roads, and
d. obstruction on the road such as parked vehicle, or going road construction.
3. Main vehicle factors are:
a. defects in tires, brakes, and lights;
b. absence or non- using of seat belts; and
c. poorly maintained motor vehicles.

Three (3) Levels Of Traffic Safety Education

1. Imparting knowledge concerning traffic safety.
2. Training and practice in the actual application of traffic safety knowledge, and
3. Developing traffic safety morality.

Four (4) Basic Types Of Instruction Methods Used In Driver Education Program
1 Comprehensive - This method places the student in real life of driving situations from the
beginning,
2. Traditional Instruction - This type of instruction depends on instructor-student
communication.
3. Commentary Driving Method - The student-driver accompanied by an instructor, where in
the instructor has to give a comment on his driving on what he sees, what he does, what he
proposes to do, what others are likely to do, etc.
4. Simulated Conditions And Off The Road Training - The premise of simulated conditions
training is that the behavior of the driver-placed in condition will be relatively analogous to
normal behavior.

Biorhythm - The theory, which asserts that man, exhibits a constant variation of life energy and
mood states.
.The controversial theory of biorhythm
1. 23 day cycle a.k.a. our cycle of strength, endurance and courage (the male component of a
person).
2. 28 day cycle equivalent to a female's 28 day menstrual cycle is a.k.a. our cycle of sensitivity,
love and intuition ( the female component of a person).

All these cycles are present at the time we are born. When the curve is above the center line, the
biorhythm value is said to be "HIGH" or a person has more energy to space, i.e.:
1. Physical high - we tend to be energetic, strong, and full of vitality.
2. Emotional high - we tend to be creative, artistic, cheerful and happy.
3. Intellectual high - we are able to think quickly and logically.

When the curve is below the center line, the biorhythm is said to be "LOW" or in a recharged period,
i.e.:
1. Physical low - we tend to tire quickly and to succumb to illness easily.
2. Emotionally low - we feel moody, irritable, or depressed.
 3. Intellectual low - concentrating or remembering is difficult or we are likely to use poor
judgment when any of the curves crossed the center line

Simulation - To give or assume the appearance of driving or the effect of driving.

Two (2) Methods Of Simulation Method - this method have the specific aim of training for the
sub tasks of the driving task.
1. Partial Simulation Method - This means have the specific aim or training for the
"subtasks" of the driving task.
2. Global Simulation - Training is simulated in traffic situations and conditions with the use
of simulations.

Simulator - A static machine with all the important features of a car used in driving method or driving
training
Simulators are most commonly used for the following type of training:
- Training in basic car-control skills.
- Perceptual training
- Emergency training

Classification of Films as shown by the simulators

a. Analytical film
➢ which provides an adjective analysis of the driving situation presented to the student.
b. The didactic film
➢ which aims to show good driving behavior.
c. The simulation film
➢ which offers visual realism to driving situations and therefore a good aid in actual
practice.

SCHOOLS (public and private)

This can be carried out on the following levels:
a.) Imparting knowledge concerning traffic safety.
b.) Training and practice in the actual application of traffic safety.
c.) Developing traffic safety morality.

1. Elementary
➢ Safety and guides stressing traffic safety.
➢ Classroom discussion of accidents, incidents and safety rule.
➢ Organize safety patrols
2. Secondary
➢ Initiating driver education program. Students have reached the age to drive; hence, proper
driving habits should be stressed.
➢ School safety organizations
3. Tertiary
➢ Offer and conduct courses to public and private agencies regarding traffic safety subjects.

Traffic safety for children -This is highly unsystematic and is usually carried out in the home
through parental education and in kindergarten and nurseries. This is now necessary to make it
systematic to lessen the number of children fatalities and injuries

Traffic safety fo adults - It is the general belief that by being a better driver, it follows that one
becomes a better pedestrian. By knowing the limitations of the driver and the vehicle as a driving
student, one learns to watch out for dangerous cues such as pedestrian. This is the basic reason
why traffic safety education for adults usually deals only with the foundations or basics of driving.

Driver's Education
➢ In general driver instruction aims primarily to teach the rudiments of driving. Secondary aims are
as follows;
1. To instill awareness of one's legal and moral responsibilities in traffic.
2. To teach the abilities required for being eligible for a driver's license.
Public Information Programs - The public should be informed on all activities affecting the citizens
and the community relating to traffic.
Safety Campaign - This is a mass publicity aimed to make road users behave more safely. These
basically focus on public information attitudes, and particular or specific behaviors, or combinations
of these. Road propaganda may intend simply to inform or it may be felt that the public is already
aware of their recommended behavior by need to be persuaded into adopting it.

Safety Campaign Classification

1. According to purpose – maybe categorized as informational, attitudinal, and behavioral.
2. Kind of Appeal – used to reason by simply feeding the public with authenticated factual data.

Safety Campaign Design

➢ Initial Campaign Planning
➢ Final Campaign Design
➢ Campaign Evaluation

3. Traffic Enforcement - This pillar deals with the enforcement or implementation of traffic laws,
rules and regulations.
This involves the:
a. arrest
b. issuance of Temporary Operator's Permit (TOP)
c. inspection Report Summons,
d. warning of any person who is believed to have violated a law, ordinance, or regulation
pertaining to the use of traffic roads.

Agencies Responsible:
1. LTO ( licensing, registration and inspection)
2. Legislative bodies
3. Police Traffic Enforcement

Traffic Enforcement Cycle

I. Legislation - Activities in Traffic Enforcement
1. Passing of laws and ordinances
2. Congress
3. Councils (City/Municipal)
4. Provincial Boards
5. Appropriations of Budgets
II. Police - direct enforcement of traffic laws.
1. PNP
2. MMDA - NCR
3. POLICE Auxiliaries
III. Land Transportation Office (LTO)
1. Vehicle Registrations
2. Vehicle Inspections
3. Drivers licensing (examinations, suspensions, and revocations)
4. Public to police on stolen or wanted vehicles.

Two Major Functions of Traffic Law Enforcement

1. Police Traffic Law Enforcement - Enforcement of traffic laws deterrent to law violations,
special assistance to prosecutors and courts and incidental service to highway users.
2. Court Traffic Law Enforcement
a. PROSECUTION
b. ADJUDICATION
c. PENALIZATION of cases.

Three Important Goals Of Enfocement Activities

 1. To increase safety level - enforcement effort should be directed towards the reduction of
accidents of minimizing their effects.
2. To increase traffic efficiency.
3. To insure harmonious and comfortable environment.

Objectives of traffic law enforcement activities can be achieved through:

Preventive activities
Persuasive activities
Punitive activities

Three (3) Major Elements Of Traffic Enforcement System

1. Enforcement system - Consists of legislation, police and the courts. Legislation defines and
specifies correct or incorrect road use behavior. Police and the court are charged with the
responsibility of insuring that these laws are adhered to
2. Road user system - Includes pedestrians, pedal cyclist, drivers, passengers and others.
3. The traffic system - Consist of the entire road and vehicle complex, as well as all traffic rules
and regulations.

Five Essential Steps (Phases) In The Enforcement Process

1. Detection (of violation) - Entails looking for defects in the behavior of motorist, pedestrians,
vehicle, equipment and roadway condition.
2. Apprehension - Involves the actual taking of enforcement actions.
3. Prosecution - Provides corresponding influences through preparation and introduction of
evidence or close contact with the prosecuting officer.
4. Adjudication - This step determines the guilt or innocence of the accused
5. Penalization - The court imposes the penalty upon the accused. The penalty is greatly
influenced by previous records of conviction as provided by police.

Reasons For Violation Of Traffic Law

1. Physical disabilities or infirmities
2. Ignorance of traffic
3. Lack of training and experience
4. Wrong attitude towards driving
5. Drivers of public utility vehicles for increased compensation
6. Driver's apathy towards signs, signals and markings
7. Influential person violate because they feel they are exempted punishment.

Considerations that act as deterrents to motorist and pedestrians

1. Fear of fine or punishment
2. Loss of driving privileged
3. Possibility of being involved in accident
4. Positive area of good citizenship doing what is right and setting as an example.

Kinds Of Traffic Enforcement Action

1. Arrest - It is enforcement actions which consist of taking person into custody for the purpose
of holding or detaining him to answer a charge of law violation before a court.
Arrest is made when the:
a. the offense committed is serious;
b. detention is necessary to avoid continued violation; and
c. there is reasonable doubt that the violator will not appear in court.
2. Traffic citation - A means of having violators appear in court, without physical arrest.
Kinds of which are:
a. Traffic Citation Ticket
b. Temporary Operators Permit
3. Traffic warning - An enforcement action which does not contemplate possible assessment of
penalty by the court or otherwise as a results of warning alone.
Traffic Arrest - is an enforcement action, which consist of taking a person into custody for the
purpose of holding or detaining him to answer a charge of law violation before a court.

Arrest is made when the:

a. Offense committed is serious
b. Detention is necessary to avoid continued violation
c. There is reasonable doubt that the violator will appear in court

1. Arrest In Traffic
➢ Arrest can be affected even without warrant if the offense is committed in the presence of an
arresting officer.
➢ The officer making the arrest must intend to take the violator into custody for the purpose of
bringing him before a court
➢ Detention of the arrested person may take place.
➢ Officer making an arrest must act under legal authority when taking the arrested person into
custody.
➢ The person being arrested that he is being arrested.
➢ The purpose of arrest is to bring a suspended violator before a court to answer a charge of
violation.

2. Recording The Data Of Arrest

The officer or agency uses, the following information is necessary:
a. Date/time of arrest.
b. Place of arrest
c. The common name of the offense for which the person is arrested
d. The full name of the arrested person, his home address, his business address and his
telephone number.
e. Physical description of the arrestee, including his date of birth, nationality and marital status.
f. Name of the witnesses to the arrest.
g. Name of the badge number of arresting officer

3. When Taking A Person Into Custody

a. Consider the possibility that the person you are arresting may attempt to injure or kill you or
escape in your custody.
b. Inform him that your are placing him under arrest.
c. Explain to him why your are placing him under arrest.
d. Reasonable search may be carried out in connection with the lawful arrest.

4. When Transporting Arrested Person

a. If your unit is equipped with radio, request for transportation unit and maintain custody of your
prisoner until it arrives.
b. Give instructions to transporting officer about the place where the arrestee is to be delivered.
c. Have the necessary information and instructions written out so that the transporting officer will
not comit error in the delivery
d. In certain conditions, direct the arrested person to drive his own vehicle to your Headquarters
and follow him with your police mobile. However, if the driver is not in good condition or the
vehicle is in bad shape, let some one drive the vehicle to the Headquarters.

5. Warrantless Arrest Or Citizen'S/Civilian Arrest

Sec 5. Rule 113. Rules of Court - A peace officer or a private person may, without a warrant, arrest a
person:
a. When, in his presence, the person to be arrested has committed, is actually committing, or is
attempting to commit an offense:
b. When an offense has just been committed and he has probable cause to believe based on
personal knowledge of facts or circumstances that the person to be arrested has committed; and
c. When the person to be arrested is a prisoner who has escaped form a penal establishment or
place where he is serving final judgment or is temporarily confinement to another
Traffic Citation - a means of having violators appear in court without physical arrest.
Apprehension - As an apprehending officer duly designated by the LTO, you may confiscate the
driver's license or certificate of registration of the vehicle for any violation of the RA 4136 and its
rules and regulations, City and Municipal Ordinances. You should fill out the blank spaces of
TOP/TCT forms in order to provide a detailed report of apprehension for the information, guidance
and reference of all concerned.

Filling Of Information/Complaint
a. Within twenty-four (24) hours from the time of apprehension, file the complaints, together with
the confiscated items, with the Clerk of Court or Provincial Prosecutor or the court having
appropriate jurisdiction.
b. When the driver is charged for violating RA 4136 and its rules and regulations, the traffic
enforcement unit forwards the confiscated license/permit/CR plus the original copy of the
TOP/TCT to the LTO or to its nearest branch office within twenty-four (24) hours from the time of
apprehension.

Process of Traffic Citation Ticket and Temporary Operators Permit - violator should report
within seventy-two (72) hours, but not less than twenty-four (24) hours to give allowance for proper
transmittal's from receipt thereof to:
a. Traffic Court, if in Manila and for violation of the City's Traffic Ordinance. City/provincial
Prosecutor, if in other chartered cities or provincial capitals without traffic courts, for violations of
local traffic ordinances.
b. Municipal court, in its municipalities, for violation of local traffic ordinances.
c. LTO Central Office for Metro Manila or its counterparts [REGIONAL TRAFFIC
ADJUDICATION SERVICE (RTAS)] for violation of the Hand Transportation and Traffic Code
(RA 4136), and its rules and in the provinces regulations.

How To Use The Temporary Operator' Permit (Top)/Or Traffic Citation Ticket (Tct) And/Or
Traffic Violator'S Receipt (Tvr).
These are official documents designed for various purposes, namely:
a. It serves as a receipt for the confiscation of a vehicle or the driver's license or the CR/OR of
the vehicle.
b. It serves as a temporary permit to operate motor vehicles for seventy-two (72) hours without
extension from the time of confiscation or apprehension (in case of TVR in Manila, 7 days).
c. It is an official forgot judicial or administrative citation to facilitate action on the case for which
it is issued. It is a record for disposing a case cited therein, either administratively or judiciary.
d. It is also a receipt for release of the confiscated items after adjudication and termination of the
case.

Preliminary Findings And Disposition Of License

a. Within seventy-two (72) hours or three (3) days from the filing of the case with the respective
traffic enforcement offices, the hearing authority shall make immediate preliminary findings on
the basis of police or complaining witnesses reports as to whether or not there is on imperative
necessity of withholding the driver's license confiscated.
b. Should there be no such necessity, he shall promptly order the return of the confiscated
license to the owner without prejudice to re-calling said license. where the violator fails to appear
before the court or the investigating official concerned, his license/permit Shall be forwarded to
the LTO for its suspension or revocation pursuant to Sec. 29 RA 4136.

Court Proceeding of Traffic Violation

a. Violator appears in Court within fifteen (15) days and pleads guilty, the Clerk shows the fine
schedule and the violators pays the fine at the Treasurer's Office, receipt of which is shown to
Clerk of Court who records the same on the TOP, and his license, if cleared for release, is now
returned to the driver.
 b. If the violator appears after fifteen (15) days, his license is forwarded to the LTO for
suspension or revocation; he shows his TOP copy to the LTO for proper disposition of his
license. Clerks of Courts, in every case, should inform the LTO and/or the apprehending officer
of the final disposition of the case.

c. The violator appears in Court and desires not to plead guilty to the charge, the Clerk of Court
sets the date of hearing and notifies the accused accordingly and sends a corresponding
subpoena to the apprehending officer for his appearance.

d. When the accused is found not guilty after trial, his license, if in the possession of the Court or
of the LTO, shall immediately be returned to him unless there is any other legal ground for its
suspension or revocation.

Traffic Warning - an enforcement action which does not contemplate possible assessment of
penalty by the court or otherwise as a result of warning alone.
3 Types Of Traffic Warning
1. Visual - usually used when you have observed a minor violation but are more importantly
occupied at a moment. Indicate by gesture of the hand and/or of the head.
2. Verbal - a form of safety education. Tell the driver/violator that he violated a law and
explain the hazards of such violations.
3. Written - combination of verbal warning and citations. It gives The spirit of verbal warning
and the form of citation

Decision Enforcement - In determining what enforcement action to be taken, whether you arrest,
cite or warn the apprehended violator, consider the following:
1. Degree of violation;
2. Accuracy of observation;
3. Traffic and weather condition;
4. Evidence gathered;
5. Whether a new law or not; and
6. Continuous or momentary actions, a factor in some type of violations.

Types of Violation
1. Non-Hazardous Violations
➢ Pursuit to apprehend this violator seldom warrants a prolonged chase or operation of your
police vehicle at high speed.
➢ These violations do not justify the same degree of risk as may be justified as hazardous
violations
2. Hazardous Violations - those which present continuing danger to other road users require
immediate and sometime aggressive pursuit.

Driving Skill And Experience - Driving skill is that collection of proper habits, which enable a
person to detect and evaluate road and traffic, conditions about him, and to maneuver his vehicle
properly without consciously thinking about what he is doing.

Check Your Skill In These Areas:

1. Manipulative skills - making your vehicle behave as you intend.
2. Recognizing road and traffic conditions that may hinder your pursuit.
3. Defensive driving - anticipating and allowing bad driving by others.

Resisting Distraction - You should know what evasive actions would permit you to avoid or escape
unfavorable traffic conditions. A driver can often protect himself from danger if he knows how to
recognize the danger in time and take proper evasive action. An officer in pursuit of a violator has the
responsibility to do more than the average driver to avoid hazards to him and others.

Pursuit Techniques
1. Know your limitations and strength in driving a patrol vehicle under normal conditions.
 2. Good driving combined with effective techniques will help to minimize the dangers involved in
pursuit in high speed.
3. Normal driving skill is not automatically improved by wearing a police uniform, or by having a
police car to operate.

Traffic Supervision - This is defined as keeping order on streets, and highways within existing
regulations to make their use safe and expeditious
Traffic Control - The control of vehicles or pedestrian at a certain point or area by mechanical
means, fixed objects or manpower.

Major Causes of Traffic Jams

1. Multiple Head-on Collisions - Statistics tell us that the impact of any head-on collision on the
highway is beyond comprehension for flesh and debris littered on the roadways. An even
experienced investigator is sometimes shocked at the gory sight of the tragedy and may cause
his investigation in snail pace. This undue delay is an invitation to traffic jams.
2. Flooded Area - The cause may be attributed to clog drainage network or engineering failure
to consider the interplay of ecology in road constructions.
3. Bridged Collapsed - Rampaging flood due to heavy downpour may cause soil erosion of the
river bank and in the process weak bridge foundation, collapsed.
4. Landslide - Denudation of the forests, causes to loosen the earth surface and as a
consequence of torrential rains may cause the earth and boulders to fall or landslide.
5. Overturned Forty-Footer Van - When detach may go wayward or uncontrollable and rest
across the street, constricting of fully block the road to traffic. Its removal can only be effected
by a ten-toner towing machine.
6. Logs Rolled from the Trailer Trucks - A freak accident but may precipitate at traffic jam if
strewn across the road for its removal cannot be made manually but only either to heavy crane
or bulldozer.
7. Oil Leaks - From tanker that covers three to five kilometer oil leaks on cemented pavement
could create pandemonium traffic accidents that would give rise to suits and counter-suits.

Instant Solutions to Traffic Jams

1. One Way Traffic - An important tool to decongest the traffic standstill until such time that the
density of the vehicle is reduced to accommodate the regular flow.
2. Counter-Flow Traffic - A temporary scheme when the volume of one lane direction is so
saturated that the movement of the vehicles is practically nil, while the flow of the opposite’s
direction is light in scale, the only solution under the circumstances if to counter-flow.
3. Re-Routing of Traffic - When the density of vehicles in opposite directions has reached such
proportion tantamount to a complete halt of movement, the only alternatives is to adapt the re-
routing of traffic to secondary streets.
4. Diverting of Traffic - When the magnitude of traffic conflicts was on vast scales: flooded
area, landslide, bridge collapsed and other contingencies, the only feasible solution is diversion
of traffic. The difference between re-routing and diverting of traffic, the latter is large in scope,
long and tedious in perspective.
5. To Open Private Roads for Temporary Access - Most often than not, residents of exclusive
subdivisions vigorously opposed the use of their roads under the many real or imaginary pretext.
But the objection can be assailed under the police power of the state.
6. Stop-and-Go Signal - One of the secrets to unlock the monstrous traffic gridlock is for one
lane to move. Unless this can be affected the problem would be aggravated by the passage of
time.The scheme should only be implemented when other alternative is seemingly
un-adaptable.
7. X-Option - When the situation is so grave that solutions are nowhere in sight, traffic enforcers
should adapt the multi-options as the viable approach to solve the traffic orgy.

Itemized Identification Features Of The Vehicle

1. COLOR - for example, red, black, etc.. When the vehicle has more than one color, first give
the color of the body and then the top, i.e., black body. gray top
 2. YEAR OF MANUFACTURE - learn to identify the year model of a vehicle, i.e., "1996".
3. MAKE - Honda, Toyota, Mitsubishi, Isuzu, etc..
4. BODY TYPE - Pick-up, wagon, 4dr sedan, truck, etc..
5. LICENSE PLATE NUMBER - city or province of issuance, letter and number prefixes, i.e.,
AAA 450
6. OUTSTANDING FEATURES AND ACCESSORIES - "wide-bank racing stripe", vinyl top,
particular damage which are noticeable as crumbled fender, damaged door, or cracked door.
7. UNUSUAL FEATURES OF THE DRIVER OR PASSENGERS - clothing, air, glasses, etc..
8. OUTSTANDING FEATURES AND ACCESSORIES - "wide-bank racing stripe", vinyl top,
particular damage which are noticeable as crumbled fender, damaged door, or cracked door.
9. TINUSUAL FEATURES OF THE DRIVER OR PASSENGERS - clothing, air, glasses, etc..

Stopping And Approaching A Violator

1. Stopping and approaching is complete when you have stopped the violator's vehicle and
move to the place where you will begin to talk to the driver.
2. In stopping a violator, it must be done in safety to you, the driver you stopped, to other drivers
and pedestrians.
3. Approach the violator preferably on the left side from the rear and be alert for the unexpected.

4. TRAFFIC ECOLOGY OR TRAFFIC ENVIRONMENT - The study with potentially disastrous

population explosion, changes in urban environment due to the scale and density of new urban
concentration and new activities carried out, air pollution, water pollution and crowding, especially
transport congestion, which result therein.
This is a recent pillar of traffic management deals with the environmental safety
against:
1. Noise
2. Vibration
3. Air pollution
4. Dirt
5. Visual Intrusion
6. loss of privacy
7. changes in tha amount of light
8. others

External Factors that influences the existing and Future behavior of traffic
1. Rapidly increasing population growth
2. Rapidly increasing urbanization
3. Rapidly increasing motorization
4. Industrialization and technical modernization
5. Improvement of the transportation networks that is the street network and the public
transportation facilities.

External Factors
➢ Driving is not a theoretical fixture. In driving, the attitudinal norms of drivers are varied,
subject to the tempo of time and space, cultural relativism, values and environment.
➢ Behavioral patterns of drivers are disturbed by the external factor of environmental elements
on the roadways decreases the driver’s skills, keen perception and sound judgment. If
drivers are unaware of these unwanted variables while cruising the highways, they are
courting dangers and thus, prone to accidents. The following are the common external
factors:

1. Heat - It is a form of energy which causes the body to rise in temperature, to fuse and to evaporate
that can excite emotionally the driver’s skill while behind the wheels.
2. Storm
➢ This atmosphere disturbance with strong winds and rains is usually accompanied by thunder
and lightning. With these ambient atmosphere and environmental mal-conditions, the drive
on wheels is affected physiologically and emotionally. At the height of heavy
 downpour and torrential rains the visual range is limited impairing his effective control of the
vehicle.
➢ Under these adverse conditions, the driver must have stock of theoretical and practical
knowledge in driving for experience alone is not sufficient to measure proficiency.
3. Fog
➢ Unlike the cloud which is visible mass above the earth’s surface, fog is condensed water
vapor in cloudlike masses that forms close to the ground. This feature is its distinctive
difference.
➢ Sometimes fog is caused by masses of floating materials of either dust or smoke that
obscures the visibility of the driver to less than 1, 100 yards. Irritated by this environmental
phenomenon, judgment of the driver is substantially affected not knowing what to do and
what not to do. Against those backdrops, driver should be guided not by the dictates of the
heart but by the wisdom of the mind.
➢ In countries where the weather condition is foggy, vehicle should be equipped with a yellow
for lights. Although there is negative finding that yellow light does not totally penetrate the
foggy weather, however, in the absence of viable alternative, the usability of yellow fog lights
has its universal acceptance.

Internal Factors
➢ Internal factors is a behavioral pattern of man which appears early in life. Many voices are
advocating the hypothesis of relationship between stress and environment. Even doctors failed
to identify the true traits of the individual which most often do not surface in his personality test.
➢ While today there is commonality of consensus that internal factors reacts on the chemistry of
environment, still a need arises for savants to the further flex their intellectual muscles to act as
arbiter of the present and future destiny of the drivers tailored on human dimensions.

The following are the most common identifiable internal factors that cause road accidents:

1. Personality - It is in this internal factor that distinctly distinguishes an individual driver from other
drivers in relation to environment. The qualities of the driver constitute his personal being and social
traits. His personality is best tested when confronted by the greatest odds of the environmental factors.
2. Character
➢ From the beginning of time, the complex characters as to behavior and habits, attitudes and
interests and personal philosophy in life distinguishes a particular driver from the other.
Another scientific marvel is the discovery of a detectable organism that is the result pf the
presence of gene or group of genes that differentiates one driver from the other.
➢ Driver may probably have developed the tenacity for survival, but his character may yield to
massive onslaught of a violent environment, and thus brook peril and misfortunes while
behind the wheels. Drivers by way of omissions succumb to human lapses and adversarial
curse of the environment which may end in road accident.
3. Epilepsy - The word epilepsy is derived from the Greek word, “epilambanein,” meaning to take
hold. It is defined as a chronic nervous disorder of the human brain affecting the man’s
consciousness and muscular control with various degrees of severity. It may be congenital of brain
damage caused by tumor, injury, glandular imbalance or toxic substances and may result in
convulsions or lost of consciousness.
4. Sleeping Sickness
➢ A chronic disease e occurring in tropical countries like Africa, this is caused by parasites
“trypanosoma gambiense” and “rhodosiense” and carried by flies.
➢ It causes fever, physical and mental lethargy, and very often death.It also occurs in Central
Africa and commonly called “encyphalitis lethargica.”
➢ What is pathetic is that this incidence becomes common to drivers while cruising along the
mountain trails and forested areas, when stung by these insects, the tendency of the
driver’s body function is to diminish or at worst, cease. This in effect is an ominous sign that
danger lurks ahead as the driver may lose control off the vehicle which may ultimately end
in road mishap or may flung into the deep ravine.
Threats to Environment
➢ As one travels on the highways or roadways, probably they are unmindful of the following
environmental threats to man and nature:

1. Greenhouse Effect - Scientifically, the greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that makes
earth habitable, without which the earth would be frozen like Mars and other celestial bodies.
2. Ozone Depletion - The disastrous effect of ozone depletion is the uncontrolled emission of
ultra-violet light and not climatic change. Ozone per se is an allotropic form of oxygen created when
oxygen molecules are bombarded with ultra-violet rays from the sun. If the ozone layer fails to
absorb the ultra violet rays from passing the earth’s surface, the ultra-violet radiations causes skin
cancer and cataracts.
3. World-wide Effect - Change in UV-B radiation may have been caused by a chemical reaction as
a consequence of gases spewed into the atmosphere by volcano eruption. Other scientific findings
have reported that measurements by satellite and by high-altitude balloons detected record of
thinning of ozone due to volcanic eruption.
4. Effect in Climate - The transition fro the Ice Age to warmer weather in which our civilization
flourished took only a few decades, and the climate could change as quickly as possible.

Motor Vehicle and Its Effects to Environment

➢ In so many words the major environmental effects of the use of motor vehicles are air and
noise pollution:

1. Air Pollution
➢ The most lethal effect of motor vehicle is the pollution caused by engine exhaust. The finding
shows that the carbon monoxide emission has higher percentage in highly urbanized areas.
➢ Air pollution is usually measured in terms of concentration of pollutants over time, such as
parts per million of air per hour or in terms of pollution to vehicle usage in grams per vehicle-
mile.
➢ The primary pollutants in motor vehicles exhausts are carbon monoxide (CO); hydro-
carbons (HC); nitrogen oxides (NO); mostly nitrogen dioxide; lead (Pb), and particulate
matter. Likewise, larger engines emit considerable amounts of sulfur oxides (SO), mostly
sulfur dioxide.

2. Noise Pollution
➢ Less dangerous than air pollutions, but admittedly more vexing and annoying, is the problem
of vehicular noise. Of several sources of vehicular noise, the cars tire-roadway interaction
and truck exhaust noise have been identified as the primary cause of noise pollution.
➢ Noise levels are measured in decibels (dB) on a logarithmic, rather than in arithmetic scales.
Study showed that a decrease of only 10dB would whisper at 5 feet (1.5 m) will register
about 34 dB; the interior of a quiet office will average 55 dB; and the sound level at the side
of an expressway may be as high as 90 dB.
➢ The effects of traffic noise on human seem to be more psychological than physiological.
Several studies have pointed to “annoyance” as being the widespread effect. There is no
question that highway noises alone can causer hearing damage, but the effects of noise
annoyance on behavior and mental health cannot be disregarded.

Pollutants Caused by Motor Vehicles

➢ The following pollutants are known to cause damage to vegetation and thus, to man:

1. Ozone - As a component of the photochemical complex, ozone is considered to one of the

most damaging air pollutants to vegetation. Ozone produces a characteristics fleck of stipple on
 the upper surfaces of sensitive plants. Prolonged exposure or high concentrations will cause
complete tissue collapse.
2. Peroxyacyl Nitrate (PAN) - PAN can produce the characteristics systems of glazing or
bronzing of the lower surfaces of the younger leaves of sensitive plants. Even a low
concentrations, i.e., 0.01 ppm for 8 hours, PAN produces chlorosis and early senescence.
3. Hydrocarbons - Ethylene is the only hydrocarbon from vehicle exhaust that is known to
cause a variety of symptoms in many plants, including early senescence, chronic injury, flower
and fruit drop, and growth suppression.
4. Carbon Monoxide - The effects produced by carbon monoxide are similar to those of
ethylene; however, the concentrations must be very high.
5. Petrol Additives - Lead, nickel, boron and manganese are known to be toxic to plants to
accumulate in sufficient quantities. The additives may accumulate in plant tissue without injuring
the vegetation, but they may prove toxic to animals and human being who obtain food from
these plants.

The Laws of Nature as Applied to Motor Vehicles

➢ Some of known laws of nature that affects the skill of the driver and efficiency of the
machine in relation to environment are as follows:

1. Inertia - It is the first law of motion as espoused by an undisputed man of science.

a. Inertia of Rest - Any object at rest will remain at rest unless no external factor forced it to
move.This is the reason why it is difficult to push stalled vehicle at rest.
b. Inertia of Motion - Any object in motion will constantly move in straight line unless other
forces intervene to change its speed or course. This explains why a stalled vehicle when in
motion finds no greater obstacle to gain momentum of speed. This law of motion gives birth to
the development of seat belt and other accessories to cushion the impact from the abrupt
change from inertia of rest to inertia of motion.
2. Centrifugal Force
➢ A scientific term of force that pushes a moving object in circular motion away from the
center. To better understand its effects, if a ball is tied to a string and whirled around in fast
speed, the pulling of the ball in circular path away from the center is known as centrifugal
force. And is the string breaks from the ball it shall not follow the circular path of motion but
will follow the direction where the string breaks.
➢ Similarly, a car negotiating a curved road is subject to same force as the ball and string
model. The car is to the ball and the string to the friction between the tire and the road.
Thus, if the friction breaks the car will skid or careen-off the roadways.

* To cushion the effect of centrifugal force on curve roads, man has developed three kinds of road
surfaces on curves, these are:

1. Crowned Curve - Is designated to better serve the drainage system but not necessarily the safety
factor, especially on high speed. The curve according to studies, press the car against the road
surface, in effect lessening the friction between the tires and pavements.
2. Flat Curve - According to authorities it offers no resistance to skidding onward, hence, dangerous
at high speed.
3. Bunked Curve- Of the three, bunked curve is unquestionably the best for the inertia of motion—it
is counteracted by the nature of the road on the car.
4. Gravity
➢ Simply stated, it is a kind of force that tends to pull all objects to the center of earth. To the
layman, the effect of gravity can be better noticed when a car is negotiating an uphill trend.
Because of the gravity, it needs to accelerate its power to counter-balance the pull.
➢ But in downhill course, driver should be extra-cautious because of the braking force of the
engine pull and gravity pull are on the same direction and must be counteracted, otherwise
the car may careen off the roadway if uncontrolled.
➢ It should be noted that the center of gravity of an object is the point where its weight is evenly
balance. This is the rationale why the car designs—the center of gravity is taken into
consideration to forestall a turn-turtle when the car suddenly changes its course while in
motion.
5. Kinetic Energy
➢ It is an established fact that anything that moves possesses this kind of energy. It is safe to
conclude, therefore, that any energy of motion is denominated as kinetic energy.
➢ To better appreciate its importance, a car traveling at higher speed demands a period of time
before it can totally stop, because the greater the speed of moving object, the greater it is
kinetic energy. Unless the driver is conversant of the implication of this law of nature, he is at
peril to meet an accident on sudden brake.
5. Friction
➢ It is that kind of natural force that causes resistance of one surface against the other when it
comes to contact. This could be better observed when a car either moves or starts.
➢ According to studies, the increase or decrease of friction on the pavements depends whether
the road is dry or wet. However, there are three factors that could reduce the road-wheel
friction.
a. Weather condition.
b. Worn tire thread.
c. Bumpy road.

6. Force of Impact - The amount of force when two objects collide is known as force of impact and
it expressed in pounds. This force according to authorities is determined by:
a. The speed of the moving object and the angle at which they collide.
b. The weight of the object or objects.
c. The distance within which an object is stopped after the initial impact.

Laws in relation to Traffic Ecology

P.D. 1181 (Clean Air Act) - Providing for the prevention, control and abatement of Air Pollution
from motor vehicles and for other purposes.
Section 1 - The purpose is to prevent, control, and abate the emission of air pollutants from
motor vehicles in order to protect the health and welfare of the people and to prevent or
minimize damage to property and hazards to land transportation.
L.O.I 551 - directing the law enforcement agencies to implement the pollution control program.

5. TRAFFIC ECONOMY
➢ This is the most recent pillar of traffic management which deals with the benefits and adverse
effect or traffic to our country. Traffic operation is designed to expedite the movement of traffic.
Traffic congestion adversely affects the economic status of the commuting public.
➢ It deals with the benefits and adverse effects of traffic to our economy. Traffic operation is
designed to expedite the movement of traffic. However, with prevailing traffic congestion during
rush hours in any given locality adversely affect the economic status of the commuting public.
➢ One aspect affecting our economy is the unending increase of oil prices in the world market.
➢ Delay resulting from traffic congestion affects not only the time of travel but the productivity of an
individual as well

Chapter IV. Traffic Patrol

➢ May be conducted on area or line bases, which refer to the territory covered. It includes, for
enforcement purposes, stationary observation to detect drivers' behavior as well as moving
about to detect violators.
➢ Refers to the observation of road conditions, the behavior of the drivers and other users of
vehicles for the purpose of traffic supervision and law enforcement and providing authorized
traffic-connected services to the public.

Types Of Stationary Observation - Stationary observation may be conspicuous, visible, or

concealed, depending upon the location of the patrol unit in relation to the street under observation.
a. Conspicuous Observation - Stationary observation in which observer remains in full view of
traffic conditions,
b. Visible Observation - Stationary observation in which the observer is in full view but so
located,so as to require effort on the part of traffic users to discover the observer, for example, at
side street.
 c. Concealed Observation - Stationary observation in which the observer is not visible to
persons using ordinary power of observation form from the roadway being observed.

3. PURPOSE OF TRAFFIC PATROL

4. DETER DRIVER FROM VIOLATING
5. DETER VIOLATOR FOR UNSAFE DRIVING
6. EXAMPLE OF ACTIONS AND CONDITIONS WHICH MAY NEED CLOSE WATCHING FOR
FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS
7. DETECTING AND APPREHENDING VIOLATORS
8. OBSERVING TRAFFIC CONDITIONS - Ears and Eyes of a person is considered
9. ROAD INTELLIGENCE - Application of the knowledge acquired in road safety.
10. PATROL ASSIGNMENT
11. PATROL TACTICS AND TECHNIQUES

Chapter V. Traffic Accident Investigation

➢ Is defined as the process of systematic collection and analysis of information relating to a
accident that led to the loss of property , time or health of individuals or even the loss of life.
➢ It is also considered as the scientific and academic analysis of the facts that occured during
the accident.

What is a Traffic Accident - Is the occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces
unintended injury, death, or property damage, or a “traffic accident” is something happened that was
not expected. Criminal charges arising out of traffic accidents are mostly due to negligence on the
part of the driver. Negligence means “failure to take proper care.”
There are two (2) main kinds:
1. Errors of Commission - Where a person does thing that he should not have done.
2. Errors of Omission - Where a person does not do something he should have done.

Purposes:
1. Everyone involved is curious about the cause and circumstances of the accident
2. For the Police – to find out wether the is enough evidence of law violation in the accident
3. Insurance agencies and adjusters want to determine negligence on the part of the drivers
involved in the accident so that damage claims can be properly adjusted.
4. Officials wanted to know specific information about the incident to formulate policies in the
prevention of the same

5 Cardinal Points of Traffic Investigation

a. WHAT happened?
b. WHO and WHAT was involved?
c. WHERE did it happen?
d. Why did it happen?
e. HOW did the accident occur?
f. WHEN did the accident happen?

CAUSES OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENT

1. Direct Causes – the direct causes of an accident are observable by witness and participants,
or may be constructed from physical evidence found at the scene. Since a direct cause relates
to the action of the human part of the traffic unit concerned it is a behavior cause. Usually only
four direct causes are considered in accident investigation;
a. Initial Behavior - Any movement, position, or failure to signal intent to make a traffic
maneuver that creates a dangerous situation and is either hazardous, illegal, improper, or
unusual may be initial behavior of a nature justly term a direct cause of an accident.
b. Speed - Too fast for conditions is the direct cause of many accidents.
c. Delayed Perception - Is inattention to the major task of operating a motor vehicle, and
occurs when the driver is distracted by conversation with other occupants of the car,
lighting a cigarette or cigar, looking at a roadway or the scenery, or glancing at occupants of
nearby vehicles.
 d. Faulty Evasive Action - Faulty evasive action always occurs after perception and is the
reaction of a driver or pedestrian to a hazardous situation on the highway.
2. Mediate and Early Causes
➢ These mediate and early causes of an accident are also termed condition causes in
formalized accident investigation procedure. A mediate cause of an accident occurs
between the early and the direct causes in the time span leading to the accident, but it
has a closer relationship to the direct cause than to the early causes.
➢ A mediate cause should not be listed unless it explains the direct cause of an accident.
A mediate cause of an accident is an irregular or unusual condition of a vehicle, the
road, the weather, or of a road user (driver or pedestrian) that explains on of the four
direct causes of an accident: initial behavior, speed, delayed perception and faulty
evasive action.
3. Early Causes
➢ An early cause of an accident results from the act of any individual, or the failure to act
by any person, which creates conditions leading to the chain of events making up an
accident.
➢ An early cause of an accident has been defined as an act or negligence on the part of
an individual or an organization which causes or permits a mediate cause to exist.

Terms to Remember:
1. Traffic - refers to the movement of persons, goods, or vehicles, either powered by
combustion system or animal drawn, from one place to another for the purpose of travel.
2. Accident - is that occurrence in a sequence of events, which usually produces unintended
injury, death, or property damage.
3. Traffic Accident - an accident involving travel transportation on a traffic way.
4. Motor Vehicle Accident - is any event that results in unintended injury or property damage
attributable directly or indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or its loads.
5. Motor Vehicle - is every device, which is self-propelled, and every vehicle, which is propelled
by electric power obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not operated upon rails.
6. Traffic Way - is the entire width between boundary lines of every way or place of which any
part is open to the use of the public for purposes of vehicular traffic as a matter of right or
custom.
7. Roadway - the portion of a traffic way that is unproved, designed or ordinarily used for
vehicular travel, exclusive of the shoulder.
8. Key Event - an event on the road, which characterizes the manner of occurrence of a motor
vehicle traffic accident.
9. Debris - is the accumulation of broken parts of vehicles rubbish, dust and other materials left
at the scene of the accident by a collision.
10. Traffic Unit - Is any person using a traffic way for travel, parking or other purposes as a
pedestrian or driver, including any vehicle, or animal, which he is using.
11. Hazards - A hazard is generated when a critical space-motion relationships between a
traffic unit and another object develops due to the movement of either or both.
12. Safe Speed - The speed adjusted to the potential or possible hazards or the road and
traffic situation ahead. The road rather than the particular driver of a vehicle determines safe
speed on the road.
13. Right of way
➢ is a strip of land that is granted, through an easement or other mechanism for
transportation purposes such as for a trail, driveway, rail line or highway.
➢ the legal right, established by usage or grant, to pass along a specific route through
property belonging to another.

Kinds Of Traffic Accidents

1. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident - is any motor vehicle accident occurring on a traffic way.
2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident - is any motor vehicle accident which occurs entirely in
any place other than a traffic way.
3. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident - is any accident occurring on a traffic way involving
persons using the traffic way or travel or transportation, but not involving a motor vehicle in
motion.
Classification Of Accident According To Severity
a. Property Damage Accident - Motor vehicle accident where there is no fatal or injury to any
person but only damage to the motor vehicle or to other property including injury to animals.
b. Slight Fatal Injury Accident - accident causing slight damages to properties.
c. Non - Fatal Injury Accident - any motor vehicle accident that results in injuries other than
fatal to one or more persons.
d. Fatal Injury Accident - any motor vehicle accidents that results in death to one or more
persons.

Chain Of Events In A Vehicular Accident

a. Perception of hazard - is seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the usual or
unexpected movement or condition that could be taken as sign of the accident about to happen.
b. Start of evasive action - is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from a collision
course or otherwise avoid a hazard.
c. Initial Contact - is a first accidental touching of an object collision course or otherwise avoid a
hazard.
d. Maximum Engagement - is greatest collapse or overlap in a collision, the force between the
traffic unit and the object collided with are greatest at maximum engagement.
e Disengagement - separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object with which it has collided,
force between the object ceases at this time.
f. Stopping - is coming to rest. It usually stabilizes the accident situation.
g. Injury To Perons And Damage To Property

The Three Points in Traffic Accident

1. Point of Possible Perception
➢ It is the place and time at which the unusual or unexpected movement or condition could
have been perceived by a normal person. This point always comes at or before the point of
perception. Delay in perception or perception time between the point of possible perception
and the actual perception. If the hazard is actually perceived as soon as nearly as possible,
perception is said to be prompt. Maximum delay of perception occurs when the traffic unit
does not sense a hazard until hit it.
➢ The perception point and the point of possible perception are used mainly in trying to discover
and evaluate contributions of drivers and pedestrian to accidents. Did the driver do anything
or fail to do anything before the perception point that contributed to his difficulty. Inattention is
probably the most common contribution of driers to their delayed perception; but speed is a
common contributor to accidents before perception point. The perception point is particularly
useful in trying to discover what the driver or pedestrian did or should have done but did not
do to avoid the accident or to make it less serious.

2. Point of No Escape
➢ Is that place and time after or beyond which the accident cannot be prevented by the traffic
unit under consideration. Nothing the driver or pedestrian can do will save him from this point
on, although he still may be able to mitigate the accident—for example, by slowing down as
much as possible before a collision. Sometimes the point of no escape and point of perception
are the same. Sometimes the point of no escape comes before the point of perception, for
example when a person’s attention is diverted until just before the crash. Often the point of
no escape comes after the point of perception. This circumstance generally indicates faulty
judgment on the part of the driver in his attempt to prevent the impending accident.
3. Point of Impact
➢ It is term which, although widely used in connection with traffic accidents, does not seem to
have very precise meaning. Impact generally means the same thing as collision but it also
means the force involved. Point of impact is sometimes used to mean the same as point of
initial contact, sometimes used to mean the same as point of maximum engagement and
sometimes center of force. Because the term has varied meanings, other more specific terms
are preferable.
Basic Steps in Traffic Accident Investigation
1. Go to the scene as quickly as possible.
2. Park correctly to avoid further collision and facilitate traffic flow.
3. Assess the situation and call for whatever assistance is necessary.
4. Care to injured and protect their personal property.
5. Protect the scene against additional collision.
6. Locate drivers and establish identities.
7. Interview drivers, participants and witnesses.
8. Note and record physical conditions at the scene, locations of vehicles and evidence.
9. Take photograph when possible
10. Test and inspect the vehicles when applicable.
11. Arrest or cite violators when applicable.
12. Have the scene cleared up.
13. Follow-up at the hospital.
14. Notify relative and survivors.
15. Prepare reports.

Five Levels of Activities in Accident Investigation

✓ Reporting – it involves basic data collection to identify and classify a motor vehicle, traffic
and persons, property and planned movements involved.
✓ Scene Investigation – involves all action taken by the investigator at the scene of the crime
or accident.
✓ Technical Preparation – involves delayed traffic accident data collection and organization
for study and interpretation.
✓ Professional Reconstruction – involves effort to determine from whatever information is
available, how the accident happened.
✓ Cause Analysis – involves the final analysis on the cause of accident.

Hit & Run Investigation

➢ The search for physical evidence at the scene of a hit-and-run accident must be done
properly and quickly because it is not possible to close-off and guard the scene of this kind
of crime? The roads must be cleared to permit ordinary flow of traffic as soon as possible?
Another problem is that passing vehicles will crush of blow away important pieces of small
physical evidence. The following are the good ways of searching the scene of a hit-and-run
accident:
1. Look over the ground at what seems to be the point of collision.
2. Follow the path that the vehicle took in leaving the scene to find out if it left tire prints
in the soft dirt, or where parts of the vehicle or broken glass fell off as is drove away.
3. Study the objects the vehicle has struck to see if there is a transfer of physical
evidence like paint.
4. Look for things that may have spilled from the vehicle.
➢ The investigator should collect all materials found at the scene of the crime which cannot
satisfactorily explained.Broken parts of the motor vehicle are the most important physical
evidence in hit-and-run accidents. When the broken parts match parts still on the car, this is
a good positive identification. Broke parts are more important than damaged parts. Part of a
broken bumper of door handle is better than a damaged hubcap.

Proving Driving - In all case of traffic offense, intoxicated driving or hit-and-run, the first and most
important thing that must be proved is that the accused person was driving the car at the time of the
offense. This can be done either by eye witnesses or by physical evidence. But it must be proved.
The investigator must not assume that the owner of the vehicle was the person actually driving it.

Nature of Common Hit & Cases

1. Run over of pedestrian crossing on the roadway or crosswalk.
2. Sideswiped of pedestrian on the sidewalk or road shoulders.
 3. Collided with a moving vehicle while overtaking on same direction.
4. Collided with a moving vehicle while overtaking on opposite direction.
5. Damaged parked vehicle along the roadside and parking areas.
6. Crushed police road blocks.
7. Bumped stray animal on the roadway.

Technical Preparation - Delayed traffic accident data collection and organization for study and
interpretation.The data collected are essentially factual. Technical preparation includes making
additional measurements and photographs, preparing maps and diagrams, simple speed estimates,
matching damage areas, and making experiments to obtain specific data. It is third level of traffic
accident.

Triangulation - A method of locating a spot in the area by measurements from two or more reference
points, the location of which are identical for future reference. Compare with coordinates.

Skidmarks As Tool In Traffic Accident Investigation

Skidmarks are tire impression on road surface a result of sudden application of brakes.

Implications Of Skidmarks
➢ Measurements of skidmarks gives idea on how fast the car which left these marks was
going before the accident
➢ Estimates of speed based on skidmarks may lead to convictions; or knowing how to
estimate speed correctly may help keep an innocent person from being convicted.
➢ A test on skid marks resulted to measure 20 ft long skidmarks at 20 mile per hour.
➢ So if a skid mark measures 10 ft long, the vehicle must be running 10 miles per hour.

Skidmarks As Evidence In Accident Cases

Skidmarks will:
1. Aid in determining the speed of the vehicle prior to the collision
2. Show the direction of travel of the vehicle
3. Indicates wether the driver failed to observe the right of way
4. Show if the driver did not obey traffic signals

Nine (9) Kinds of skidmarks

1. Pavement Grinding – is the collection of many fine scratches and some larger one form by
particles of gritty materials such as stone, gravel, glass and sometimes bit of metal embedding
itself in the rubber of the tire or in the thread pattern and being ground or scored against the
road surface.
2. Tire Grinding – is the collection of particles of rubber ground from the tire surface by gritty
paving, especially before the tire gets hot enough smear. It occur on hard, dry, granular surfaces,
particularly weathered or new but not traffic-polished cement.
3. Erasing – is a clean light area where a sliding tire had erased or removed dirt from the
pavement. Erasing is most likely to be found on traffic-polished concrete road.
4. Squeeze Mark – are areas where a sliding tie rubs moisture of the surface in its path. It
occurs on some kind of surface as erasing except that the surface is wet.
5. Smear of Soft Material – materials such as snow, mud, or debris usually wet smooth or
spread by a sliding tire. It occurs on road covered with snow, or mud.
6. Smear of Bituminous Material – is excess asphalt or tar, usually warm which spread by a
sliding tire this occurs in pavement patches and joints in very warm weather and else where
when there is an excess of tar or asphalt bleeding to the surface.
7. Tire Smear – is a rubber melted from the tire rather than material melted from the road by a
sliding tire.
8. Scrub of Tire during Collision – collision of cars usually cause the wheel to jam and
prevents it from turning. If the vehicles are moving there will be a heavy scrubbing action
between tire and road surface.
 9. Furrow – is a ploughed depression made by a sliding tire with material piled-up on each
sides and usually at the end. If the soil is smooth and sticky, there may be soft material smear in
the bottom of the rut.

Types of Ending Skidmarks

1. Overlapping Skidmark – occurs when the rear wheels track on top of the front wheel marks
in sliding.
2. Front Wheel Marks – are in long skids on hard pavement with bituminous binders. Front
wheels skidmarks in which most of the mark is at edge of the tire.
3. Rear Tire Marks – are relatively faint because of lesser weight on the tire in slowing. They
may show thread grooves when the front tire marks do not.
4. Flat Tire Scuffs – will leave marks by a scrubbing action even without application of brakes
due to overload.
5. Gaps in Skidmarks – are interruptions in skidmarks made by release of brake pressure and
its reapplication.
6. Skip Skid – are skidmarks that are broken or interrupted without brakes being release.
7. Curb in Skidmarks – are usually gentle slides toward the edge of the road which is simply
downhill.

Other Tire Marks

1. Centrifugal skidmark – a marking on a road surface left by a rotating tire and wheel of a
speeding vehicle on a curve when the speed of the vehicle is above the critical speed.
2. Impending skidmarks – marks caused by forward rotation of the wheels being slower than
the forward movement of the vehicle.
3. Yawn mark – a scuff mark made while a vehicle is yawning the mark made on the road by
a rotating tire which is slipping in a direction parallel to the axle of the wheel.
4. Skip mark - a braking skid mark interrupted at frequent regualr intervals; the skidmark
made by a bouncing wheel on which brakes keep the wheel from turning.
5. Side skid Mark – is a roadway marking left by the tire and wheel of a vehicle sliding
sideways as a result of force other than centrifugal force.
6. Gap Skid – a braking skid mark which is interrupted by release and reapplication of brakes
or which terminates by release of brakes before collision.

Scuff Marks – are signs left on the road by tires that are sliding or scrubbing while the wheel is still
turning.
Types of Scuff Marks
1. Decelerating Scuff – are left while the vehicle is slowing by braking effort and tires are
both sliding and rolling.
2. Accelerating Scuff – are left by a wheel driven by the engine and spinning on the
ground.
3. Side Scuff – are scuff marks left by a tire that is free to rotate without braking or power
the sliding sidewise, these are usually left by a vehicle steering around a curb and also in
collision.
4. Combination Scuff – are combination of slide with either decelerating or accelerating
scuffs.
5. Flat Tire Scuff – are marks lefts on the road by the edges of under-inflated or greatly
overloaded tires. They are usually smear of rubber, a flat tire rolls it become a very hot
specially at the edges where the pressure is greatest.
6. Scrub of Tire – during collision it is much the same when the wheel is rotating as when it
is locked.
7. Furrows – by a rotating and sliding wheel are little different than one with a locked wheel.

The 10 Commandments Of Traffic

1. Keep Right
2. Observe Road Courtesy
 3. MV should not be parked near intersections, crosswalk, fire stations, fire hydrant, private
driveways
4. If in doubt, do not overtake
5. The bus stop rule
6. Rules to prevent or untangle traffic congestion or traffic jam
7. Observe traffic management measure
8. The Philosophy of a Pinoy Driver (Rotonda Rule or First come first served)
9. On Pedestrians – keep off roadway. Wait , embark and alight at bus or jeepney stop
10. Remember the International Safety Reminder – SAFETY FIRST

Possible Cases In Traffic Accident:

1. Reckless imprudence resulting in Homicide;
2. Reckless imprudence resulting in Serious Physical Injury;
3. Reckless imprudence resulting in Less Serious Physical Injury;
4. Reckless imprudence resulting in Slight Physical Injury;
5. Reckless imprudence resulting in Damage to Property;
6. Abandonment of One’s Own Victim – Additional criminal case for hit and run cases.

Defenses In Imprudence Cases

1. Accident – A justifying circumstance where the accused is NOT criminally liable, but only
civilly liable. The person invoking this should have acted carefully & diligently, without
violating any traffic laws, rules and regulations.
2. Doctrine of the last clear chance – A driver who has the last clear chance to avoid the
accident but did not do his part to avoid it is liable for the resulting injury and/ or damage to
property.
3. Contributory negligence – A defense of the accused that due to some negligence of the
victim, the accident had occurred. The liability of the accused is mitigated.

Chapter VI. Types of License and Plate No.

Driver’s License (DL) – an authority granted to a qualified individual to operate a motor vehicle.

General Types of DL
1. Professional
➢ issued to an individual whose means of living is driving. Applicant must at least be 18 years
of age.
➢ renewable evrery 5 years
➢ issued to a driver for hire or paid for operating a motor vehicle whether private use or for hire
to the public.
➢ A student permit, or non professional drivers license that was issued 6 months before
application.
➢ Must not have a record of 2 or more counts of driving recklessly during validity.
2. Non-professional – issued to owners of privately owned motor vehicles or those not for hire or
paid for driving. Applicant must be at least 17 years of age.
.1At least 4 months old for conversion to professional driver’s license
2.A valid student drivers permit that has been issued not less than 1 month from the date of
application.
3. Student Driving Permit – issued to an individual who desires to learn to operate MV. Applicant
must at least be 16 years of age.
1. At least 5 months old for conversion to professional driver’s license
2. At least 1 month old for conversion to non-professional driver’s license
3. Valid up to 12 months from the date of issue.

4. International Driver’s License

➢ Foreigners who are professional drivers may be issued NON-PROFESSIONAL Driver’s
License in the Philippines.
➢ Valid for 90 Days
 ➢ In the event that the applicant applies for a license or if his foreign license is expired at the
time that the application is filed, the applicant will have to undergo both a written
examination and actual road test.
Note: The Philippine International Driving Permit (PIDP) is issued by the Automobile
Association Philippines (AAP) to individuals who would want to operate a motor vehicles in other
countries.The validity of the PIDP is for one (1) year. An applicant must be a regular license holder
(Non-Professional / Professional) before being able to apply for an International Driving Permit

Restriction Codes:
1. Motorcycle/motorized tricycles Conditions:
2. Vehicle up to 4500kg GVW A. wear eye glasses
3. Vehicle above 4500kg GVW B. drive only with special equipment for upper
4. Automatic clutch up to 4500kg GVW limbs
5. Automatic clutch above 4500kg GVW C. Drive only with special equipment for lower
6. Articulated vehicle up to 1600kg GVW limbs
7. Articulated vehicle from 1601 kg to 4500kg D. Daylight driving only
GVW E. Accompanied by person with normal hearing
8. Articulated vehicle from 4501kg and above
GVW
9. Disabled

Administrative Order No. 84 AO-003

➢ provides the System of Operation in the monthly staggered registration of motor vehicle.
➢ the last digit of the license plate determines the monthly schedule of registration of the MV
and the middle digit determines the working days within the week when the MV Registration
shall be renewed.

Last Digit:
1. January
2. February
3. March
4. April
5. May
6. June
7. July
8. August
9. September
0. October

Middle Digit:
➢ 1-2-3 - first week of registration month (any working day from 1st to 7th day of registration
month)
➢ 4-5-6 – second week of registration month (any working day from 8th to 14th day of the
registration month)
➢ 7-8 – third week of registration month (any working day from 15th to 21st day of the
registration month)
➢ 9-0 – fourth week of the registration month (any working day from 22nd to 31st day of the
registration month)

Temporary Operator’s Permit (TOP) – When a driver’s license is confiscated for traffic violation/s,
he shall be issued TOP which serves as his tentative license good for 72 hours.

Batas Pambansa 43, s-1979 – provides policies on the classification of MV.

General MV Classification:
1. Private MV – vehicles which are registered for private use. Green plate.
 2. FOR HIRE MV – vehicles authorized to operate as public utilities by virtue of certificates of
public conveyance. Yellow plate.
3. GOVERNMENT MV – vehicles owned by the government of the Philippines, including
government owned and controlled corporations. Red plate
4. DIPLOMAT MV – vehicles owned by foreign government. Blue plate.
5. COMMEMORATIVE PLATES – plates issued to groups, organizations or associations subject
to the approval of the Office of the President.

Protocol Plate Designations

1 President 9 Associate Justices, SC
2 Vice President 10 Presiding Justices, CA, SB
3 Senate President 11 COMELEC/ COA/ CSC
Commissioners
4 Speaker of the House 12 Cabinet Undersecretaries
5 Chief Justice 14 Chief of Staff/ PNP DDG
6 Cabinet Secretaries 16 RTC Judges
7 Senators 17 MTC Judges
8 Congressmen

Chapter VII. Pavement Markings, Traffic signs and Laws

TRAFFIC SIGNS – Sinages posted along the road used to convey information needed by road users

Classifications of International Traffic Signs:

A. Regulatory/Mandatory Signs
➢ These signs are used to inform road users of certain laws and regulations to provide
safety and free flow of traffic. These include all signs which give notice of special
obligation, prohibition or restrictions with which the road user must comply. The
violation of these signs is a legal offense.

B. Warning/Cautionary Signs
➢ These signs are used to warn the road users of the existence of certain hazardous
condition either on or adjacent to the roadway, so that the motorists are cautious and
take the desired action. Some of the signs, which fall under this category, are provided
as follows.

C. Informatory Signs
➢ These signs are used to guide road users along routes, inform them about destination
and distance, identify points of geographical and historical interest and provide other
information that will make the road travel easier, safe and pleasant.
Shoulder - Part of a traffic way along the roadway.
Island - Those structures on the road separate that serve as guide to road users.
Traffic Islands - A solid or painted object in a road that channelizes traffic. It can also be a narrow
strip of island between roads that intersect at an acute angle.
Painted Island - Islands that uses road markings only, without raised kerbs or other physical
obstructions.
Pedestrian Island - Also known as a refuge island, pedestrian refuge or pedestrian island, is a small
section of pavement or sidewalk, completely surrounded by asphalt or other road materials, where
pedestrians can stop before finishing crossing a road. It is typically used when a street is very wide,
as the pedestrian crossing can be too long for some individuals to cross in one traffic light cycle.
Cross walk/ pedestrian lane – Traffic lanes intended for pedestrian crossing the road

Three Types Of Traffic Island

Channeling Island - Triangular in shape that can be seen at intersections which used to
separate traffic.
 Rotary Island - A type of intersection that has a generally circular central island. Entering traffic
must typically alter direction and speed to avoid the island, creating a circular flow in one
direction. In most applications, traffic circles replace the stop lights and traffic signs that regulate
flow in other intersections.

Divisional Island - Intended to separate opposing flow of traffic in a highway with four or more
lanes. By thus dividing the highway into two one way roadways, the head on collisions are
eliminated and in general other accidents are also reduced.

Pavement Marking
➢ It pertains to all lines, patterns, words, symbols, or other gadgets except signs set into
the surface or applied upon or attached to the pavement or curbing or to objects within
or adjacent to the roadway, officially placed for the purpose or regulating, warning or
guiding traffic.
➢ Pavement markings combine with road signs and traffic lights to give you important
information about the direction of traffic and where you may and may not travel.
Pavement markings divide traffic lanes, show turning lanes, mark pedestrian crossings,
indicate obstacles and tell you when it is not safe to pass.

Types of Pavement Marking

1. Solid Yellow lines - separate traffic travelling in opposite directions.
2. Broken White lines -is used to define or separate traffic lanes. It permits crossing from one
lane to another if there is ample passing distance, and if the opposing lane is clear of traffic.
3. Solid White Line – is used to separate opposing streams of traffic. Crossing is unlawful
except where ample distance exists and where the opposing traffic lane is clear of traffic.
4. Solid Yellow Line at the left of your lane means it is unsafe to pass. ('A' should not pass.)
5. Broken Yellow Line at the left of your lane means you may pass if the way is clear. ('A' may
pass if there are enough broken lines ahead to complete the pass safely.)
6. Double Yellow Line – indicates two way traffic; were crossing of pedestrian and motorist is
not allowed. It separates the opposing flow of traffic.
7. Broken Yellow Lines – is a two way/highway which means no overtaking or passing is
permitted only when the road ahead is clear.
8. Continuity Lines - This are broken lines that are wider and closer together than regular
broken lines .
9. Stop line is a single white line painted across the road at an intersection. It shows where you
must stop. If there is no stop line marked on the road, stop at the crosswalk, marked or not. If
there is no crosswalk, stop at the edge of the sidewalk. If there is no sidewalk, stop at the edge
of the intersection.
10. Crosswalk is marked by two parallel white lines painted across the road. However,
crosswalks at intersections are not always marked. If there is no stop line, stop at the crosswalk.
If there is no crosswalk, stop at the edge of the sidewalk. If there is no sidewalk, stop at the edge
of the intersection.
11. Pedestrian Crossover is marked by two white double parallel lines across the road with an
X in each lane approaching it, and overhead yellow lights. Stop before the line and yield to
pedestrians.
12. White arrow painted on a lane means you may move only in the direction of the arrow.
13. Two solid lines painted - on the pavement guide traffic away from fixed objects such as
bridge piers or concrete islands. Yellow and black markings are also painted on the objects
themselves as warnings.
14. Two-lane One way street – both vehicles are traversing toward the same direction
15. Two-lane Two way street – both vehicles are traversing on the opposite direction
16. Four-lane Two way street – two vehicles are traversing toward the same direction while
two other vehicle are traversing toward opposite direction separated by a solid line .

Curb - This pertains to the elevated part of the road which serves as the edging of a street or a
pathway.
Curb Markings -These are markings placed on the curbs or edges of the traffic for restriction or for
parking regulation purposes.
Object Markings - These are markings place on objects on the road or beside the road like humps,
rocks, or similar hazardous objects on the side of the road.
Reflectorized Markings - Gadgets designed to reflect and become luminous when hit by vehicles
light. Installed in middle or side of the roadways.

TRAFFIC LIGHTS – This refer to any power operated traffic control device by which traffic is warned
or directed to take some specific actions. Traffic light signals are used to control traffic at junctions
and also to stop traffic to provide safe crossing points for pedestrians.
• Steady Red - STOP at the designated line
• Steady Green - GO. Vehicles going straight have the right of way
• Steady Yellow - PREPARE TO STOP. Do not beat a yellow light.
• Flashing Red - Bringing vehicle to STOP at the designated line and proceed only when clear.
• Flashing Yellow - Yield sign. Proceed through the intersection with caution..
• Flashing Green - Vehicles facing this signal are permitted to turn left or go through while
opposing traffic faces red signal..

IMPORTANT TRAFFIC LAWS, RULES AND REGULATIONS:

1. R.A. 4136 – The Land Transportation Code

2. R.A. 6539 – The Anti-Carnapping Law
3. R.A. 8749 – Clean Air Act
4. R.A. 8750 – Seat-Belt Law
5. R.A. 7924 – MMDA Law
6. P.D. 96 – Regulating use of sirens, bells, horns, etc.
7. P.D. 612 – Compulsory insurance for all types of motor vehicles
8. P.D. 1729 – LTO to dispose impounded vehicles if unclaimed for a certain period of time.
9. L.O.I. 229 – Early warning Device (EWD)
10. E.O. 202 – LTFRB Law
11. E.O. 248 – LTO to supervise Driving School