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TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
Chapter l: Transportation and the
Laws on Traffic
Unit I:History of Transportation
Biblical Background 1-4
Ancient Modes of Transportation 4-6
Roads and Vehicles History 6-10
The Invention of Motor Vehicles
Unit ll: Traffic Control 11
Fundamentals of Traffic Control 11-15
Devices of Traffic Control 16-18
Traffic Signal Lights 18-22
Pavement Markings and Signals.23-27
Specific Meanings of Pavement Markings 28-30
Traffic islands

Chapter ll: Transportation and the Laws

On Traffic
Unit l: Pertinent Laws pertaining to
Traffic in the Philippines
Republic Acts 32
Presidential Decrees 33
Executive Orders 34
Significant Provisions of RA 4136 36
Operation of Motor Vehicles 37-39
Unit Il: General Rules of Road Use and Conduct
Speed Limits 40
Lateral Placement 41-43
Driving and Overtaking 43-44
Right of Way 45-46
Signals on Starting, Stopping or Turning 46-48
Right of Way for Emergency Vehicles 49
Unit lIl: Registration of Motor Vehicles
Classification of Registration 50
Plate Numbers 50-51
Driver's Licenses 52-54
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation 4
.
 Sledge on Runners - a simple sledge, probably man-drawn,was in use at Tra
ffi
the end of the Old Stone Age, as evidenced by fragments of wooden
runners that survived
5. Travois- a pole arrangement that serves as a platform on which the
burdens are placed

B. Animal Power- the domestication of animals greatly increased the

potential power available for transportation. Pack animals were introduced
as conveyances mainly to save labor. A man can tend several pack animals
moving together, each of which can carry more than he usually can. Little
advantage in speed is gained unless part of the animals' carrying capacity is
sacrificed.
1. Ox- first domesticated in Mesopotamia, Ox and Cattle were used as C.
draft animals to draw war chariots
2. Reindeer - they were first domesticated in Siberia; famous for being
identified with Christmas personality Santa Claus,they drew sledges
somewhat like the dog sledges of the Far North.
3. Dog- in the Far Northern Hemisphere, the dogs team drawing sledges
are the chief means of transportation
4. Donkey- or ass, was first domesticated in the Middle East.Donkey
caravans carry goods between the cities of Southwest Asia and Egypt
5. Llama- in pre-Columbian America,Llama was the only new world
animal other than the dog that is capable of domestication for use in
transportation
6. Elephant-the Carthaginians used African elephants in their war against
Rome but until recent centuries, these animals had been untamed. In
Burma and Thailand, these animals are widely used in the lumber
industry
7. Horse - around 2,000 B.C., horse-drawn chariots appeared in
Southwest Asia and 1,000 years later, the Persians arrived with cavalry
which gave mobility and power to the German tribes who invaded
Europe and to the Central Asian conqueror,Genghis Khan.
8. Camel- there are two kinds of camel, the Central Asian two-humped
Camel and the one-humped specie of the Middle
2 Chapter I:Transportation and the Laws on Traffic
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

East. Both have long been used for transport. The one-humped specie has less
endurance but is fleeter and fast,and were being bred by Arab nomads
 9. Yak-a long-haired type of cattle that lives at high attitudes on the Tibetan Plateau and
in the neighboring mountain regions. It is used as a pack animal at heights where horses
and other ordinary animals cannot survive

C. Wind Power-man realized that energy from the mass of moving air has a powerful push
and utilized such powers to lift rather than to drag. This paved the way for the invention of
air-lifted transportation vehicles

1. Ancient Chinese Kite- kites have been flown as a popular pastime in the Far East since
the beginning of history. Based on a Korean tradition, the kite was first used for
transport when a Korean general employed one in bridge building. By means of a kite, a
cord was conveyed across the river where heavier ropes were fastened and finally the
bridge cable.In the late 10th century, several European armies experimented with kites
in transporting men
2. Da Vinci's Ornithopter - the great renaissance artist,Leonardo Da Vinci made a study of
the flight of the birds and sketched a number of ornithopters that derived its principal
support and propelling from the flapping wings like those of a bird.
3. Montgolfier Balloon - the French brothers Joseph Michel and Jacques Entienne
Montgolfier have successfully released several balloons when they proposed to use two
condemned prisoners for the first ascent·with passengers. Pilatre de Rozier, a natural
historian protested this and claimed the honor for himself. In 1783, he and the Marquis
d' Arlanoes became the first men to make a free balloon ascent. The balloon,
constructed of linen and inflated with hot air, traveled 9,000 yards and remained in the
air for 20 minutes.

Chapter l:Transportation and the Laws on Traffic 3

Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
4. Siemen's Rocket Plane - Enst Werner von Siemens, in 1847designed rocket
plane which was to be propelled by the explosive force of gunpowder.
5.Lilienthal Glider-Otto Lilienthal, a German inventor who also made a study of
the flight of birds went further than Da Vinci by building ornithopters with gliders.
In 1891, he made a first of a number of glider flights which were to exert a
profound influence on the development of aviation.
6. Santos Dumont's Airship - one of the pioneers of lighter-than-air craft, Dumont,
a Brazilian, experimented with the steam-powered balloons in Paris. He made his
first balloon ascent in 1897 and in 1898 completed the construction of his first
airship. He then built several other airships and in 1901,made a 30-minute round
trip flight between St. Louis and the Eiffel Tower
7. Wright Brothers' Flying Machine - inspired by Lilienthal's glider
experiments,Orville and Wilbur Wright began studying the problems of heavier-
 than-air flights. They built biplane kites and over 200 different wing types which
they tested inside a wind tunnel before they conducted their first man-carrying
powered machine. This flew successfully at Kitty Hawk,North Carolina on Dec. 17,
1903. by 1909, airplanes became sufficiently accepted to justify beginning
commercial manufacture of the flying machine.
8. Lindbergh's Spirit of St. Louis - following the initial flight of the Wright brothers,
the development of aviation was rapid.The first airmail was developed in 1911
and World War I gave an impetus to plane design and the training of pilots. The
first solo flight from New York to Paris was made by Capt.Charles Lindbergh in
May 1927 in a plane especially built for the flight,the Spirit of St. Louis.

Roads and Vehicles History

As man, from ancient times to the 20th Century sought to make their
transport facilities more efficient, they have always endeavored
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

to move people and property with the least expenditure of time, effort,and
money.
The following are some of the inventions and innovations, and important
events that lead to modern land transportation:

Wheel - probably invented in Western Asia, the invention of the wheel was a
milestone and a great step forward in transportation.The wheel was one of man's
greatest inventions. It enabled him to transport burdens that are beyond the power of
man or animals to drag, and permitted much greater facility of movements than the
simple sledge on rollers.

The Roman Road Networks - being the first major road builders in the ancient world,
the Romans were able to construct a total of 50,000 miles of major roads, with feeder
roads branching out from the main highways. It was a costly undertaking as its deep
foundation, formed by layer after layer of heavy stones, was necessary to make roads
that would carry heavy traffic for many years.
After the fall of Rome in the 15th century, land haulage generally declined
because highways suffered from inadequate maintenance.Such developments,
however, gave rise to the development of transportation improvements such as the
horse collar (10th century),the use of coach springs, new methods of road
construction, and the introduction of toll roads (18th century). All these
improvements continued to ease and speed up land travel. Significant improvement
of road vehicles began with the adaptation of COACH SPRINGS at about 1650.

The Invention of Bicycles

The invention of bicycles in the early 19th century served as a nursery of

automobile builders. One of the modern ancestors of the modern bicycle was the
HOBBY HORSE, or the DAN HORSE. Its wheels were made of wood, with iron tires, and
the riders pushed themselves along with their feet on the ground.
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation Traf

a. Karl Von Drais - a German Baron who introduced in 1817a steer-able

wheel,creating the draisienne, or the "dandy horse"
b. Kirkpatrick MacMillan- a Scottish blacksmith who made the first machine
with pedals, which were attached to and drove the rear wheel by means of
cranks.

John L. McAdam -he did not abandon the theory of feeder road building and perfected
the macadamized road in England about 1815.

Photograph of Macadam Road,ca

1850's, Nicolaus, CA

John Palmer - he introduced the first fast mail coach in 1785; by 1800's, the English
Coach System was in full swing

John Boyd Dunlop- he invented the first pneumatic tire at about 1888. pneumatic tires
are inflated by air and are used widely in the modern times.

The Invention of the Motor Vehicles

 The first mode of transportation to challenge the railroads were the motorized
vehicles.

a. Nicolas Joseph Cugnot- The very first self-powered road vehicles were powered
by steam engines and by that definition Nicolas Joseph Cugnot of France built the
first

successful automobile in 1769 - recognized by the British Royal Automobile

Club and the Automobile Club de France as being the first.
b. Etiene Lenoir - a Frenchman who made possible the introduction of motorized
carriages by his invention in the 1860's and 70's of the INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINE
. Nicolas Otto and Gottlieb Daimler - pioneered the manufacture of gas engines, and later
became successful automobile manufacturers; contrary to common beliefs, they are not
the first ones to build the automobile
d. Rudolf Diesel - a German engineer who developed an internal combustion engine
similar with the gasoline engine,but does not require electrical ignition system or
carburetor and uses other form of liquid fuel - the diesel fuel or crude fuel
e.Henry Ford-introduced the Model T, which was proved so popular that by 1914,
6 Ford had adopted Mass Production methods to meet the demand.
Chapter I:Transportation and the Laws on Traffic
Felix Wankel-a German mathematician who developed an advanced-type engine,
named after him, which operated very differently from gas and diesel engines. It is
started by a moving crankshaft.
g. Karl Benz - In 1885, German mechanical engineer,Karl Benz designed and built
the world's first practical automobile to be powered by an internal-combustion
engine. On January 29,1886, Benz received the first patent (DRP No. 37435) for a
gas-fueled car. It was a three-wheeler.

History of the Internal Combustion Engine - The Heart of the Automobile

An internal combustion engine is any engine that uses the explosive combustion
of fuel to push a piston within a cylinder - the piston's movement turns a crankshaft
that then turns the car wheels via a chain or a drive shaft. The different types of fuel
commonly used for car combustion engines are gasoline (or petrol), diesel, and
kerosene.
Chapter I: Transportation and the Laws on Traffic 7
A brief outline of the history of the internal combustion engine
includes the following highlights:
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

1680 - Dutch physicist, Christian Huygens designed (but never built) an internal
combustion engine that was to be fueled with gunpowder.
 1807 - Francois Isaac de Rivaz of Switzerland invented an internal combustion engine
that used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen for fuel. Rivaz designed a car for his
engine - the first internal combustion powered automobile. However, his was a very
unsuccessful design.
1824 - English engineer, Samuel Brown adapted an old Newcomen steam engine to
burn gas, and he used it to briefly power a vehicle up Shooter's Hill in London.
1858 - Belgian-born engineer, Jean Joseph Étienne Lenoir invented and patented
(1860) a double-acting, electric spark-ignition internal combustion engine fueled by
coal gas. In 1863,Lenoir attached an improved engine (using petroleum and a primitive
carburetor) to a three-wheeled wagon that managed to complete an historic fifty-mile
road trip.
1862 - Alphonse Beau de Rochas, a French civil engineer,patented but did not build a
four-stroke engine (French patent #52,593, January 16, 1862).
1864-Austrian engineer, Siegfried Marcus*, built a one-cylinder engine with a crude
carburetor, and attached his engine to a cart for a rocky 500-foot drive. Several years
later, Marcus designed a vehicle that briefly ran at 10 mph that a few historians have
considered as the forerunner of the modern automobile by being the world's first
gasoline-powered vehicle.
1873- George Brayton, an American engineer, developed an unsuccessful two-stroke
kerosene engine (it used two external pumping cylinders). However, it was considered
the first safe and practical oil engine.
1866 - German engineers, Eugen Langen and Nikolaus August Otto improved on
Lenoir's and de Rochas' designs and invented a more efficient gas engine.
8
Traffic Management
Traffic Management and Accident
and Accident Investigation
Investigation
1876 - Nikolaus August Otto invented and later patented a successful four-stroke engine,
known as the "Otto cycle".
1876 - The first successful two-stroke engine was invented by Sir Dougald Clerk.
1883 - French engineer, Edouard Delamare-Debouteville, built a single-cylinder four-
stroke engine that ran on stove gas. It is not certain if he did indeed build a car,
however, Delamare-Debouteville's designs were very advanced for the time-ahead of
both Daimler and Benz in some ways at least on paper.
1885-Gottlieb Daimler invented what is often recognized as the prototype of the
modern gas engine - with a vertical cylinder, and with gasoline injected through a
carburetor (patented in 1887).Daimler first built a two-wheeled vehicle the
"Reitwagen" (Riding Carriage) with this engine and a year later built the world's first
four-wheeled motor vehicle.
1886- On January 29, Karl Benz received the first patent (DRP No. 37435) for a gas-
fueled car.
1889 - Daimler built an improved four-stroke engine with mushroom-shaped valves
and two V-slant cylinders.
 1890 - Wilhelm Maybach built the first four-cylinder, four-stroke
engine.(http://inventors.about.com)
Engine design and car design were integral activities, almost all of the engine
designers mentioned above also designed cars, and a few went on to become major
manufacturers of automobiles. All of these inventors and more made notable
improvements in the evolution of the internal combustion vehicles.
From the Ford Era, the demand for vehicles became great for the transportation of
goods, products, communications and people.Hence,man started manufacturing large
cargo trucks and buses for mass transportation
Presently, the introduction of the Light Rail Transit systems,flyovers, pedestrian
and vehicle culverts, rock sheds, and other modern traffic ways contributed to the
expeditious movement of traffic users.
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

How Automobile got its Name

"The new mechanical wagon with the awful name automobile has come to stay..."New
York Times (1897 article)
The New York Times' mention of the name automobile was the first public use of the
term by the media and helped to popularize that name for motor vehicles. However, the
credit for the name automobile goes to a 14th Century Italian painter and engineer named
Martini.
Martini never built an automobile but he did draw plans for a man-powered carriage
with four wheels. Martini thought up the name automobile from the Greek word, "auto,"
(meaning self) and the Latin word, "mobils," -(meaning moving).
The other popular name for an automobile is the car. The word car is derived from
Celtic word "carrus," (meaning cart or wagon).
What other names for motor vehicles have famous automobile inventors used? Let's
check the names they used in their patent applications.

·Oliver Evans applied for a U.S. patent in Philadelphia in 1792for a "oruktor

amphibolos"
·George Selden received a patent for a "road machine" in 1879.
·The Duryea brothers patented their "motor wagons" in 1895.
·Henry Ford called his 1896 car a "Quadricycle."

Other early media references to motor vehicles included names such as: autobaine,
autokenetic, autometon, automotor horse,buggyaut, diamote, horseless carriage. mocole,
motor carriage,motorig, motor-vique, and the oleo
locomotive.(http://inventors.about.com)
10 Chapter l:Transportation and the Laws on Traffic
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

Unit 2 -Traffic Control

Fundamentals of Traffic Control

Traffic Control generally refers to the procedures, devices, and communication systems
that help vehicles and vessels safely share the same roads, rails,waterways,or air space.It
establishes a set of rules and instructions that vehicle, vessel and aircraft operators rely on
to avoid travel hazards and dangers, particularly collision. Another objective of traffic
control is the safety of pedestrians using the roads and streets.
In land transportation, traffic control refers to a system of traffic engineering, rules and
regulations, and devices to relieve vehicular congestion and air pollution, and to promote
safety and pedestrian mobility.
The primary emphasis of traffic control is on the safe and efficient control of land
vehicles over urban streets and highways. The means of promoting this can vary from
simple installation of traffic signs and pavement markings to constructing more
comprehensive motorway control systems.

Different Traffic Control Systems that may be Employed:

a. access-road meters that will monitor and control motorway;
b. closed-circuit television surveillance that will detect traffic flow deterioration;
c. emergency services in case of traffic accidents;
d. use of one-way streets;
e. enforcement of traffic flow regulations;
building traffic islands, turning lanes, etc.(channelization); and
g. use of traffic signs and signals

Devices used in Traffic Control

Motorists depend on traffic control devices to avoid collisions and travel safely to their
destinations. Traffic control devices include

11
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation Tr
a
ffic
Sig
signs, signal lights, pavement markings, and a variety of devices placed on, ns
over, near, or even under the roadway. (Delizo 2006)
 Traffic signs or road signs are signs erected at the side of roads to Tra
f
provide information to road users about directions, speed limit, and road
conditions. With traffic volumes increasing over the last eight
decades,many countries have adopted pictorial signs or otherwise
simplified and standardized their signs to facilitate international travel
where language differences would create barriers, and in general to help E
enhance traffic safety. Such pictorial signs use symbols (often silhouettes)
F
in place of words and are usually based on international protocols. Such
signs were first developed in Europe, and have been adopted by most
countries to varying degrees.(www.wikipedia.org) Co
These international road signs were adopted at the 1968 Vienna int
Convention on Road Signs and Signals of which the Philippines is a
signatory. A.
As explained in the Convention the system of signs and signals which
it has prescribed is based on the use of shapes and colors.This is with the
exception of the STOP sign which is universally adopted very likely
because it is understood by practically every motorist around the world.
(Felino A. Bragado, TRAFFIC OPERATIONS AND ACCIDENT
INVESTIGATIONS, Philippine College of Criminology, unpublished 1997 p5)
Traffic signs can be grouped into several types. For example,Annexe 1 B.
of the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals defines eight
categories of signs:

A. Danger warning sign - a type of traffic sign that indicates a hazard

ahead on the road that may not be readily apparent to a driver.
B. Priority sign- indicate the order in which vehicles should pass
intersection points.
C. Prohibitory or restrictive signs - are used to prohibit certain types of
maneuvers for certain types of traffic.
D. Mandatory signs
C
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
E. Special regulation signs
F. Information, facilities,or service signs
G. Direction, position,or indication signs
H. Additional panels
The Philippines, being a signatory country of the Vienna Convention use the
International Traffic Signs. These are classified into three:

A. Danger Warning Signs - these signs are also known as "caution signs". They have an
equilateral triangular shape and having red boarders.Danger warning signs are intended to:
warn motorists of approaching hazardous road conditions;
seek caution for the approaching road hazards; and
call for the reduction of speed.
B. Regulatory Signs - these signs impose legal restrictions applicable at particular location
and usually enforceable even in the absence of such signs. These are intended to inform
road users of certain laws, regulations, special obligations,instructions, or prohibitions
which they must comply with.
Regulatory signs are usually round in shape, with the exception of the "Stop" and
"Yield"signs.
Regulatory signs are further classified into:
a. prohibitive/restrictive signs; and
b. mandatory signs

C. Informative Signs - these signs are also known as "guide signs", or "direction signs". The
rectangular shape with white color on blue background is used for informative signs. Green
background is used for route markers and destination signs.Informative signs are used to:
guide motorists along established routes,
inform the motorists of the proper roads, and
help motorists along the wáy in the most simple and direct method.

Chapter l: Transportation and the Laws on Traffic 13

Traffic Management and Accident Investigation I
t is
und
erst
Traffic Signal Lights ood
tha
A Traffic Light is a power-operated traffic control device that t
controls and directs the flow of vehicular as well as pedestrian traffic.It wh
is usually located at junctions and intersections and provides safety en
both to vehicles and pedestrian using the road. the
A traffic light is composed of three colors that alternately flash to gre
indicate a particular action to a group of vehicles or pedestrians on the en
ligh
road. t
on
Basic Traffic Light Colors and their Meanings: one
sid
a. red - means stop, the vehicles must not move and allow the vehicles on the e of
other side to pass the
b. yellow - cautionary; prepare to move/stop, vehicles in "stop"formation will tra
prepare to move forward. Those that are still moving will prepare to stop once ffic
red light flashes. ligh
c. Green - mean go; vehicles in the "stop" formation will now move forward t is
flas
hin
g, the red light on the other side will flash simultaneously. This will ensure that
through obedience of the signals, collision will not happen in an intersection
where opposing traffic occurs.
However, in the event where traffic enforcers are manning the intersections,
their instructions supersede the directions of the traffic light.

Classifications of Traffic Signal Light:

a. traffic control signals - designed primarily to control and regulate

traffic flows
b. special pedestrian signals - provide regulation for pedestrians like the
"walk" and "do not walk" signal lights

16

Chapter l:Transportation and the Laws on Traffic

Pe
gre

mo
del
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
 c. train approach and gates signals - these are usually installed on road-rail
intersections designed to inform motorists of any approaching train on the
intersection
d. special traffic signals- these are installed on traffic ways where special
regulations are emphasized,such as "YIELD TO VEHICLES COMING FROM THE
LEFT", and to construction sites and other industries.

STOP

CAUTION

GO

Pedestrian Signal - are coordinated with the red signal and the green signal

The objective of traffic signal time apportionment is to secure movement with

safety through an intersection with a minimum of delay.

Chapter I: Transportation and the Laws on Traffic 17

Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
 The following definitions will be useful to traffic enforcers in understanding
thesequence of traffic signal operation:

a. interval - the time within which the traffic indication of any particular traffic signal face
does not change
b. cycle-the total time required for one signal
c. phase - a part of the total time cycle allocated to any traffic movement receiving the right
of way during one or more intervals

The duration of intervals, cycles and phases are usually expresses in seconds. The total
time required for the complete sequence of phase is known as the cycle length.

Signal System-is created when any two or more signals on any traffic route or roadway are
coordinated with a fixed time relationship among the several intervals

Pavement Markings and Signals

Modern roads and highways have pavement markings to help motorists drive safely.
These include center lane lines, barrier lines,and directional arrows, depending upon the
type of highway and the needs for such markings to make the road safe under varying
conditions.
Pavement Markings pertain to all lines, patterns, words, colors.or other gadgets except
signs set into the surface or applied upon or attached to the pavement or curbing or to
objects within or adjacent to the roadway, officially placed for the purpose of regulating,
warning or guiding traffic. (Bragado 1997)
Knowledge and obedience to what pavement markings.indicate is very important,
especially that there are traffic instructions and directions that traffic signage and signal
lights can not effectively be relayed to the motorists and pedestrians.

18Chapter I: Transportation and the Laws on Traffic

Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

Types of Pavement Markings and Markers:

A. Regular Pavement Markings -these are white and yellow lines or a combination of both
officially set on the roadway as separation for motor vehicles traveling in the opposite
direction or in the same direction. Pavement markings are useful in providing safety to
motorists, especially in preventing collisions on the road. These will control the movements
of the vehicles by preventing overlapping especially on two-way streets where the danger of
collision is greater.

1. Pavement Markings on a two-lane two-way street - the two vehicles are traveling on
opposite directions, separated by a white broken line

2. Pavement Markings on a two-lane one-way street - the two vehicles on the same
direction with a white broken line separating them.
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

3. Pavement markings on a four-lane two-way street - both pair of vehicles in the upper
and lower portion of the illustration travel on opposite directions. The four-way lane is
divided into two by a white solid line. A barrier may also be placed instead of the solid
line.
20Chapter I: Transportation and the Laws on Traffic
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

4. Pavement Markings on a four-lane one-way street-both vehicles in the upper portion

travel in the same direction while the vehicles in the lower portion travel also in the
same direction but opposite the directions of the vehicles on the upper portion.
 Chapter I:Transportation and the Laws on Traffic 21
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

B. Curb Markings for Restriction -these are markings placed on the curbs or edges of
the road for restriction or for parking regulation purposes

Curb Markings for Parallel Parking

C. Object Markings- these are markings placed on objects on the road or beside the road, like
humps, rocks or similar hazardous objects on the roadside.

Object Marking on a Road Hump

22
Chapter I:Transportation and the Laws on Traffic
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

D. Reflectorized Markings - these are markings or gadgets designed to reflect and

become luminous when hit by vehicle's headlight (a hump may also be reflectorized).
These are placed or installed in the middle of the roadway to supplement separation
lines or on object at the side of the road which are too near or within the road
pavement itself.
 Reflectorized marker

Specific Meanings of Pavement Markings:

a. Single White Dotted Line-this indicates the following:

on two-lane road, it separates traffic moving in opposite directions
on a one-way street, it separates traffic moving in one direction
overtaking is possible when other lane is clear of oncoming traffic
b. Single White Continuous Line in a Two-lane Traffic Way-indicates the following:
separates traffic moving in opposite direction
could be found in road sections that are dangerous
passing and overtaking can be made but ONLY under circumstances when there is
no oncoming traffic
c. Single Continuous Line on a Four-lane Road - indicates the following:
when there are slow and fast lanes. NEVER overtake by passing over the solid
white line
lanes 1 and 4 (outer lanes) are for slow moving vehicles

Chapter l:Transportation and the Laws on Traffic 23

lanes 2 and 3 (inner lanes) are usually for faster moving vehicles
d. Double Yellow Line or Double White Line-indicates:
ABSOLUTELY NO OVERTAKING
Overtaking is extremely dangerous
Stay in your lane until you pass the end of the solid lines

Sealanmer Trucking Services

Double yellow line with broken line in between

e. Single Yellow/White Line - a yellow or white line with a broken white line means:
overtaking is prohibited if the solid line is on the motorist's side
 if the driver overtakes, he must return to his lane BEFORE the solid line

Yellow solid line with a broken white line

Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

f. Yellow Continuous Line on Road Provided with a Passing Lane - common on

24 mountain roads, this line indicates the following:
slow moving vehicles suchChapter
as buses and trucks
I: Transportation and the Laws on Traffic
heavy trucks to use the outer lane
inner lane is for vehicles to pass without having to use the outer lane for vehicles
coming from the opposite direction
vehicles coming from the opposite direction should not use the inner lane at the
other side for overtaking

Yellow continuous line with passing lane

g. Crosswalk or Pedestrian Lane- a pavement marking that indicates:

for pedestrian crossing
 stop for pedestrian in an intersection with no traffic light
DO NOT STOP on pedestrian lane especially to load or unload passengers
Pedestrians should ALWAYS cross a street on a crosswalk

25
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

h. Directional Arrows -these pavement markings indicate the following traffic

regulations:
directions of permitted traffic movement
when approaching intersections where pavement arrows are used, motorists
should enter the lane where the arrow points in the direction of where he wants
to go
if a motorist gets in the wrong lane, he should keep going in the direction
indicated by the arrow until it is safe to turn off and get back on the street or
highway which will carry him to his destination
some arrows are double-headed, indicating traffic going in two directions

Chapter l:Transportation and the Laws on Traffic

directional arrows
26
Chapter I: Transportation and the Laws on Traffic
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

i. Stop Lines - these are painted across pavement lanes at traffic signs or signals. Where
these lines are present,motorists should stop behind the stop line
 j. Barrel Lines- a new concept in reducing the seriousness of accidents. The barrels are
engineered to act as impact cushion. Usually installed in front of a solid obstacle or
traffic island at an area of high accident frequency

Chapter I:Transportation and the Laws on Traffic 27

Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

Traffic Islands
Traffic islands are areas within the roadway constructed in a manner that will establish
physical channels through which vehicular traffic is guided.
Traffic islands, as traffic control devices are designed to segregate pedestrians
from vehicles,and control the stream of traffic in order to minimize conflict, expedite
traffic flow and increase safety.
Classifications of Traffic Islands

1. Pedestrian Barriers - these are constructed between pedestrian sidewalk and the
road pavement to prevent pedestrian from straying intothe roadway and motor vehicles
from straying into sidewalks. Pedestrian Islands are islands located in the middle of the
streets used by pedestrians to seek refuge before continuing crossing on the opposite
side of a relatively wide street.
28
Chapter l:Transportation and the Laws on Traffic
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

pedestrian barrier

2. Traffic Islands-these are the raised portion in the middle of the traffic way
constructed to separate the streams of motor vehicles traversing on opposite directions
and at the same time preventing motorists from using the opposite lane for overtaking.
Traffic islands are further divided into three sub-classes, namely:

a. division islands - constructed primarily to divide the streams of motor vehicles

 b. channelizing island - constructed to direct the flow of traffic
c. rotary islands - constructed along "rotundas" for purposes of turning around.
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

channelizing island
Division island

Rotary island in a rotunda

29
Chapter I:Transportation and the Laws on Traffic
30Chapter I:Transportation and the Laws on Traffic
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

CHAPTER II:TRAFFIC LAWS, RULES AND REGULATIONS

It is not a matter of following rules and regulations to avoid apprehension, but

more importantly, to save lives and limbs on the

Unit 1. Pertinent Laws pertaining to Traffic in the Philippines

The standards of regulating movements on roads, streets, and highways are found in
traffic laws, rules and regulations.
In the Philippines, the mass of traffic laws, rules, and regulations have their sources in
laws, Presidential Decrees, Executive Orders,Letters of Instruction, Administrative Orders,
Memoranda, and relative special laws on traffic.

Sources
The following are the basis for the traffic regulations and prohibitions in the country:

Republic Acts
a.R.A. 4136 - otherwise known as the Traffic Code ·of the Philippines. This is the basic
law regulating land transportation in the Philippines. It has repealed Act No.3992(The
Revised Motor Vehicle Law).
b.R.A. 6539 - the act which is known as the "Anti-Carnapping Act of 1972", an act that
provides measures and penalties against carnapping.
c. R.A. 5448 - an act imposing a tax on privately owned passenger vehicles, and a
science stamp tax, to constitute a special science fund, defining the programs,
projects and

activities of scientific agencies to be financed therefrom bans the use of

and for other purposes. leaded gas for
d. R.A. 8749 - also known as the "Clean Air Act" which regulates gasoline
emission of toxic gases of both gasoline and diesel engines and engines.
 e. R.A. 8750 - it provides for the attachments of seatbelts for all
types of motor vehicles and imposes penalty for the non-
compliance thereof.
R.A. 7924 - the act creating the Metropolitan Manila Development
Authority,or MMDA, defining its powers and functions, providing
funds thereof and for other purposes.

Presidential Decrees
a.P.D. 96 - regulates the use of sirens, bells, horns, etc., by
prohibiting the attachment of the aforementioned on motor
vehicles that produce unusual or startling sounds as well as
blinkers and other similar devices unless duly authorized or for
use in emergencies.
b.P.D. 101-expediting the methods of prescribing, redefining or
modifying the lines of modes of operations of public utility
motor vehicles in the Philippines.
C. P.D. 207- declaring as part of the laws of the Philippines the Vienna
Convention of Road Traffic Signs and Signals.
d. P.D. 612- requiring compulsory insurance for all types of motor
vehicles against third party liability as an additional pre-requisite
for registration by the LTO.
e.P.D. 1686 - imposing a tax on every motor vehicle equipped
with air conditioner.
P.D. 1181 - providing for the abatement of air pollution form
motor vehicles and for other purposes.
g. P.D. 1605-granting the Metropolitan Manila Commission
certain powers related to traffic management and control in
Metro Manila providing penalties and for other purposes.
P.D. 98-regulating the issuance of license plates of all motor
vehicles in the Philippines.
i. P.D. 109-amending PD 98.
 P.D.1729-dispose of i for a certain AN ACT TO
P.D. 1730-distribution,documents,economic sa TRANSPORTATI
TRANSPORTATI

Executive Orders
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
Traffic Managem
a. E.O. 125-functions an Title of the Act-
b. E.O. 266-Asst. Secret Enforcemen defining the Art. I, Chap. I)
C. E.O. 202-Regulatory
Scope-The pro
d. E.O.248-to control driving scho the registration
a Owners,
Significant Provis dealers,
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
P.D. 1729-authorizing the Bureau of Land Transportation to dispose of impounded motor
vehicles unclaimed by owners for a certain period of time.
k. P.D. 1730 - declaring the syndicated printing, manufacture,distribution,
possession or use of face official BLT forms,documents, plates and stickers as
offenses involving economic sabotage.

Executive Orders
a. E.O. 125-reorganizing the DOTC, defining its powers and functions and for other
purposes.
b. E.O. 266 -providing for two service units in the Office of the Asst. Secretary for Land
Transportation in the DOTC: 1) Law Enforcement Service, and 2) Traffic Adjudication
Service,defining the powers and functions and for other purposes.
C. E.O. 202-creating the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB).
d.E.O. 248-empowering the Land Transportation Commission to control and supervise
the operations of motor vehicle driving schools.

Significant Provisions of RA 4136

REPUBLIC ACT No.4136

AN ACT TO COMPILE THE LAWS RELATIVE TOLAND TRANSPORTATION AND TRAFFIC
RULES, TO CREATE A LAND TRANSPORTATION COMMISSION AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES

Title of the Act-"Land Transportation and Traffic Code” (Sec. 1,Art.I,Chap.l)

Scope - The provisions of this Act shall control, as far as they apply.the registration and
operation of motor vehicles and the licensing of owners, dealers, conductors, drivers, and
similar matters. (Sec.2)

Terminologies as used in the Act (Sec. 3, Art. ll, Chapter I)

(a) "Motor Vehicle" shall mean any vehicle propelled by any power other than
muscular power using the public highways, but excepting road rollers, trolley cars,
street-sweepers, sprinklers, lawn mowers,bulldozers, graders, fork-lifts, amphibian
trucks, and cranes if not used on public highways, vehicles which run only on rails or
tracks,and tractors, trailers and traction engines of all kinds used exclusively for
agricultural purposes.
Trailers having any number of wheels, when propelled or intended to be propelled
by attachment to a motor vehicle, shall be classified as separate motor vehicle with no
power rating.
(b) "Passenger automobiles" shall mean all pneumatic-tire vehicles of types similar to
those usually known under the following terms:touring car, command car, speedster,
sports car, roadster, jeep,cycle, car (except motor wheel and similar small outfits
which are classified with motorcycles), coupe, landaulet, closed car,
limousine,cabriolet, and sedan.
Motor vehicles with changed or rebuilt bodies, such as jeepneys,jitneys, or station
wagons, using a chassis of the usual pneumatic-tire passenger automobile type, shall
also be classified as passenger automobile,if their net allowable carrying capacity, as
determined by the Commissioner of Land Transportation, does not exceed nine
passengers and if they are not used primarily for carrying freight or merchandise.
The distinction between "passenger truck" and "passenger automobile" shall be
that of common usage: Provided, That a motor vehicle registered for more than nine
passengers shall be classified as "truck": And Provided, further, That a "truck with
seating compartments at the back not used for hire shall be registered under special
"S" classifications. In case of dispute, the Commissioner of Land Transportation shall
determine the classification to which any special type of motor vehicle belongs.
(c) "Articulated vehicle" shall mean any motor vehicle with a trailer having no front
axle and so attached that part of the trailer rests upon motor vehicle and a substantial
part of the weight of the trailer and of
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
its load is borne by the motor vehicle. Such a trailer shall be called as "semi-trailer."
(d) "Driver" shall
Traffic mean everyand
Management andAccident
any licensed operator of a motor vehicle.
Investigation
(e) "Professional driver" shall mean every and any driver hired or paid for driving or
operating a motor vehicle, whether for private use or for hire to the public.
Any person driving his own motor vehicle for hire is a professional driver.
(f) "Owner" shall mean the actual legal owner of a motor vehicle, in whose name such
vehicle is duly registered with the Land Transportation Commission.
The "owner" of a government-owned motor vehicle is the head of the office or the chief
of the Bureau to which the said motor vehicle belongs.
(g) "Dealer" shall mean every person, association, partnership, or corporation making,
manufacturing, constructing, assembling,remodeling, rebuilding, or setting up motor
vehicles; and every such entity acting as agent for the sale of one or more makes, styles, or
kinds of motor vehicles, dealing in motor vehicles, keeping the same in stock or selling same
or handling with a view to trading same.
(h) "Garage" shall mean any building in which two or more motor vehicles, either with or
without drivers, are kept ready for hire to the public. but shall not include street stands,
public service stations, or other public places designated by proper authority as parking
spaces for motor vehicles for hire while awaiting or soliciting business..
(i) "Gross weight" shall mean the measured weight of a motor vehicle plus the maximum
allowable carrying capacity in merchandise, freight and/or passenger, as determined by the
Commissioner of Land Transportation.
(ij) "Highways" shall mean every public thoroughfare, public boulevard, driveway, avenue,
park, alley and callejon, but shall not include roadway upon grounds owned by private
persons, colleges,universities, or other similar institutions.
(k) "The Commissioner of Land Transportation or his deputies"shall mean the actual or
acting chief of the Land Transportation

Chapter Il: Traffic Laws, Rules and Regulations 36

Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

Commission or such representatives, deputies, or assistants as he may, with the approval of

the Secretary of Public Works and Communications, appoint or designate in writing for the
purpose contemplated by this Act.
(1) "Parking or parked", for the purposes of this Act, shall mean that a motor vehicle is
"parked" or "parking" if it has been brought to a stop on the shoulder or proper edge of a
highway, and remains inactive in that place or close thereto for an appreciable period of
time. A motor vehicle which properly stops merely to discharge a passenger or to take in a
waiting passenger, or to load or unload a small quantity of freight with reasonable dispatch
shall not be considered as "parked", if the motor vehicle again moves away without delay.
(m) "Tourist" shall mean a foreigner who travels from place to place for pleasure or culture.

OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES (Art. I, Chapter III)

Duty to procure license. - Except as otherwise specifically provided in this Act, no person
shall operate any motor vehicle without first procuring a license to drive a motor vehicle for
the current year, nor while such license is delinquent, invalid, suspended or revoked.
The license shall be carried by the driver at all times when operating a motor vehicle,
and shall be shown and/or surrendered for cause and upon demand to any person with
authority under this Act to confiscate the same. (sec. 19)

Enlisted men operating Government motor vehicles. - Enlisted men operating a motor
vehicle owned by the Government of the Philippines shall be licensed in accordance with
the provisions of this Act, but no license or delinquency fees shall be collected therefrom.All
licenses so issued shall bear the words "For Government Vehicles Only" plainly marked or
stamped in red ink across the face thereof.
A license so marked or stamped shall authorize the holder thereof to operate a private-
owned motor vehicle. (sec.20)

37Chapter Il:Traffic Laws,Rules and Regulations

Tourists. - Bona fide tourist and similar transients who are duly licensed to operate
motor vehicles in their respective countries may be allowed to operate motor vehicles
during but not after ninety days of their sojourn in the Philippines.
If any accident involving such tourist or transient occurs, which upon investigation
by the Commissioner or his deputies indicates that the said tourist or transient is
incompetent to operate motor vehicles,the Commissioner shall immediately inform
the said tourist or transient in writing that he shall no longer be permitted to operate
a motor vehicle.
After ninety days, any tourist or transient desiring to operate motor vehicles shall
pay fees and obtain and carry a license as hereinafter provided. (sec.21)
It shall be unlawful for any duly iicensed driver to transfer,lend or otherwise allow
any person to use his license for the purpose of enabling such person to operate a
motor vehicle.
No owner of a motor vehicle shall engage, employ, or hire any person to operate
such motor vehicle, unless the person sought to be employed is a duly licensed
professional driver. (sec.24)

Suspension and Revocation of Driver's License. (sec. 27)

The Commissioner may suspend for a period not exceeding three months or, after
hearing, revoke any driver's license issued under the provisions of this Act, and may
order any such license to be delivered to him whenever he has reason to believe:
a. that the holder thereof is an improper person to operate.motor vehicles
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
b. that he is using a motor vehicle in, or as an accessory to the commission of any
crime or act which endangers the public.

Whenever during any twelve-month period a driver shall have been

convicted at least three times for the violations of any provisions of this Act or of
any regulation issued by the Commissioner or any municipal or city ordinance
relating to motor vehicle traffic not in conflict with any of the provisions of this
Act, the
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
 Commissioner may, in his discretion, revoke or suspend the license of such driver
for a period not exceeding two years.

Confiscation of Driver's License - Law enforcement and peace officers duly

designated by the Commissioner shall, in apprehending any driver for violations
of this Act, or of local traffic rules and regulations, confiscate the license of the
driver concerned and issue a prescribed receipt which shall authorize the driver
to operate a motor vehicle for a period not exceeding seventy-two hours from
the time and date of issue of said receipt. Failure of the driver to settle his case
within fifteen days from the date of apprehension will cause suspension and
revocation of his license. (sec.29)

Unit 2: General Rules of Road Use and Conduct

 Traffic rules in the Philippines is based entirely on the generals rules of road use
and conduct which also includes the general prohibitions and restrictions. These rules
are provided in R.A. 4136.

Speed Limits

MAXIMUM Passengers
SPEEDS ALLOWABLE Cars Motor trucks and
Motorcycle buses
and
1. On open country roads,80 km. per hour 50 km.per hour with no "blinds corners" not
closely bordered by habitations.
2. On "through streets" or 40 km.per hour 30 km. per hour boulevards, clear of traffic,with
no "blind corners," when so designated.
3. On city and municipal 30 km. per hour 30 km.per hour streets, with light traffic, when not
designated "through streets".

4. Through crowded 20 km. per hour 20 km.per hour

steets,approaching intersections at
"blind corners," passing school
zones, passing other vehicles which
are stationery,or for similar
dangerous circumstances.

Chapter Il:Traffic Laws,Rules and Regulations 40

The rates of speed hereinabove prescribed shall not apply to the following:
1) A physician or his driver when the former responds to emergency calls;
2) The driver of a hospital ambulance on the way to and from the place of accident or
other emergency;
3) Any driver bringing a wounded or sick person for emergency treatment to a
hospital, clinic, or any other similar place;
4) The driver of a motor vehicle belonging to the Armed Forces while in use for official
purposes in times of riot, insurrection or invasion;
5) The-driver of a vehicle, when he or his passengers are in pursuit of a criminal;
6) A law-enforcement officer who is trying to overtake a violator of traffic laws; and
7) The driver officially operating a motor vehicle of any fire department, provided that
exemption shall not be construed to allow unless or unnecessary fast driving of drivers
aforementioned. (sec. 35, Art. 1, Chap. IV)
Lateral Placement
Lateral placement means the proper positioning of a motor vehicle while
traversing a traffic way or while parked.
In the Philippines, unless a different course of action is required in the interest of
the safety and the security of life, person or property,every person operating a motor
vehicle or an animal-drawn vehicle on a highway shall pass to the right when meeting
persons or vehicles going the same direction. When turning to the left in going from
one highway to another, every motor vehicle shall be conducted to the right of the
center of the intersection of the highway.
On the other hand, motor vehicles should be parked only on designated areas and
so properlyparked without encroaching the parking stall or space of another vehicle.
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

41Chapter Il:Traffic Laws, Rules and Regulations

Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

Vehicles 1 and 2 are properly positioned while vehicle 3 is traversing dangerously on the separating line
Proper Placement while on Parallel Parking: vehicles 4 and 5 are properly parked,while vehicle 6 encroaches the other parking stall or
space

Chapter Il:Traffic Laws,Rules and Regulations 42

Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

Proper Placement while Parked Diagonally: vehicles 6, 7, and 9 are properly parked while vehicle 8 is on wrong parking

Driving on the Right Side of the Highway

Unless a different course of action is required in the interest of the safety and the
security of life, person or property, or because of unreasonable difficulty of operation in
 compliance herewith, every person operating a motor vehicle or an animal-drawn vehicle
on a highway shall pass to the right when meeting persons or vehicles coming toward him,
and to the left when overtaking persons or vehicles going the same direction, and when
turning to the left in going from one highway to another, every vehicle shall be conducted
to the right of the center of the intersection of the highway. (sec.37)

Overtaking a Vehicle
The driver of any motor vehicle overtaking another vehicle proceeding in the same
direction shall pass at a safe distance to the left thereof, and shall not again drive to the
right side of the highway until safely clear of such overtaken vehicle except that on a
highway,within a business or residential district, having two or more lanes for the
movement of traffic in one direction, the driver of a vehicle may overtake and pass another
vehicle on the right. Nothing in this section shall be construed to prohibit a driver from
overtaking and passing, upon the right, another vehicle which is making or about to make a
left turn. (Sec. 39, Art.ll, Chap. IV)

43Chapter ll:Traffic Laws,Rules and Regulations

The driver of a vehicle about to be overtaken and passed by another vehicle

approaching from the rear shall give way to the overtaking vehicle on suitable and audible
signal being given by the driver of the overtaking vehicle, and shall not increase the speed of
his vehicle until completely passed by the overtaking vehicle. (Sec.40)

Restrictions on Overtaking and Passing (Sec. 41)

a) The driver of a vehicle shall not drive to the left side of the center line of a highway in
overtaking or passing another vehicle proceeding in the same direction, unless such left side
is clearly visible, and is free of oncoming traffic for a sufficient distance ahead to permit such
overtaking or passing to be made in safety.
b)The driver of a vehicle shall not overtake or pass another vehicle proceeding in the same
direction,when approaching the crest of a grade, not upon a curve in the highway,where the
driver's view along the highway is obstructed within a distance of five hundred feet ahead,
except on a highway having two or more lanes for movement of traffic in one direction
where the driver of a vehicle may overtake or pass another vehicle: Provided, That on a
highway within a business or residential district, having two or more lanes for movement of
traffic in one direction, the driver of a vehicle may overtake or pass another vehicle on the
right.
c)The driver of a vehicle shall not overtake or pass any other vehicle proceeding in the same
direction, at any railway grade crossing, not at any intersection of highways unless such
intersection or crossing is controlled by traffic signal, or unless permitted to do so by a
watchman or a peace officer, except on a highway having two or more lanes for movement
 Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
of traffic in one direction where the driver of a vehicle may overtake or pass another vehicle
on the right. Nothing in this section shall be construed to prohibit a driver overtaking or
passing upon the right another vehicle which is making or about to make a left turn.
d)The driver of a vehicle shall not overtake or pass, or attempt to pass, any other vehicle,
proceeding in the same direction,
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

between any points indicated by the placing of official temporary warning or caution
signs indicating that men are working on the highway.
e) The driver of a vehicle shall not overtake or pass, or attempt to overtake or pass, any
other vehicle proceeding in the same direction in any "no-passing or overtaking zone."

Right of Way (Sec.42,Art. III)

a) When two vehicles approach or enter an intersection at approximately the same time,
the driver of the vehicle on the left shall yield the right of way to the vehicle on the
right,except as otherwise hereinafter provided. The driver of any vehicle traveling at an
unlawful speed shall forfeit any right of way which he might otherwise have hereunder.
b) The driver of a vehicle approaching but not having entered an intersection,shall yield the
right of way to a vehicle within such intersection or turning therein to the left across the
line of travel of such first-mentioned vehicle, provided the driver of the vehicle turning left
has given a plainly visible signal of intention to turn as required in this Act.
c) The driver of any vehicle upon a highway within a business or residential district shall
yield the right of way to a pedestrian crossing such highway within a crosswalk, except at
intersections where the movement of traffic is being regulated by a peace officer or by
traffic signal. Every pedestrian crossing a highway within a business or residential district, at
any point other than a crosswalk shall yield the right of way to vehicles upon the highway.
d) The driver of a vehicle upon a highway shall bring to a full stop such vehicle before
traversing any "through highway" or railroad crossing: Provided, That when it is apparent
that no hazard exists, the vehicle may be slowed down to five miles per hour instead of
bringing it to a full stop.

45
Chapter Il:Traffic Laws,Rules and Regulations
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
Exceptions to the Rule (Sec. 43)

a) The driver of a vehicle entering a highway from a private road or drive shall yield
the right of way to all vehicles approaching on such highway.

44
Chapter ll:Traffic Laws, Rules and Regulations
b) The driver of a vehicle upon a highway shall yield the right of way to police or fire
department vehicles and ambulances when such vehicles are operated on official
business and the drivers thereof sound audible signal of their approach.
The driver of a vehicle entering a "through highway" or a "stop intersection" shall yield the right of
way to all vehicles approaching to either direction on such "through highway":Provided, That
ncthing in this subsection shall be construed as relieving the driver of any vehicle being operated
on a "through highway" from the duty of driving with due regard for the safety of vehicles entering
such "through highway" nor as protecting the said driver from the consequence of an arbitrary
exercise off such right of way.

Signals on Starting, Stopping or Turning (Sec.44)

a) The driver of any vehicle upon a highway, before starting,stopping or turning from a
direct line, shall first see that such movement can be made in safety, and if any pedestrian
may be affected by such movement, shall give a clearly audible signal by sounding the horn,
and whenever the operation of any other vehicle approaching or following may be affected
by such movement,shall give a signal plainly visible to the driver of such other vehicles of
the intention to make.such movement.
b)The signal herein required shall be given by means of extending the hand and arm beyond
the left side of the vehicle, or by an approved mechanical or electrical signal device.

Chapter Il:Traffic Laws, Rules and Regulations 46

Turning at Intersections (Sec. 45, Art.IV)

a) The driver of a vehicle intending to run to the right at an intersection shall approach
such intersection in the lane for traffic nearest to the right-hand side of the highway
and, in turning, shall keep as close as possible to the right-hand curb or edge of the
highway.
b) The driver of a vehicle intending to turn to the left shall approach such intersection
in the lane for traffic to the right of and nearest to the center line of the highway, and,
in turning, shall pass to the left of the center of the intersection, except that, upon
highways laned for traffic and upon one-way highways, a left turn shall be made from
the left lane of traffic in the direction in which the vehicle is proceeding.
c) For the purpose of this section, the center of the intersection shall mean the
meeting point of the medial lines of the highways intersecting one another, except
when it is,occupied by a monument, grass plot or any permanent structure, other
than traffic control device.

Specific Places where Parking is Prohibited (Sec. 46):

No driver shall park a vehicle, or permit it to stand, whether attended or
unattended, upon a highway in any of the following places:
a) Within an intersection
b) On a crosswalk
c) Within six meters of the intersection of curb lines.
d) Within four meters of the driveway entrance to a fire station.
e) Within four meters of fire hydrant
f) In front of a private driveway
g) On the roadway side of any vehicle stopped or parked at the curb or edge of the
highway
h) At any place where official signs have been erected prohibiting parking.
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

47
Chapter Il: Traffic Laws,Rules and Regulations
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
Right of Way for Police and Other Emergency Vehicles (Sec.49,Art. V)- Upon the approach of
any police or fire department vehicle,or of an ambulance giving audible signal, the driver of
every other vehicle shall immediately drive the same to a position as near as possible and
parallel to the right-hand edge or curb of the highway,clear of any intersection of highways,
and shall stop and remain in such position, unless otherwise directed by a peace officer,
until such vehicle shall have passed.

Other Prohibitions (Sec. 52-54):

a. Driving or parking on sidewalk - No person shall drive or park a motor vehicle upon or
along any sidewalk, path or alley not intended for vehicuiar traffic or parking
b. Driving while under the influence of liquor or narcotic drug -No person shall drive a motor
vehicle while under the influence of liquor or narcotic drug
c. Obstruction of traffic - No person shall drive his motor vehicle in such a manner as to
obstruct or impede the passage of any vehicle, nor, while discharging or taking on
passengers or loading or unloading freight, obstruct the free passage of other vehicles on
the highway.

Duties of the Driver in Case of Accident (Sec. 55) - In the event that any accident should
occur as a result of the operation of a motor vehicle upon a highway, the driver present,
shall show his driver's license, give his true name and address and also the true name and
address of the owner of the motor vehicle.

No driver of a motor vehicle concerned in a vehicular accident shall leave the scene of
the accident without aiding the victim,except under any of the following circumstances:
1. If he is in imminent danger of being seriously harmed by any person or persons by reason
of the accident;
2. If he reports the accident to the nearest officer of the law;or
3. If he has to summon a physician or nurse to aid the victim.
Tratfic

9,

er K
S ot

of

le
y
 g Unit 3. Registration of Motor Vehicles
s

R.A. 4136 mandates that all motor vehicles shall be registered by its
π owner before the designated district offices of the Land Transportation
Office. Law enforcement officers should keep themselves abreast with the
S proper procedures of registering motor vehicles for them to easily identify
unregistered motor vehicles or those with expired registrations.

Classification of Registered Motor Vehicles

文
文 a. Private - these are motor vehicles used for the personal use of their owners
b. Public Utility Vehicles - these are registered primarily for the conveyance of
passengers and other commercial goods, i.e.,passenger jeepneys, taxi cabs,
etc.
c. Government - these are vehicles owned or registered to government
offices and are used for official purposes only
d. Diplomat - these are vehicles issued to foreign diplomats and consuls
assigned in the country

Plate Numbers-these are issued to vehicles upon registration and serves as

the vehicles ID. The letter and numeral prefixes as well as colors of the plate
numbers are based on the date and place of registrations and purpose of the
registered motor vehicle.

Color Classifications of Plate Numbers

a. Green with White Background - issued to private motor vehicles

b. Black with Yellow Background- issued to public utility vehicles
c. Blue with White Background- issued to diplomatic vehicles

Chapter II: Traffic Laws, Rules and Regulations 50

Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

d. Commemorative Plates - these special plate numbers are issued for specific
purposes such as fund-raising for government projects and programs
Schedule of Registration-registration of motor vehicles should be done annually which
follows the numerical suffixes of their plate numbers.

Last Digit of Middle Digit Weekly Deadline

Plate Numbers Of Plate Number (Working days of the Month only)

1-Jan 6-Jun
1 2 3 123456 7
2-Feb 7-Jui
4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
7 8 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
3-Mar 8-Aug 9 0 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
4-Apr 9-Sep

29 30 31
5-May 0-Oct

Note: Vehicles may be registered one month in advance of weekly deadline.

Motorcycles will use the 3rd digit asreference.

Letter Prefixes on Plate Numbers- the letter prefixes indicate:

1. place of initial registration of the motor vehicle;
2. year of the initial registration and the possible year model of the registered motor
vehicle could be determined from the order of the letter prefixes.i.e., the higher the
letters, the later the year of registration and year model of the motor vehicle.
Example: Vehicle 1 - PLT 255C
Vehicle 2 - TNU 636

Between the above motor vehicles, vehicle 1 was registered earlier than vehicle 2,
and possibly with an earlier model.
Special Plate Numbers for Government Officials d.
1-President of the Philippines
2-Vice President of the Philippines
51

3- Senate President,etc.
It is understood that no other vehicles can use these special plate numbers other
than the designated vehicles of the mentioned government positions. Other positions
as determined by LTO may also possess special numbers.

Driver's License - is a document issued to a qualified driver who possesses the

statutory qualification as provided thereof. It is also a public document which has the
legal presumption of genuineness.
Types of Licenses:

a. International Driver's License-issued to bona fide tourists and transients who are
duly licensed to operate motor vehicles in their respective countries may be allowed
to operate a motor vehicle during their stay but not beyond 90 days of their sojourn in
the Philippines; foreign license applicants can only be issued a NON-PROFESSINAL
LICENSE.
b. Military Driver's License - issued to enlisted personnel of the AFP operating
government-owned military vehicles.

All licenses so issued shall bear the words 'FOR GOVERNMETN VEHICLES ONLY"
plainly marked or stamped in red inks across the face thereof. A military driver's
license does not authorize the holder to operate a privately-owned motor vehicle.

C. Professional Driver's License - a license issued to a driver who is hired or paid for
driving or operating a motor vehicle, whether for private use or for hire to the public.
Any person driving his own motor vehicle for hire is a professional driver. The
professional driver's license is renewable every 3 years, with red as the identifying
color.
d. Non-professional Driver's License - is issued to owners of privately-owned motor
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
vehicles or those not for hire or paid for driving.

Chapter Il: Traffic Laws, Rules and Regulations 52

Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

The holder of a non-professional license shall be restricted to operate motor vehicles up

to 4500 kgs. Gross vehicle weight (GVW)and is also renewable every 3 years. The color of its
logo is green.
e. Student Driver's Permit - this kind of document is issued to persons who desire
to learn how to drive. A student driver cannot operate a vehicle unless
accompanied by an instructor who may either be a licensed professional or non-
professional driver.

A student permit is valid for up to 12 months only from the date of issue.

Requirements for the Issuance of a Driver's License

a. written examination
b. road test
C.mandatory drug test
 Driver's Restriction Code
When a person is issued a license, he will operate or drive a vehicle according to a
restriction code indicated as follows:

Restriction Number Vehil C

1 eategory/Weight

2
Motorcycles, motorized tricycles
Vehicles up to 4500 kg. GVW
3
Vehicles above 4500 kg.GVW
4
Automatic clutch up to 4500 kg
GVW
5 Automatic clutch above 4500 kg.
GVW

6 Articulated vehicle 1600 kg. GVW

and below
7
Articulated vehicle 1601 kg.GVW
up to 4500 kg.GVW
53
53

Chapter ll:Traffic Laws,Rules and Reaulations

Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

Articulated vehicle 4501 kg. GVW and above

9 Disabled drivers

Driver's Condition Codes

Letter Code Driver Condition

 B
Wear eyeglasses

C Drive only with special equipment for upper limb

Drive only with special equipment for lower limb

D Daylight driving only
E
Accompanied by a person with normal hearing

Chapter Il:Traffic Laws,Rules and Regulations 54

Fraffic Management and Accident Investigation

CHAPTER III:THE FIVE PILLARS OF TRAFFIC

Unit 1-Traffic Engineering

raffic Engineering-the science of measuring traffic and travel;the ffective construction

and maintenance of traffic facilities which does hot only expedite the movement of
traffic but also prevents the pccurrence of traffic accidents.Successful treatments have
included:
a. changes in layout at junctions to define priorities more clearly (use of roundabouts,
traffic circles,etc.)
b. wider use of road markings to delineate traffic lanes and waiting areas for turning
vehicles
C.improvements in skidding resistance of wet roads
d. more uniform street lighting
e. more highly visible and legible direction, information, and warning signs

Traffic engineering may also be defined as a branch of civil engineering that uses
engineering techniques to achieve the safe and efficient movement of people and
goods. It focuses mainly on research and construction of the infrastructure necessary
for safe land efficient traffic flow, such as road geometry, sidewalks.and crosswalks,
segregated cycle facilities, shared lane marking, traffic signs, road surface markings
and traffic lights.
It is closely associated with such other disciplines as:
Transport engineering
Highway engineering
Transportation planning
Urban planning
Human factors engineering
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

Typical Traffic engineering projects may include:

Designing traffic control device installations and modification:including traffic

signals, signs, and pavement markings
Investigating locations with high crash rates and developin countermeasures to
reduce crashes
Preparing construction traffic control plans, including detou plans for pedestrian and
vehicular traffic
Estimating the impacts of commercial developments on traffi patterns
Along with computer and electrical engineers, developing systems for intelligent
transportation systems
Functions of Traffic Engineering

a. fact-finding surveys and recommendations of traffic rules and regulations;

b. supervisions and maintenance to the application of traffic control devices;and
c. planning of traffic regulations

Agencies and/or Offices in charge for Traffic Engineering:

a. Department of Public Works and Highways
b. Local Government Units
Objectives of Traffic Engineering:

a. to achieve a free and rapid flow of traffic

b. to prevent traffic accidents
c. to simplify police enforcement actions and performance
d. to show that good police actions and performancemakes engineering plans effective
e. to present the close relationship of the pillars

56

Chapter IIl:The Five Pillars of Traffic

Tranie

Application of the Objectives of Traffic Engineering

a.habitually congested commercial areas
b.heavily traveled thoroughfares
C.congested local areas and intersections
d. special occasions or events
e. disasters or emergencies
f. school crossings

Traffic Systems
Increasingly however, instead of building additional infrastructure,dynamic
elements are also introduced into road traffic management (they have long been used
in rail transport). These use sensors to measure traffic flows and automatic,
interccnnected guidance systems (for example traffic signs which open a lane in
different directions depending on the time of day) to manage traffic,especially in peak
hours. Also, traffic flow and speed sensors are used to detect problems and alert
operators, so that the cause of the congestion can be determined and measures can
be taken to minimize delays.These systems are collectively called "intelligent
transportation systems".

Highway Safety
Highway safety engineering is a branch of traffic engineering that deals with
reducing the frequency and severity of crashes. It uses physics and vehicle dynamics,
as well as road user psychology and human factors engineering,to reduce the
influence of factors·that contribute to crashes.

Chapter III: The Five Pillars of Traffic 57

Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
Unit 2 - Traffic Education

Traffic Education - when road users are informed of the traffic laws,rules and
regulations, accidents are likely prevented. Further,there are strong suggestions of
benefits from pre-school schemes involving parents, and from road safety education
in schools where it is an integral part of the school curriculum. Included in this pillar
are:
a. new approach to training and educating young drivers
b. training in hazard perception
c. changing of attitudes
d. enhanced publicity of traffic rules
e. education of the youth in schools

Traffic Safety Education

Concept
Traffic Safety Education is the process of training road users in the avoidance and
prevention of traffic-related accidents.
Road Safety refers to reduced risk of accident or injury on the roads, achieved
through multidisciplinary approaches involving road engineering and traffic
management, education and training of road users, and vehicle design.

Factors Contributing to Accidents

Research studies in the United Kingdom have shown that human factors
contribute to 95 % of accidents, road factors to about .25%,and vehicle factors to
fewer than 5%.

1.Human Errors include, among others:

a. over-speeding
b. failing to give way at junctions
c. following too closely
d,1improper overtaking
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

e. misjudging the road situation ahead

f. under the influence of alcohol or drugs
g. lack of skill

2. Road deficiencies that are main contributory factors are,among others:

a. poor design of layout and control at junctions
b. inadequate signage, road marks, and lights
c. slippery roads
d. obstructions on the road such as parked vehicle, on-going road construction, etc.
3. Main vehicle factors are, among others:
a. defects in tires, brakes, and lights
b. absence or non-using of seat belts
c. poorly maintained motor vehicles

Levels of Traffic Safety Education

1. imparting knowledge concerning traffic safety
2. training and practice in the actual application of traffic safety knowledge
3. developing traffic morality

Drivers' Education
In general,driver instruction aims primarily to teach the rudiments of driving. Secondary
aims are as follows:
a. to instill awareness of one's legal and moral responsibilities in traffic,and
b. to teach the abilities required for one to be eligible for a driver's license.

60
Chapter IIl:The Five Pillars of Traffic
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
Four (4) Basic Methods of Instruction used in Driver Education Programs:

1. Comprehensive- this method places the student into real life of driving
situations from the beginning
2. Traditional Instruction - this type depends on instructor-student
communication
3.Commentary Driving Method - the student-driver drives while in the company
of an instructor. As the student drives, the instructor gives comments on his
driving.
4. Simulated Conditions - the premise is that the behavior of the driver in a
simulated condition will be analogous to normal behavior. A simulator is static
machine with all the important features of a car used in driving.

Safety Campaigns
Safety campaigns are mass publicity aimed at making road users behave more
safely. These basically focus on public information attitudes, particular and
specific behaviors, or a combination of these.Road propaganda may be intended
simply to inform. Sometimes it may be felt that the public is already aware of the
recommended behavior but there is a need to persuade them into adopting it.

Biorhythm-is a recurring cycle in the physiology or functioning of a person, such

as the daily cycle of sleeping and waking. The Theory of Biorhythm asserts that
man exhibits constant variation of life and energy and mood states

Man's Theorized Cycles and Interpretations Rhythm is a peculiar characteristic

of most natural phenomena,some examples of which are:
a. the diurnal excange of light and darkness
b. the four seasons
c. the waxing and waning of moon
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

The observation of the rhythm mentioned and their possible correlation with
the habits of man has led to a host of different theories that tried to explain this
correlation in many terms, like physical,psychological, etc.

The different cycles of biorhythm are:

a. 23-day physical cycle - known as the Cycle of Strength,Endurance and Courage
(male component)
b. 28-day emotional cycle -known as the Cycle of Sensitivity,Love and Intuition (female
component)
c. 33-day intellectual cycle-known as the Cycle of Wisdom

All of these cycles are present at the time of our birth.When the biorhythm value
is said to be "high", a person has some more energy to spare.
a. physical high - we tend to be energetic, strong, and full of vitality
b. emotional high - we tend to be creative, artistic, cheerful and happy
c. intellectual high - we are able to think quickly and logically

When the biorhythm value is "low", a person needs to be "recharged".

a. physical low - we tend to tire quickly and succumb to illness easily
b. emotional low - we feel moody, irritable or depressed
c. intellectual low -we find concentrating or remembering things very difficult; we
are likely to use poor judgment.This is a critical period wherein our systems seem
to be in a state of transition.

Importance of Biorhythm in the Field of Safety

 It should be borne in mind that biorhythm does not predict wha actually will
happen. All it does is to give us a hint on how we wil tend to feel on a certain day.
The theory asserts that people are accident prone if their biorhythm is low. So,
theoretically,if we know our biorhythm, we can psychologically cope up with any
situation.

Unit 3-Traffic Enforcement

Traffic Law Enforcement-is the action taken by the police and the court to
compel obedience to traffic laws and ordinances regulating the use and
movement of motor vehicles for the purpose of creating a deterrent to
unlawful behavior by all potential violators.

Concept
Order in any society is already dependent upon the uniformity of
behavior by its members. In Traffic, one of the causes of accidents is the
blatant non-compliance of motorists and pedestrians to traffic laws, rules
and regulations. To minimize the occurrence of accidents due to non-
compliance of road users, enforcement must be conducted. Traffic laws are
an attempt to provide specifications for conventional behavior on the
highway. The following are highly recommended in areas of traffic
enforcement:
a. strengthening and simplifying the application of the law
b.new technology to aid in enforcement
c. the development of rehabilitation courses like seminars for apprehended
traffic violators

Traffic laws, like all other laws, reflect the belief, behavior, and standards
agreed on by the society. They exist in order to identify and encourage
behavior in accordance with the accepted pattern,and to deal with those
who will not conform and thus, aggravate the hazards of traffic movement.
Under these considerations, the purpose of traffic law enforcement, like that
of the general law enforcement,is to offset selfish motivation and to
condition community habits through conditioning habits of individuals.

Functions of Traffic Law Enforcement

a. Police Traffic Law Enforcement - the part of traffic law enforcement performed by
police and other agencies with police power including deterrent to law violation
created by the presence of uniformed police officers and their special
equipment,specia assistance to courts and prosecutors, and incidental services to
highway users.
b. Court Traffic Law Enforcement - the part of traffic law enforcement performed by
the court through adjudication and penalization
c. Police Court Enforcement Process - involves five essential steps which the police
provides in varying responsibilities and influences:
1. detection - wholly a police responsibility and entails looking for defects in the
behavior of motorists and pedestrians, and roadway conditions; it requires
knowledge on law on the part of the police
2.apprehension-wholly a police responsibility where the police is required to take
action at once to prevent continued and future violations
3.prosecution - while a court function, the police may also provide corresponding
influence through preparation and introduction of evidence or close contact with
the prosecuting officer
4. adjudication-while obviously a court function, the police may also provide
influence by acting as witness to the prosecution or supplying additional
evidence. This step determines the guilt or innocence of the accused.
5. penalization - the court imposes the penalty upon the accused. The penalty is
greatly influenced by previous records of conviction as provided by the police

Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

64
Chapter IIl:The Five Pillars of Traffic
Traiia Manasement and Acoident investigstion

ivitles of Traffic Law Enforcement

Prsventive Activilies - such as preventive patrols dhecting and supervising
traffic,Investigating socidents, and ellininaling road hezards
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
 Persuasive Aclivittes - such as orsl. written warring or visible pairols
refiic violations cominiited by a percon: normoliy de el with by the courts, police or
traillo aulhorities

mluajor Elemonte of Traila EnPorcenlent Eef

couris, and ponalos. Legislation dafines and aperkion onirect cr incorract road ucer
bshavior.
Road Users - Include the peoplo who use di taio and roadways. The road ussr syotom-cun be
dofned ir torms of rnowledge, skill, allitude and cheractariatio ciroumstonoes (age,sax, health,
road experience, eto.)
rrainc System-consist of the cmire road end vsnidie compiax.

rollce Traftia Entoroamront Acdom

The part of police traffic law enforcumont Involvinn arrast, citation or waming of any
person belleved to have violated trritio lows.

lhds of EnforcementActlors
Tratiic Arrest- consists of laking a person inie custody for the purpose of charging him for a
for a law violarlon Lefors a coult.Arrest is made during the following circumstances:
a. offense committed is serious
b. detection is necessary to avoid continued violation
c. there is reasonable doubt that the violator will not appear in court
2.Traffic Citation - is made of having violators appear in court without physical arrest. This is
an officient syslem since majority

Chapter Ill:The Five Pillars of Traffic 65

of violeiora with minor ofionses are punished promptly by payir

3. Trafic Wilni aar aniorcement action that dose contemplate poseilk euseesment of
penaliy by the court.
Tramc Pewel
Trefio patrol lo o ccnarpt of lav/ enforcemneni consisting roaming eround ah aras
ol responsibility (AOR) for the purpoon

Objsctiven ct Tralilo Paircl

2.delnrs vclaltene ono dangerous driving
 b. deledtnz and epprebending violators
c. obcuting Erd repontihg taffio and road candiilons
d. provicn ecricls relvioce to the public

c.L Pddo lnvolves observation clllior in moving or sterionay focn el e noricin routa or point oi a
major street in a
5.Arss Festu-ihie Inelves the conduct of observation elther by mavins patol or obuervalion of a
certain arca which included a number of etredte, rosda ut aections of a highway. Area patiolling is
ueuai, the job ci mobila police officcro as woll as thoce motoreydla sopc.

Examples of Actions/Conallions that may require close watohing for Further Inwvcallgntion:
a. driving at extremely love speed
b. slow moving vehiclos in "high-speed lanes"
c. racing, motor-sliding stops; jumping starts, and the like.
d. excessive manouvering such as backing up four or five times to get into a parking space
e. pulling lo cuib lane at traffic signal
turned on signals when not attempting to turn

66
Chator l The Eiue Biloe ë Te
ntan

9
1 n oi a police vehicle

larly when in two or mere vehicles

running
onc/conditions, the trefitc patr.l
Lirns who are pbout to commil e
of a drivor by making a slon or
voided.

ood in order to dalect or lnspact

.a

c. p.clecti parias involved

d.

Different Aspecia of Tratic Lawr Enforcemert

a. tratile-supervicion- delincd as keeping order on the street and highway within

exisling regulations to make their use cafe and expeditious
b. trailic direction-the act of informing drivers and pedostrians as to whon,
where, and how they may or may not move or stand at a

panicular place, especially during emorgencies ot periods trathic congestions

infilc ecntrol - means lo controi vehicles and podestrians cortain points of a
ceriain area hy mechenioel cevices manpowar

ieasca in Gondeotig Monual tabla coneo

era hand signala to doslgnate your doaision to molarics

b.:cignf inust pe unfform and undcrscond by the, motorists an prGastrians
signdls shouid be given verbally
d. alariness and erect posture is imporlant to commend reopact
c: llo aloo lmporlant to look stralghtet the motorist lo wacin th treilo enforcerle directiny
the cignal
s oloar and orlep whlstls slioulid accompany the hand tlunel
lot the froe hand haan at the slde, unnocsscary wavig may giv cuniusion and dictrect
motorisis
n.do stop a moving lanc,point al the car you intend lo ciop end give hiin the opponunliy to stop

SiOF- one long blaot

Gi2-two short blaste
Three blasts to ba ucod for czcistance and/or for mocoriate to b altenive.

Some Pointers for en Eiective Trafiio Contrel

a.keep intersections open

b. stop motorists at their designated ctopping lane, at a sal distance from you.
Allow them to stop gradually
 c.prioritize stopping fast moving vehicles
d. when a vehicle is about to obstruct interseciions, slop them first
Tnrdu Management and Accident investigation

68
srincultas-ament and Acaidant investieetion

rcosoadr and Methods in Handilne Direrem, Pretolor Snd SaNeir concerting Traffic

A krctilc congestion or trefic jam msy be cauond by cavcral tun cuch as

vehicular accidents, stalled veliioles, road uilruciono, or even the absence of a
trafito snforoar, Ii ir an every oillly for every law enforoament oilcer, and I. mucl
be Eetoyto handle such rases.

da etn in Coses of Tratilo deln:

ustetiino what caused the trahlo jam
whtnever a irefilo jem is caused by venloulr acolam, conduct eidok und
immodlate bul complete ivesligaton and rumove ta voalos invalved from tho
eceno of ihie ecoldent
vouscd by stellea vehiolos,assist the moloret ir plecine the
veinsio where ii will-not obstruotthe tefic flow
enebiish yoursoli and conduct a nystemallo flov of fici
Impicment proper tramio regulation to avold further hualojsm

sisnconoa Motar Vehiglas

A motor vehicle is said to bs abendonsd vihen Ii la left usntierded in an area
not provided for parking or unaliidsd for one 6.lo days in en area providad for
parking. It is for wiass rescons tat-unaliended vehiolcs become,prcblems to
traffio i.s in some insiances, they may lurn out to be mora serlouo thei whsl they
are o.iginally thought of. Abardonad vchicles may bs dlasr ffled ss elther:

abanconed due to mechanical defects

What to do:
1) verily and check on the ownership of ths vchicle (plate number,
registration i( present)
2) if possible, advise the owner to relocate the vehicle to a much safer place
b) abandoned carnapped vehicles.
What to do:
1) get the plate number and other data of the vehicle
2) make a report on the presence of the abandoned vehicle to the nearest
traffic police unit
3) make every possible way to inform the owner
4) bring the vehicle to the freffic police Impounding area and conduct a
Technical Inspecion Report in the presence of the alleged owner
5) advise the owner to presont all pertinent papers of the vehicle for the
Identification of the ownership
6) If the vehiclo is found to hava violated any provision of RA 6539, note, its
violalion end together with the Technical Inspection Report, submil it for
investigation
7) submit a duly accomplished spot report

C. Stafled or Bogged Down Motor Vehicles

In most instances, traffio accidents or jams are caused by stalled or bogged
down vehicles that are left carelessly unattended in the highway. In such cases, it
ia important that a traffic officer should know the basic courses of actions in
order to avoid unnecessary risks of human lives and property and further allow
the continuous flow of traffic. The following maasures should be taken in cases of
stalled vehicles in the middle of the road:
1. check the defect or condition of the vehicle
2. ensure the safety of vchicles and persons involved by conducting traffic
direction in theTraffic
vicinity
Management and Accident Investigation
3. If practicable, push the vehicle to the road shoulder; otherwise,avail of
wreckers or tow trucks to move it
4. advise the owner of the vehicle to avail the services of a repairman
5. provide early warning devices or any lantern to deter accident occurrences
and provide appropriate precautions for the safety and conveniences of the
repairman, the driver, and other passing motorists
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

D. Vehicle Cannibalization
Cannibalization is charactorized by stealing parts of a motor vehicle instead
of carnapping il enlirely. In case of this incident, the following are precautionary
measures:
1. determine the vehicles parts that were stolen
2. lake down the name of the owner of the vehicle,the description of the vehicle,
and the looation or where the incident took place
3. look for immediate possible clues that might lead to the identification of the
perpetrators or their modus operandi
4. interview the witnesses and the owner to get a general picture of the situation
prior to the incident
5.prepare a spot report and submit it to the nearest traffic police unit
6. if further invesligation is necessary, the vehicle may be impounded for
safekeeping

Duties and Responsibilities at e Ttafflc Law Enforcer

a. enforcement of traffic laws, ordinances, rules and regulations without fear or
favor
b. assist the general public concering traffic problems when necessary and as
requested
c. the traffic officers shall not leave his post during his tour of duty without
permission, except when properly relieved by another traffic officer, in case of
personal necessity or if situation requires,he shall notify his station before
leaving and upon returning to his post
d.he shall respond immedistely to any emergency call for police service within a
responsible distance of his post and if it is not possible, to promptly notify his
station accordingly
e. he must be calm and in control of his temper even under trying and provoking
circumstances
in dealing with a traffi violator, he shall be firm but civil in manner and without
obstructing traffic flow.
g. he shall be in proper uniform, equipment and must personify the best image of the
law enforcement officer
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

Speed Limit Enforcement

Speed limit enforcement is the action taken by appropriately empowered

authorities to check that road vehicles are complying with the speed limit in force on
roads and highways. Methods used include roadside speed traps set up and operated
by the police and automated roadside 'speed camera' systems which may incorporate
the use of an automatic number plate recognition system.Traditionaily the police
would have used stopwatches to messure the time taken for a vehicle to cover a
known distance, but latterly they have speed guns and automated in-vehicle systems
at their disposal.
Many jurisdictions operate traffic violations reciprocity where non-resident drivers
are treatod like reoidents when they are stopped for a traffic offense that ocours in
another jurisdiction. They also encure that penallies such as demerit points and the
ensuing increase in insurance premiums follow the drivor home. The general principls
of such interstate, inter-provincial, and/or international compacts is to guarantee the
rule 'one license, one record.

Gatso Meter Speed Camera

Methods of Speed Limit Enforcement

Speed limits were originally enforced by manually liming or "clocking" vehicles travelling
through "speed traps" defined between two fixed landmarks along a roadway that were a
known distance apart; the vehicle's average speed was then determined by dividing the
distance travelled by the time taken to travel it. Setting up a
72
Chapter IIl:The Five Pillars of Traffic
speed trap that could provide legally satisfactory evidence was usually lime consuming and
error prone, as it relied on its human operators.

A. Avorage speed measurement

VASCAR is a device that seml-automates the timing and average speed caloulation of
the original manually-operated "speed trap". An observer on the ground, in a vehicle or in
the air simply presses a button as a vehicle passes two landmnarks that are a known
disiance apan,typically several hundred metres.
Aulomatic number plate recognition (ANPR) systems thal use a form of oplical character
recognition to read the vehicle's licence or registralion plate. A compuler system reads
vehicle registration plaics al lwo or more fixed points along a road, usually hundreds of
meters or even kilometers, apart, then uses the known- distance between them to calculate
a vehicle's average speed. If the average speed exceeds the speed limit, then a penalty is
automatically issued.
 Police in some countries like France have been known to prosecule drivers for
speeding, using an average speed calculated from limestamps on toll road lickets.

B. inctantaneous speed measuremerit

Texas police officer using a LIDAR speed gun

Chapter Ill:The Five Pillars of Traffic 73

Traffic Managementand Acciaent

Instantaneous speed cameras measure the speed at a single point. These may
either be a semi-permanent fixture or be established on a temporary basis. A variety
of technologies can be used:
· Radar guns use a microwave signal that is directed at a vehicle;the Doppler effect is
used to derive its speed.
·LIDAR guns utilize the time of flight of laser pulses to make a series of tirne
stamped measurements of a vehicle's distance from the laser, the data is lhen used
to calculate the vehicle's speed,[14]
·Sensors embedded in the roadway in pairs, for example electrornagnetio induction
or Plezo-olectric strips a set distance apart)
。 Infra-red light sensors loceted perpenoicular to the road, e.g.TIRTL

C. Pacing
Officers in some jurisdictions may also use pacing, particularly Where a more
convenient radar speed measuring device is not available-a police vehicle's speod is
matched to that of a target veliicle, and the calibrated speedometer of the patrol car
used to infer the other vehicle's speed.l
 74
Chapter Ill:The FivoDil
Traffic Manegement and Accident Investigation

that air pollution causes several thousand premature deaths every year. The
health of 1 in 5 people is at risk from air polluition in the U.K. The people who are
vulnerable are young children, pregnant women, the elderly, and people
suifering from heart and fung diseaseS.
The impect of air pollution on health can also be assessed in monetary terms:
the cost of health care, the cost of days of work lost,the economic cost of
premature deaths. The National. Asthma Campaign has estimated that asthma
costs the UK over £1 billion per year. Environmental economists have eslimated
the cost of air pollution from road transport at £19.7 billion per year.
Road transport is a major sourca of alr pollution in the UK. In London, lrafflc
is responsible for 99% of carbon monoxide, 76% of shows the contribution made
to greenhouse gaces by the transport sector was a fifth of the tolaI amount
produced in the European Union in 2001 (European Environment Agency, 2002).
When pollution levels are high, the contribution of road transpori is often
greater. For example,anslysis by government experls shows that when
particulate levels exceed health standards, then road trafid's contribution is in
the range of 75-85%. Summertime smog,or ozone, is also caused by traffic. it
does not come directly from vehiclec or factories but is created by chemical
reactions betwcen other nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons.

D. Congestion

Problens Caused by Congestion

Congestion costs the country a lot of money. Times spent in jams are not
available for other activities;and unpredictable and unnecessarily long journeys
add costs to business. These costs would be through time lost to business
travelers and inefficiencies in their supply chain. The Confederation of British
Industry estimates congestion costs the country's economy £20 billion a year.
Congested conditions are far more damaging to the local environment,
especially-local air quality, than free flowing traffic. Fuel consumption also
goes up, as the most efficient speed for most vehicles is around 50 mph.
 Drivers often find delays frustrating or irritating and they often .resent being
held up even if they had nothing in particular to do with the time lost. Because
their trip may be delayed people often feel they have to leave extra lime for
journeys. Lsing up extra lime like this annoys people and sometimes it can be
hard to determine how much lime to allow for congestions, as hold-ups are
unprediclable in incidence or duration. Between 1982 and 2000 the average
trafilc delays increased from 7 hours per person per year to 27 hours.
Congestion makes driving more unpleasant, and can put drivers in a bad
mood. It is a major source of driver stress, and makes many people feel
frustraled, angry, anxious, confused, and/or exhaustad.Other probloms
congestion can cause include the following:encouraging competitive or
aggressive driving; making driving harder, limiting drivers freedom of action to
travel where and when they went, and making accidents or mishaps more likely.

Possible Solutions to Congostion

One answer is to make better use of the space available to us.We can do this
by: managing urban growth to make the fullest use of public transport; locate
shops, leisure and entertainment, and offices near lo major public transport
interchanges; and building housing within existing urban areas.
We can also change the way that we travel. Work place or school travel plans
that include car sharing, more use of public transport, and walking or cycling can
all help. The government is providing funding to help educate people and set up
new travel plans.
Working from home making use of computers and the internet,known as
tele-working, can also help. The number of tele-workers has increased by 13%
each year since 1997. Studies estimate tele-working could reduce car commuting
by 6% by 2015. Many companies are now starting to have virtual meetings where
the use of
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

web cameras and the internet can allow people to altend a meeting even though they may
be in many different places.
The highways agency will also be working to manage traffic botter on major roads, such
as motorways. They will establish more control centers that will monitor the molorway
network and organize action When an incident occurs. The agency will also deploy a
uniformed molorway patrol service, operating round the clock, with powers to take action
and a focus on taking whatever sleps are nocessary - as soon as possible - to get traffic
flowing. It is estimated in the first two years it will be able to reduce the delays caused by
incidents on motorways by 5%.
Drivers can also make use of modern technology. On board congestion monitors and
telecommuncations has enabled several companies to offer drivers real time information
about conditions ahead of them, and options for alternalive routes. Some systems can also
provide automatic notification of & collision to the emergency seivices, with an accurale
location. If drivers get informalion about the current state ai the network, where congestion
is, weather conditions and incidents/collisions before they start their journeys congestion
can be avoided or reduced. This can be gained using the media or the internet.
With modern technology a fifth method of congestion charging is now being suggesied.
This could also change the way that road users are laxed as they could be charged for how
often, when and where they use the roads. Advanlages of general charging to use the roads
would be: road pricing would make people look at other methods of travel more; it would
reduce the cost of motoring on clear roads; and it would avoid the problems caused by only
charging for a few roads as motorists would not be able to change their routes to avoid
being charged. Researchers have suggested that a scheme like this would cause people to
use the roads that we have better and would avoid the reduction in speed across the road
network the growth in congestion is causing.
No country has yet introduced a system where drivers are charged whenever they
drive, mainly because the technology was

78Chapter Ill: The Five Pillars of Traffic

Traffic Manageinente

not good enough. The government is going to introduce charging for lorries
in 2006 so it will be interesting lo see how well it works.

Reducing Pollution
A new car meeling the latest loxic emissions standards is around 30
times cleaner than a new car in the early 1980's. There are three main
reasons for this: improvements in fuel, cars being more fuel-efficient and
the use of catalylic converters.
Petrol used to have lead addad lo it get a higher octane number and
therefore more power.Lead emissions have deoreased by about 91.5%
since the late 1980s. This is because the amount of lead allowed in petrol
was reduced in 1985 and was banned in 2000. In more recent times, pelrol
companles have been decreasing the amount of sulphur added to potrol.
 Cars are using less fuel than they used to. It is now common to have 5
speed gearboxes (and some now have 6) whereas the norm used to be 4.
Engines are more efficient and cars are more aerodynamic. The rise in the
use of diesel cars has helped although these produce more particle
emissions. Fuel consumption per passenger kilometer fell by about 10 per
cent during the 1980s, as distance traveled by passengers increased by
more than fuel used by passenger vehicles. Following increases in the carly
1990s, there have been further reductions, and by 2002 fuel consumed per
passenger kilometer was 13% per cent lower than it had been in 1980.
Although road transport users remain the main producers of carbon
monoxide, there has been a substantial reduction in emissions since 1990.
Levels have fallen sharply since 1990, from 5.5 to 2.3 million tonnes,
despite increased traffic. This is primarily due to the introduction of
catalytic converters on petrol cars that help reduce toxic emissions (see
diagram below).

Catalytic Converter

Even though average carbon dioxide emissions from new cars have reduced
ovor recent years, increases in car ownership and mileage mean thai total carbon
emissions from road transport haven't decreased for the last decade. The
government has set some targets for carbon emiscions and at the moment
progress has not been swift enough to meet the targets. For example, the target
for a 25% reduction
Traffic in and
Management carbon
Accidentdioxide emissions for 2008 set in 1998 is behind
Investigation
schedule (a reduction of 9% had been achleved by 2003).One promising way of
reducing emissions is to change the way we power our cars. Hybrid and hydrogen
powered cars have a greal deal of promise.
There are severel other measures that can be used to help reduce the
amount of road traffic pollution. These include urban traffic management,
junction control, parking restrictions or traffic calming. The table below (TRL,
Report 174) outlines some possible advantages and disadvantages of these
measures. On faster roads,such as busy motorways, reducing the speed limit
during heavy traffic can help keep the traffic moving and therefore reduce
pollution.
Trafiic Management and Accident Investigation

Traffic Management Schemes

Citywide
Traffic Outer Inner
city/local

management city/central

measure alea
Urban Traffic . Fuel Not known
Control system
consumption
for central area reduced 5% to

15%
Not known
Not applicable
Reduced fuel
Traffic signal

optimisation at
consumption of
isolated traffic
up to 25%
signals
Different Emission -
Very small

junction control changes 이 changes

between 5%

and 20%

Public transport Bus emissions Little impact on

Uncertain,but
priority reduced by up model split
probably

to 60% without car small

restraint changes
Park and ride Little impact on Uncertain
May increase car use without
restraint

car trips

Halving parking Increased car Reduced car Reduction in

places in central model split model split

CO2 equivalent
area emissions
from 61% to from 56% to
between 4% to
67% 29% 6%

Central area Increases in

Reduction of Probably

traffic ban traffic outside

emissions in
quite small

banned area e.g. 5%

proportion to

vehicles reduction
banned
Trafiic Management and Accident Investigation

Parking control Reduced Not known

on major urban
Reduction in

vehicle
congestion may
roads
emissions of 1 attract more

to 16% on vehicles
routes affected
Traffic calming Probably - Uncertain but

reduced NOX probably

but may
small
increase HC,

CO andfuel

consumption
Lower speed Lower exhaust Lower exhaust Small

limits (depends emissions emissions changese.g.

on enforcement) up to 2%

reduction in

NOX
Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
Unit 5-Trafflc Economy

Traific Economy - people should learn also to develop schemes that do not only lessen
expenses but also accidents.

Transportation and the Economy

As noted in the U.S. President's Technology for America's Economic Growth,A New
Direction to Build Economic Strength,a competitive, growing economy requires a
lransportation systern that can move people, goods, and services quickly and efficiently,To
meet this challengs;each transport sector must work effectively both by itself and as part of
a larger, interconnected whole, Technologies that increase the speed,reliability, and cost-
effectiveness of the transportation sector also will increase the economy's competitiveness
and ability to create jobs.
Today, one of the greatest challenges we face is to rehabilitate and properly mainlain
the huge stock of infrastructure facilities already in place. Providing a world-class
transportation sector will require Nations lo meet the challenges posed both by increased
congestion in many parts of the transportation system and by the need to rebulld and
maintain a public capital stock valued at more than $2.4 trillion.
The Federal Government is committed to leading an effort to realize the vision of
"sustainable" transportation, With the goal of balancing different modes of transportation
while taking into account performance, cost, resource use, and social impact.

Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles

President Clinton and Vice President Gore have joined with the Big Three American
automakers General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler in an historic new partnership to strengthen
U.S.competitiveness by

Chapter lll:The Five Pillars of Traffic 83

Traffic Management and Acoident Investigation
developing technologies for a new generation of vehicles up to three times more fuel
efficient than today's. It is a technological venture as ambitious as any America has ever
allempted and is a model for the new partnership belween government and industry
envisioned by President Clinton. It is an all-out effort to ensure that the U.S. auto industry
leads the world in technology. II will expand economic opportunity, preserve jobs, protect
the environment, and strengthen our economic competitiveness:
The long-term goal of the partnership is the development of affordable, safe, altractive,
and dremetically more efficient automobiles. Groundbreaking research and development
goals for industry and goverment engineering teams will be launched in three categories:
Advanced manufacturing techniques to make it eacier to gst new product ideas into the
markelplace quickly. Such techniques would include rapid, computer-based design and testing
systems and new automation and control systems that can lower production costs.
Technologies that can lead to near-term improvements in automobile efficiency, safety, and
emissions, such as lightwelght,recyclable materials and catalysis for reducing exhaust
pollution.
5 Research that could lead to production prototypes of vehicles capable of up to three times
greater-fuel efficiency.Radical new concepts, such as fuel cells and advanced energy storage
systems like ultra capacitors, will be developed to produce more fuel-efficient cars that are
affordable, meet or exceed current safety standards, and retain the performance and
comfort available today.

Led by Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology Mary Good, the project will be
managed by an interagency team consisting of representaties from the Departments of
Commerce, Defense,Energy,and Transportation; the Environmental Protection
Agency;National Aeronautics and Space Administration; and the National Science
Foundation. This interagency team is preparing an inventory
84
Chapter lll:The Five Plllars of Trafflc

of government programs that can help meet the partnership goals,as a first step in rapid
development of a coordinated R&D strategy.

Electric and Hybrid Electrio Vehicles

The Defense Department's Advanced Research Projects Agency has selected six regional
coalitions in Hawail, Sacramento, Los Angeles, Indianapolis, Atlanta, and Boston to work on
electric and hybrid electric vehicle technology and Infrastructure. The projects will focus on
conversion or replacement to electric or hybrid of small pickup trucks and medium-sized
buses on military bases and installation of the vehicle support infrastructure; conversion or
purchase of electric or hybrid vehicles for commercial use in the community, including
infrastructure, research to advance the state-of-the-art on one or more components or
systems for electric or electric hybrid vehicles or for their support infrasfructure; and
support ectivities.

Research and Technology Outreach Seminaro

DOT also has begun a series of outrecch seminars entitled "Promoting Transportation
Applications in Defense Conversion and Other Advanced Technolo- gies." Held in Ann Arbor,
MI; Davis, CA;Cambridge, MA; and Austin, TX, the seminara are bringing together
representatives of academia, State, and local governments, and private industry to discuss
transportation and the environment,infrastructure rehabilitation and maintenance, and
new vehicle technology.DOT will use the information gathered in these meetings to shape
its Transportation Research and Technology Strategic Plan.

Intelligent Vehicle/Highway Systems (IVHS)

DOT has initiated studies aimed at having a prototype demonstration of an

automated highway syslem by 1997. To fostér improvements in IVHS user services,
DOT has begun
T'rafio a 3-year
Management process
and Accident to establish the overall IVHS system architecture. DOT
Investigation
plans

Chapter lll:The Five Pillars of Traffic 85

Traiio Management and Acoldent Investigation

to make maximum use of defense-oriented firms' developments in sensor

technologies, high-speed computing, communications, human factors, display
technologies, and aulonomous vehicle control syslems. Working with
Montgomery County, MD, which is installing 200 video cameras along its roads,
the Commerce Department's National Institulo oi Slendards and Technology is
evaluatíng automatic vision-based survelllance to determine the types of useful
traific information the systom can obtain and how to quickly extract,analyze, and
translato the information into traffic management decisions that ease congastion
and avert safety hazards.
Global Positioning Lystem (GPS)
GPS is a spece-based positioning, navigation, and time distribulion systom
designed for worldwids military use. In May 1993,the Secretaries of Transportation
and Defense established a joint task force to examine the possibilities for expanded
civil participation in the implementation, operation, and support of the GPS. A DOD-
DOT team is working to ldentify and resolve issues related to augmentation of the
current system and funding to provide oivillan users with the necessary accuracy and
integrity. The Federel Aviation Administration (FAA) defined the technical standards
for GPS receivers to be used in civilian aviation and approved supplomental use of the
GPS for all phases of flight. NASA and the FAA are testing the GPS system to
investigate ways to improve navigation and collision avcidance. Full operation of GPS
is expected in FY 1995.

Climate Change Action Plan

 As part of the climate change action plan released in October,the
Administration is conducting a year-long process to identify and implement
policiss in the transportation sector to reduce the projected growth of
greenhouse gases. This process will involve all relevant stakeholders and will
consider, among other issues, policies to increase the fuel efficiency of new
personal vehicles.
Traffic Management and Accident investigation

Magnetic Levitation (MagLev)

High-speed magnetically levitated ground transportation is a new mode of

surace transporiation in which vehicles glide above their guideways, suspended,
guided, and propelled by magnetic forces at speeds of 250 to 300 miles per hour or
higher. The Administration is publishing the resulte of the 3-year national MagLev
initiative, a cooperative interagency effort of the Department of Transportation and
its Federal. Railroad Administration, the Army'Corps of Engineers, and the
Department of Energy. While questions remain about the commercial viability of
MagLev, the Administration should proceed with the devclopment of a program. In
FY 1994,$20 million was provided to continue research and analysis of MagLev.
Aeronautics

For decades, the United States led the aviation revolution every step of the way, and
Amarica ruled the skies. Today, the aeronautics industry is one of the largest in the
countryemploying nearly i million people in high-quality jobs, genereting almost $100 billion in
annual sales, and producing tens of billions of dollars in exports.
Today's aeronautics environment, however, is extremely dynamic foreign
competition,economic deregulation of the airline industry, the end of the Cold War, and the
growing concern for the global environment have all changed the aviation industry. The
Administration is committed to making the changes required to strengthen civil aviation in the
United States. NASA is addressing the technology needs of civil aviation by expanding its
investments in high-speed research,advanced subsonic technologies, and high-performance
computing and communications. The plans for these programs have been developed and will be
refined. By working closely with industry and government agencies, NASA alins to ensure that
design, manufacturing, and operations issues are addressed early in the technology
development process and to maximize its investments through effective and timely technology
transfer.

Chapter lll:The Five Pillars of Traffic 87

Tramic Management and Accident Investigation
High-Speed Research (HSR)

NASA is developing the technologies that industry noeds to design and build an
environmenially compatible and economically competitive high-speed clvil transport (HSCT)
for the 21st century.As currently envisioned,an HSCT alrcraft would carry 300 passengers al
Mach 2.4 on transoceanlo routes over distancer up to 6,000neutioal miles at fares
comparable lo subsonio transports. An HSCT would reduce flight times from Celliomla to
Japan to about 4 hours,and from California to Australla to about 7 hours. Such an alroraft
wil be essential for capturing the valuable long-haul Peolilc Rim market.Market studies
Indicate that the successful development of a domestio HSCT will result in $200 billion in
sales and 140,000 jobs for U.S. industry.
Before industry can devalop thio typo of siroraft, environmenial concems, such as
alrcraft noise, sonlo boom, and atmospheric contaminants, must be addresscd. An HSCT
must meet not only the current regulatory standards but also thlose anlioipated for the
early part of the next century. NASA is sponsoring an independent,international sclentific
assessment to determina globally acceptable levels of engine emissions and noise, In FY
1994,NASA will focus on technologies required to make an HSCT economically feasible and
competitive.In close ccoperation with U.S. industry and tha university research community,
NASA plens to devciop and validate technologles for an HSCT, Including advanced
propulsion systems,new structural materials, improved serodynamic designs, and stale-of-
the-art flight control and display systems.
While NASA Is concentrating its investments in the early, high-risk stages of
development, the aircraft manufacturing industry has indicated that it is willing to make a
substantial investment in this program as the technological risk decreases. The High-Speed
Research program aims to produce an industry HSCT prototype around the year 2000.

88
Chapter IIl:The Five Plllars of Trafflc
Traffic Management and Acoident Investigation

Advanced Subsonic Technology

Subsonic airliners will continue to be a vital element of both long-haul and domestic alr
travel for the foreseeable fulure, and the Administration and NASA are accelerating
investments in this key area through the Advanced Subsonic Technology Program. In
partnership with U.S. Industry, NASA is developing lightweight, highly reliable optical
systems; lighiweight,low-cost composite structures;highly efficient turbofan engines; and
integrated wing design techniques. These R&D efforts arc intended to increase airline
profitability through increased airoraft produclivity, lower ownership costs, and reduced
direct operating cosls, resulting in increased economic valuation of the alrcraft relative to
foreign competitors.
In e collaborative effort to increase safely, FAA and NASA have successfully flight tested three
lypes of sensors that increase warning limes to airline pilots. They also are evaluating a four-
dimensional Aircraft Traffic Management System known as the CENTER/TRACON Automation
System, or CTAS, that will enable more on-time arrivals and departures and cut fuel consumption.
By early in the next century, the combination of CTAS, GPS, and other navigation and display
technologies could provide a significant improvement in the efficiency of our national alrspace
system and creale a market for new products.

CHAPTER IV: TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

UnitI. Concept of Trafilc Accident Investigation

Fundamental knowledge on traffic accidents and their causes is important if a police

Investigator is lo determine what to ask and what to look for in an accident scene. The
existence of traffic accidents is a common knowledge that something went wrong on the
highway.lt may be a wrecked car, destroyed property, injured or posslbly killed persons. In
this regard, a traffic law enforcer must have knowledge about traffic accident investigation
procedures, and as always the procedure, how to use the 4W1H style of questioning.

A. traffic accident is defined as unintentional damage or injury caused by the movement

of a vehicle or its load. It is en accident that occur on a traffic way and involves a vehicle in
motion.

For purposes of determination, a traffic accident, in order to be considered as such,

should contain the following elements:

a. it occurs in a traffic way

b. it involves a vehicle in motion

a. motor vehicle traffic accident - any.motor vehicle accident occurring on a

traffic way involving a motor vehicle in motion

89
b.motor vehicle accident-any accident that results in unintended injury or
property
Trafficdamage altributed
Management and directly or indirectly to the motion of a motor
Acoident Investigation
vehicle on the road.

C
Tretfio Management and Accldent Invesligation

Considered as Motor Vehicle Accidents:

1. accidental injury due to inhalation of exhaust gas;

2. fires;
3. explosion;
4. accidental injury due to inhalation of exhaust gas;
5. mechanical failure of any part of the mofor vehiole while it is in motion

Not Considered as.Motor Vehicle Accidents:

1. collision of motor vehicle with an aircraft or water craft in motion:

2.injury or damage due to calaclysm or conflagrations;
3. injury or damage whiile the motor vehicle is on or unloaded from another
conveyance

c. motor vehicle non-fraffic accident - any motor vehicie accident occurring entirely in any
place other than a traffic way
e.g.accident on a private drive way
d. non-motor vehicle traffic accident- any accident ocourring on a traffic way involving
persons using the traffic way or travel or transportation, but not involving a motor vehicle
in motion. E.g.pedestrian and cyclist colliding in a traffic way

Classifications of Motar Vehicie Traffic Accidents

1. According to Key Event:

a. running on road
b. non-collision on road (overturning, skidding)
c. collision on road (pedestrian, bicycles, other motor vehicles,fixed objects, trains)
01
Chapter IV:Traffic Accident Investigation
Tramic Maragement and accident invetigation
2. According to Severity:

a. property damage accident

b. non-fatal injury accident
c. serious injury accident
d. fatal accident

Causes of Motor Vehtcle Traffic Accidonts

Traifio acoldents ocour duo to varying ciroumslances and only after a thorough and
accurate investigation can liability and accountability be ascertalned, notwithstanding that
no driver will readily accepi the blame for the accident. With these, the traffic investigator
is faced with a gargantuan task of bringing out the fruth on who should be held
responsible for the accident. His primary concern will be to detormine how and why the
accident happened.

The following are list of factors that may contribute to Traffic Accidents:

1. Simultaneous Faclors
a. road conditions
b. driver altitude or behavior
c. weather condition

2. Sequential Factors
a. speed that is greater or less than safe
b. vehicle malfunction

3. Operational Factors
a. Road hazards
b. Non-compliance to traffic rules

4.Perception Factors
a. driver's inability to react promptly to traffic situations
b. driver's faulty reaclion to avoid collision course

Chapter IV:Traffic Accident Investigation

Chain of Events in a Vehicular Accident
9
2
 For the purpose of reporting, traffic accidents may usually be desoribed weli
enough as a single occurrence. But whon it is investigated, attenlion is directed to
particular slages of the occurrence. Based on this premise, an accident nay be
defined as a serles of unexpected events that lead lo loss of control, damage
and/or injury. One event leads to another in whal is being relorred to as the
"chain of events".

These evenis are described and illustrated below:

5.Perception of Hazerd - the seelng, fesling, or delecling and underslanding the

usual or unexpeciod movement or condition that could be perceived as sign of
an accident about to happen
2. Start of Evasive Action - the first action teken by a traffic unil to escape from
e collision course or otherwise avoid a hazard.
3.Initial Contact - the first of the series of contacts and impacts that will take
place belween two objecis or vehicles during the course of the accident. InitiaI
contact will determine the exact movements and positions of each vehicie
before the accident, and may point to who commilted the mistake. It may also
be known as the "point of impact".
Maximum Engagement - it is the greatest collapse or overlap in a collision;
the force of collision belween the traffic unit and the object
5.Disengagement - it is the separation of the traflic unit in motion from an
object with which it has collided. The force of impact ceases at this time
G.Stopping - this is when the unit/s involved come to rest. lt usuaily stabilizes the
accident situation
7. Injury - this event does not necessarily occur after the accident but within
any of the stages of the accident.

93Chapter IV:Tratfio Accident Investigation

テご anio Managament and Accident Investigation

Untt 2 - Investigation Procedures In Tratilc Accidents and Viciations

Objective:
 Investigators should be able to investigate a trific agoident,outein witness and victim
information and determine the cause and faull of an accident. They should be able to
properly cear the soene of an accident calling upon the necessary resources such as
emergency medical services (EMS), wreckers, firomen or repair CrGWS.

Fcreword:

Traffic accidents are extremely confusing events. How they occur,who or what caused
them, and why they occurred are facis that police must determine. Every peace officer inust
know the fundamentals of traffic accident investigation and know how io prepare traffic
accident reporis. Trailic accidents, resulting in personal injury, fatality, and property damage
require an on-scene invesligation.

inilial Steps.

Prompt arrival at the scene of an accidenl is essential. Safety,however, should be

emphasized at all limes. While in route, the officer should maintain contact with the
Dispatcher. They should also be on the lookout for any suspicious or damaged vehicles
fleeing the general area.
Traffic Acoident Sceno Investigation. U
pon
Arriv
While Enroute to the Scone
al at
the
The officer should oblain as much preliminary information as Scen
possible concerning the accident. e

Such information includee: W

h
0 Lacation e
n
Tims of notification
st
Who notified the officer and how ar
Weather and visibllily conditions ti
General Informalion as fo serlousness of the acoldent-injuries, n
hit and run, amount of traffic congestion,etc. g
Whether or not additional support is proceeding ta the a
scene,such as wrecker,ambulance, or additional Police patrols c
u
se
By obtaining such information prior to arrival al the scene,the
,
investigalors may more quickly and efficiently respond to the needs of m
the situation..
any investigators, especially the less experienced ones, are
overwhelmed by either the lack of or the stacks of information. All
investigations and reconstructions start at he resting point of the
vehicles al the scene. The scene of the accident holds the richest and
most abundant amount of evidence and information, including:

Location of the resting points of the vehicles

Location of the occupants outside the vehicle, if they were ejected
from the vehicle
Location of accident vehicle debris

mol
by
radi
they
bec
o
weir
grav
vehi
REC
Rato

Loc
a
T
tra
ffic
use
d
illu
mi
be
on
 Care acci
T de
stigation

Location of the skid or yew marks from either or both vehicles

而 Construction of the roadway - asphalt, concrete, or gravel
St Condition of the shoulders of the road - paved, gravel, sand.soft or hard, edge
ruts, or no shoulder at all
Condition of the rondbed - potholes, washboard, edge nibbling, narrow lane
widlhs, and improper or no lane markings
Damage to the vohiole
Components missing irom the vehicles
Location of the miscing components
Damage to the roadbod from the vehicle interaction
Damage to the off-road environment such as fields, lawns,orchards,culverte, end
irees

Vehicles Invalved in n collision follow Newton's second law of motion, "bodies in motion
will lend lo slay in motion until acted upon by an outside force". This basically means that
vehicle do not make-radical changes in direction or speed unless they strike an object or
they are being struck. The only exception know is when vehicles become airbome. When
they louch the ground again, they perform weird gyrations and movements due to the
location of the center of gravity of the vehicle as well as the uneven ground area where the
vehicle is impacted. (VEHICULAR ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION and RECONSTRUCTION by
Donald J. Van Kirk, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida 2001)

Location of the Patrol Vehicle.

The police vehicle should be positioned so as not to cause further traffic congestion or
accidents. If necessary, it may, however, be used as a roadblock. At nighl it should be parked
so the headlights illuminate the entire scene. At all times the emergency lights should be on
to warn approaching motorists of the hazard.

Care for injured and protect the scene.

The investigators should determine the extent of injuries,if any,to accident victims;
render first aid; and request medical assistance, if

Chapter IV:Traffic Accident Investigation 96

Traffic Management and Acoident Investigation

15

Chapter IV:Traffic Acoident Investigation

necessary. Severely injured persons should not be moved, except to pieserve their safety.
The position of all victims should be noted for rvort purposes and, if on the road, ths
positions outlined in chalk or toad paint. A doctor/corner or justice of the peace makes final
determination of death. After caring for the injured, the scene should be scoured to prolect
properly and preserve evidenca. Personal property of accident viclims must be protected.
In cese of acoidenls involving fatalities or felonies, Explorers should request appropriate
specielized accident investigators.

Ercahlish Traffic Control.

Traflic control is essontial at the accident scene to prevent further rucidents or Injury.
Rerouling vehioles around the acoident scene is iie most common procedure used.
Spectators or urnecessary pereonnel should be cleared from the accident area.

Request Additional Support

Additional support personnel should be requested, il necessary,such as power line
repair, road repelr; water pipe repain portable lighiing, signal personnel (for telephone
repair or ploiography),medical personnel (for ambulance, special medical equipment), and
sivilian police personnel within their jurisdiction.

Evnential Elements of an Investigation.

The essential investigalive elements who, whal, when, where,Mlry, and how the
accident happened may be used alone, or supported by scaled diagrams, photographs
and/or slalements. This s one of the special tools needed lo clearly explain what happened i
the accident scene.

Securing Facts at Scene.

After completing the initial steps and securing the acene of the iccident, the investigator
obtains and records faots needed to omplete their reports to arrive at logical and objeclive
conclusions.he main thrust of the investigation is to determine whether or not

Chanter IV: Traffic Accident Investigation

there was a violation of the law; and if so, to prove each element of tha offense.
Explorers should issue a traffic ticket when appropriate.

Woving Vehicle and Marking Wlleels

The decision to move a vehicle from ils final position must often bo made by
the police patrol arriving at the scene. When this is done,the positions of the
wheels should be marked on the ground so they can be relocated for
investigalive purposes. Under lhe following conditions, a vehicle must be moved
immediately:
a. When an injured person is trapped in the wreckage end cannot be treated
there.
When a person is tropped in wreokage near burning material, or an area of
pctential fire hazard.
When a vohicle position is an immediate hezard to oncoming tralfic and
adequate traffio confrol cannol be establishsd.

Identify and Preserve Fragilo Evidence

Any fragile evidence that can be damaged, allerod, destroyed or removed
from the scane by any willful or negligent act must be identified and secured.
Prior lo removal, its position should be noted,sketched,pholographed and/or
marked in chalk. Examples of such evidence are puddles of gesoline, oil, blood or
pleces of broken glass. The position of turn signal levers should be checked;
although this is not a positive indicator of whether a turn signal was in use it can
be helpful.
Alcoholio beverage conlainers inside a vehicle should also be secured.
Evidence should be lagged, marked, and secured in accordance with proper
evidence gathering proceoures prior to its removal from the scene.

Take Statements
Questioning and taking statements of Wilnesses and victims should be done
at the scene. If this is not possible, statements should be laken as soon as
possible at the hospital, police station or homes of those involved. Names,
number and contact address of witnesses should be noted on the ST-3 accident
report. All parties
Traffic Management and Accicient Iewvesligation

should be separated whon questioning them, but in a safe looation like on the sidewalk, not
in the roadway. Make sure the parties exchange names and phone numbers before leaving
the accident scene.

Recording Observations
After galning all the infurmalion possible from all persons involved in the accident, the
invcstigator begins to examine the physical condition of the scene, and lo record his observalions.

Vehicle Final Rest Position

The examination should uterl where the vehiole came to final resl.Debris or brokeh parts trom
vehicles, with other indications, will help locate the key event and indicate the paths of the
vehioles involved.Marks or traces such as skic or scrape marks help-the invesligato locate
pertinent points acourately. All marks, puddles, bils of melal and contents of vehicles must be
located and their positions meacured and recorded. Skid msrks are very important since they show
position and directlon of travel, evasive action or unlawiul behavior. Note especially things that
would help locate the point of first contact, such as chengee Inr ekid marks, chips in pavement and
damage to roadside objects.

Path of Vehicles
The invesligator should-hext retrace the paths of the vehicles Involved. Nole visibility,
cundition of signs and signals, road surface condition, traffic volume, angles of view and possible
distractions.

Vehicle Search and Inspection

A careful inspection of vehicle equipment and contents is necessary. Items affecting
vehicle control should be particularly shecked, such as lires, brakes, lights, steering, signals
and safety aquipment. For example, it is important to know whether a tire blew ut as a
result of the accident, or whether a tire blowout was a oossible contributing factor of the
accident. This fact can be letermined by analyzing skid and scuff marks. Contents of the
Chaptor IV:Tratfic Accident Investigation

vehicle may also give imporlant information concerning the

ldentity,residence, occupation, destinetion and position of vehicle
ocoupants.

Sketches
Depending on the fypc and severity of an acoldent, sketches are
made, which may range iron, a simple sketch on the ST-3 accident form,
to detalled scaled drawings on separale sheets: Sketches serve four
purposes:
a. Help explain the accident
b. Help the investigalor reveel iacis.
c. Lopate any given point et the scene.
d. Serve as the basis for accurate ocale drawings.

Fleld sketches are inede al the scene and are used to support the officer's
original noter. The following information must be placed on skeiches and scaled
drawings:
a. Time of the acoldent (dale and hour).
b. Names of roads, If-on a rural highway, show the distance to the nearest
identifiable landmark.
c. Direction of North.
d. Report or case numbet.
 e. References to photogJraphs taken.

Steps in Preparing a Sketch

1. The investigator first draws the roadway, shoulder and other areas of the scene
thatTranic
are Management
perlinent and Acoident investigation
to the investigation. This includes any physical characleristios
which may constitute contributing factors to the cause of the accident,or which
will be used as base points.

2. Base points are then drawn on the sketch.These are those points used in
making measurements by triangulation. They are permanent objects such as
telephone poles, mileage markers, road sign posts,etc. If permanent objects are
not available, base points can be established by driving wooden stakes into the
dirt at the edge of the
Trafio Management and Aacident Investigation
roadway or driving nails into the asphalt. Measuremento are made from
the place where the base point meets the ground. li large circular
objects, such as telephone poles are usad, the, exad referenice point
should be marked with a nail or paint.

3. The next portion of the sketch shows the final posltion of the vehicle,
occupants and objects involved in the accident. All damage lo the vehicle
and other property is also indicated on the skeich. This information should
also be entered in the narrative portion of the report.

4. The sketch is compleled by including information on vehiole marks and debris

at the scene. Vehicle marks include skid and scufl marks,suratches, scrapes and
gouges of the pavement and yaw marks.These marks will be used in delermining
speeds-of the vehicles involved. Debris is useful in determining the point of fust
contact. An outline of the areas in which debris has come lo resi is included in he
sketch. Debris is usually spread in an elongalen paltern in the Jirection of travel.
Points where debris concentration is greatest are also indicated.Notes should be
made if there appears to be lwo or nore separate debris areas.

After entering identifying informalion on the skelch,ihe final step is o recheck the
sketch at the scone. The investigator should re-travel he paths of the accident
vehicles at their level of vision height to Jetermine visibility and any obstructions.
The sketch must have an Inderstandable legend.
 Aoasurements

Accurate measurements are necessary to relocate and relate xact points in an

accident scene. There are two methods of making easurements-triangulation and
coordinate.
Traffie Management and Accident Investigation

Triangulation Method

Triongulation is the best method to use on unpaved roads

without clean-cut edges or on sharp curves and irregular
intersections. The steps in this method are as follows:

1. Deternine iwo fixed base poims, such as telephone poles, edges of bulldings,
elc.

2. Measure from bolh base points to each object such ss the accident vehicle.

3. Write measurements as 126 for 12 feet, 6 inches. The normal symbols for
feet (') and inches (") are not used to avold misreading or confusion.(Mefers
are listad in tenths, such as 10,6i):

4. Flxed base poinis should be widely spaced to provide wide angles in

measuring.Narrow angles increase the probability of error.

5. Show measurements to the wheel positions on one side of the vehicle or to

the front and rear of vehicle it undamaged. Also show measurements to large
1
debris and to viclims nct in the vehicle(s)involved.

6. Measure skid marks from where the road surlace firsi shows any marks of
tires grabbing.

Coordinate Method

This method is best-used in roadways with well-defined edges and when

measurements are to be made wilhin 25 feet (7 to 8meters) of the roadway
edge. The edge. of the roadway forms one coordinate. The distance to the
object, measured af a right angle to the first coordinate is the other.
 A point along the roadway edge is selected as the zero or reference
point. Its exact location must be recorded. Measurements

102
Traffic Management and Accident Invesiigation

are taken from the zero point. Measurements are recorded by compass direction.
Measurements may be recorded on the sketch in chart form,thus keeping the sketch from
becorning overly cluttered.
Photography

Photographs are used lo supplement an accident Investigation and the written repori
conceming the accident. When used in court testimony, they help indionte and explain the chain
of ovents.Photographs, however, never lake the place of an investigalion ar a report. The
invesligalor should lake as many pictures as necessary tu properly depict the accidont. They should
represent what is actually soen by the investigator,thus scale, angles of view, color and light
should be es ncarly like what, is seen as possible.

Photographs must be taken as follows (minimum):

a Establishing Pholograph--This picture should show the scene, the approaches to the scene, and a
fixed object in the background lo establish the scene.
b.360-Degree Pholographs--These pictures should shov all four sides of the accident scene, that
is,looking north, south, east and west.
Damage Photographe-Close-up pictures of damage to all vehloles and items struck by
vehicles involved, to include contact and induced damage.

vightfime Photography- Ai night, it is more difficult to establish the cene and tosee
detalis and distance relationships in pholograph.lf is impossible to have permanently
fixed objects in the scene lo stablish the photograph a data board should be used.
Greater detail an be achieved by adjusting the f-stop of the camera to allow more
tlachment wiil betfer reveal depth at night. If no flash is available,everal photographs
taken successively, closer to the object,should

03
Chapter IV:Traffic Accident Investigation
Traffio Management and Aoaident Investigation
be taken. Investigalors should go back and photograph the complete area during daylight.

Photographs in Court

To be admissible in couit, the investigator teking and using photographs should lollow
these four steps:

1. Aulhenticalion-Pholographic evidence will be authenticated in court by the officer who

lakes the plotures. A summary descnibing the incident should be ennofated and Ettached to
the negative film packet or recorded on the reverse side of the hard copies soor after the
pholographs are laken. This will assist in authenticalion.

2. Marking-Eacn roll of lilm or film pack must be marked with the name of the individual
who took lhe photographs, date, time and location of the incident, type of incident, a
control number, and the sequence in whiich thie film was used. If it is desirable to point out
a specific area of alpholograph. an acetate overlay should be used.Never maik directly on
the print.

3. Relevancy-All pictures must be clear, sharp and free of distortion.They must be relevant
lo the invcstigation. Photographs support the testimony,They must nol be inflammatcry or
provide for shock value:perticularly photographs of injuries. Photographs of bodies in
relation to the vehicles' position are not, however, considered inflammafory if relevant to
suppont a point of testimony.

4. Supportive Only-Pholagraphs alone do not subslantiate facts-they must be supported by

testimony. The investigator oT photographer must be able to testify that the photos reflect
a true representation of the scene.

Chantor B Teoffie Aecid

Traffic Management and Accident Investigation s

Inspection of Vehicles

Aftor sketching, measuring and pholographing, the accident ecane, the

invesligator should begin his inspection of the vehiicle(s)condition and
damage. The purpose is to abtain supporting information concerning
talements of wiinesses and his own conclusions, When made.

vehicle, existing prior to the acoldent. Some unsafe aspect may be

determined to have been an intermediate or early ceuse of lhe accident,
such as a bald tire.

Vehicle damage is the resulling physical characierislice of the vehidle(s)

caused by tlie accident: Damage is clascified as either contact or induced,
Contact damage is thal which oocuis as a diredl resull of contaol with or by
an object. Il can oocur in mors than one location on the vehicle.

Induced ramage is that caused to vehiole parts that did not come in contact
with the object struck, but resulted from the shock of the collision.

15

05
Chapter IV:Traffic Accident Invostigation C

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Venici bady condition
 Check lacalions of damage. The amount of buckling-or broaking can
indicele the force of the accident. Check for alteration to the freme. body, or
suspension, which could have affecfed tha driver's vision or vehicle reaction.

Thea ind rims conditian-Check to see if the lires are fully Inflated,have good lread, or
show signs of a blowoul. Check for tread acrape marks, sicewall scrapes or culs, which
can indicate how well the vehide held up to braking and sideways, skidding. Check
rims for fresh terapes, culs or scralches. They may indicate that a hlowout occurrad
prior to the accident.

Lighi conititions - Check all lights for aperation and porition of knobs and levers used
ta control lighs. These checks are oflen necessery to verify stalements. Note also any
lights burning when you errived at the scene. Check for obstruclions to lights such as
dirt flim. Il lighis are to be checked by the US Army Criminal Investigation Lebotatory,
the entire light structure should be sent. If the light switch is on but not operating,
perhaps due to the accident, the lab can determine whether or not the filament is
intact or broken and whether the brenk is new or old.

Glsoc-candition - The condition of the glass in an accident vehicle can delermine

whether it may have caused poor visibility and may indicate the manner in which
injuries were caused. Check to see if glass is cracked or broken. If cracks are clouded
or discolored, the crecks existed prior to the accident. Note obstruction on the glass
such as dirt or frost. For side windows note position, up or down, if relevent.
Operation of side and rearview mirrors should also be noted.

Interior vehicle equipment-Various items of equlpment inside the vehicle should

be checked for proper operation by a qualified mechanic if necessary.
Additionally, the position of equipment may indicate actions or intended actions
of drivers. These include the turn

106
TraNic Management and Acoident Investigation

signal lever, pedal operation, horn. ceat belts, sun visors,ignition switch, accessory
switch (especially defroster in cold weather) and gear shift lever. The speedomeler
nay give some indication of speed.
Miscallancous equtpment- Chock any material inside the vehicle alcoholis containers, drugs,
toys, elc. In doing this, remember that for otier than plain view items, further search of the
vehicle will require the owner's or driver's permission or a search warrant. lf safety
inspeofion slickers are present, check thelr validity.

Checks of vehiole damago compared to soratches/gouges on the roadway or other

damage to rondway objecls may show vehicle position and direction of travel after the kcy
event. The age of all damage should be determined lo relato it to the specific accidont. All
accident damage and vehicle conditions should be photographed, if relevant to the specifio
investigation.

Skid marks and debris

Any persons, malerials or marks not included in the original scehe should nol be
included in the photographs. This includes zollce, wrecker personnel, bystanders, chalk
marks, mcasuring levices, eto.

The locations from which pholographs are taken should be recorded in an overlay to the
diagram. They should be numbered in equence, and a brief description of the pioture scene
placed on the everse. For example, "Pholo #6 Accident Scene, Facing South." To ivoid
confusion with other photographs, the first exposure of a roli or eries should include a data
card that includes the time, date,cation and investigator's initials. (Note:The same scene
should en be photographed without the data card.)

07Chapter IV:Traffic Accident Investigalion

Traffic Managentert and Accidlent ivestigation

Actions after Galning Facts

Clear the Scene

Vehicles nis removed sefely from the scene under Police supervision. Civillan
vehicles normally are removed by commercial wrecker if lhey ure not driveble, In this
case, the wrecker operator's name,firm,time of departum an new localion of the
vehidle should be recolded on the ST-3 ecaident report, especially if further inspection
of the vehicle may be-nocessary.
Roads should be cleared of debris by the wreoker drivers. Firo fighters should osniat
when fie hazards, such as large pools or spilled gasoline are present.
Additional Searches
Prior lo leaving the scens llie invealigator should recheck the accident location for any
addiliansl marks, debris, victims, eto. li an accident occurs al night, lhe scene should be
searched during daylight also. Thie reverse of lls is also true. Retraoing the driver'o
approach to the scene on the follawing day at the some time can reveal addilional
unanticipated evidence.

Completing Investigallon
Traffic accident investigalions must provide accurate explanations of the fadts. In
addition to Hi 81-3 accldent report, the accident invesligation, may include addilional
diagrams, statements, and photographs, the invesligetor should prepare a statement. This
statement should clearly distinguish beiween facl and opinion--although opinions are a
necessary part of the investigation. The statement should discuss how the accident
occurred, idenitifycauses,and list factors that may conslitute hazardous driving conditions.
All conclusions arid recommendations must be supported by fact.

Special Considerations
Alcohol
Use of alcohol by drivers is a factor in over half of all fatal traffic accidents.
The investigator may suspect a participant in an accident

108

Treme ware pament end Aceident Investigation

was under the influence of an infoxican or drug during the couse of the
invesligation.Should such a suspicion exibt, the inveetigator mud follow
lhrough to the extent allowed by law,to determine whether or not these
suspicions are justified, This will be in the form of chenicsl lests, or lests of the
suspect's blood, breath or urine,to deterainc alcoholic content. In addition fo
testing the ouspcct,inspecticn and search oi the vehicle may be used to gather
additional information
Approvto methods include:

Flain vlew seerch of vehtcle for intoxicants

a. Deleclion of odors of intoxicanis or ofher unusual odors.
b.Observation of individual's actions
.Sparoh of the vehicle with permission of driver.
6.Scarch with a search warrant,based on probable caure.

Kedicel
Wedical stalements may be rquired to refieci experf opinions as lo whether
medical reasons contributed to at accident. The invedtinalo, must oblain medical
专
information for the following: 海
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Personel injuries-Determine the exlent of injurles recelved by all nvoived in an accident and
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any injuries that existed prior te the ocident. ，
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Fatel injuries-In case of doaths, obtain estimated time and causa of leath:

asts-Obtain any information concerning the results of slcohol,rugs or medicine used.

The accident investigator should recommend to all persons ivolved in serious accidents
that they see a physician immediately.

09
Chapter IV:Traffic Accident Investigation
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23 JY BIZ
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1
3
Chapter IV:Traffic Accident Investigation
Investigating Aged Scenes

Most investigalors are thrilled to abserve the scene within a

month of the actual accident. Aged or stale scenes require a different
approach.
The following condilions may present
thelselvesa3hindrences to Investigation.
Al this point in lime, a police department should have compleled the
scene invesligation and make their reporls.
Hopefully, there should be photographs of the sccne with the vehicles
still at their resting points.
quality of the plctures is poor, espocially in cloce-up vlews of the withess
marks on the road.
There may be some pictures of the vehicles but urually taken too far away
for analysis.
Miany police department go lo the scene thal next dey and photograph
the area, bul unfortunately not from the same places the original
photographe weretaker.
If the road is heavily travalled, then the skid, oi yaw marke,and even
gouges and scratches may nol be as visible as they were on the night of
the accident.
Law enforcement officers may also take pholographs of the vehicle at the
police impound lot or the salvage pool. They usually do not gei the view
that an investigator would require for an analysis..

Whiat the Investigator should Do:

1. Famillarize with the vehicle and accidenl scene based on the
photographs obtained from records
2. Make a written list of information missing or needing more detail.
3. Check the slalements for positioning of the wilnesses with respect to
their location and what they may have been able to see at the time of
the collision. At this lime the investigator should be forming some idea
of how the accident happened.
114
4. Delermine details by taking pholographs, police report, and sketohes
to the scene and determine the positions and directions from which
they were taken. Look for specific landmarks such as oracka in the
roadbed, or other unusual marking on the road tuface near the
 locations of the resting points, of the vehiicles. Thls will help in locsting
any residuel gouges in the roadbed.
5. Check to see if the poline heve recorded the gouges or other marks
on their sketches
6. Measure and record somne portions of the skid marks that may süill
bo visible on the rosdbud and check against police reports.
7. If the police oreated E eketch with any dimensions, it is necessary
that several if nol all be checked to delermine their accuracy ss weIl as
their location.
8. Try lo locate the police delermination of the point of impact (POI), if
lhey made one.
9. Starling at that point walk the roadbed, shoulders and areas beyond
the shoulders on both sides of the-highway,looking for debris. When
accidenl debris is swepl off the road, if is ususlly on the edge nearest its
location, and not across the entire width of the highway. The location
of the debris should be very close to the POl. Thisis one method of
verifying the police POl-with the aclual POI.
10. If there is a difference of more than a few feet, then
continue looking for pleces of the vehicle that can be ·
identified as those coming from the accident vehicle or .
vehicles.
11. Once these pieces are found, then look on the n
roadbed for additional scarring such as gouges and 0
scratches lo determine the new POI.
12. If the accident happened in an urban setting then
check the trees by the side of the road for damage.
13. Check the impact vehicle for embedded wood in any
cracks or crevices.
14.Never cease to question the evidence until it leads to
a conclusion or there are no other data available.
Criminal Aspects of Traffic Accidents
Ustially,If a traffic accident occurs, criminal aspects often dwell on
culpability, such as reckless imprudence. The mast common crime that may be
chaiged a molor vehicle driver is reckloss imprudence resulting to homiaide.
Hawever, not all acoidents are "accidents", Some occr becduse of deeper
molive, and this is one of the anpects that police and trefic invesligators need
115
lo establish.Most crimes, however, are cominitted because of the intenlion of
flight from liability.

Hit and Run

Investigators have difficully in avoiding personal involvemont in altempling
to solve a crime without molive and usually without any witnesses. Standard polics
procedure calls for the issuance of a prompí slarm for the loeing vohicle, an
exlensive crime-scene search, and assignment of pollce investigators to the
accident-and-crime scene around the lime of accurrence, and on days following te
accident in a search for withesses.

The Hit-and-Run Operator

Hit-and-run drivers have beon grouped into threecalegories based upon
possible psychologioal explanation for their motivation of flight:

1. Apprehensive, panic-dnvers, fearful drivers

The apprehensive driver has greater sin to hide, either morally or
criminally, This Indlvidual typically flees the scene for one or more of the following
reasons:
a. Driving while intoxicaled
b. Operating without a license
c. No insurance
d. A companion is in thecar who is not the river's mate or who is the mate of
anolher
e. Stolen car
f. Stolen goods in the car
g. Leaving the scene of another accdent

116
Chapter IV:Traffic Accident Investigation
1 Fleeing crime scene
1. Wanied for some crime

2. Projectionist-projects guilt
The projectionist driver tries the case - sitting at judge and jurv,lie or she
finds the other driver at faull, refuses to be E polly la the sccident, and drives off as
the offended person.
 3. The sneak -minor property demege acoldents
The sheak operator is one that crushes a lender and umashes a grillwork as
daily occpetionsl aclivities and chalks up the ection és the calgulated risk shared by
all vehiole owners who place tuh vehlcles on the roadway.
Forlunaiely, the hit-and-run cperthor does nol have lhal attiiudes of a
professional criminal, nor ls the operator skilled al cunoealing the damage lo the
vehicle. They will uoually be coopemtive when found, and traces of vehicle damage
can be easily focatuo, sven If recently repaired.
The Ainin
The basic line of investigalion in these cases must be along thesb lines of
opportunity:
1. What car was at the scene during the inoident?
2. Who was the driver? Or at leasl a description.

When investigators find that the scene of an accicent is a hit-and-tun case,

their first effort is lo obtain from avallable wilneoses a full doscription of the car
involved. This should inolude ell unusual detalls. Even noises are sometimes useful.
Descriptive ilems that may.prove extremely valuable in locating the vehicle
are:

a. Stickers on windows or windshields

b.Dented fenders
C. Fancy wheel covers
d. Broken radio aerials
Traffic Management an Investigation

e. Distinctive ornaments and fixtures

f. Broken window glass
g. Unusual colors and body styles, and
h. Out-of-state license plates

The above data, together with a description of the occupants and

the direction of the vehicle when last seen, should be immediately
broadcast in a police radio alarm to all members of the police department
and to nearby police units. The alarm alerts police on patrol to look for
abandoned vehicles or vehicles in transit with such damage and as
described. Particular attention is usually directed along the possible escape
routes of the fleeing vehicle.
The Scene Search

Transfer evidence is important in hit-and-run investigations.Since the only

investigative leads are along the line of opportunity, it is vital to search for
evidence at the accident scene which will identify the vehicle and the driver
involved. This should not be limited to prime identification which will lead to
prompt recognition of either the vehicle or operator, but should extend to any
evidence which will connect the vehicle and its driver to the scene when the
suspect vehicle is located or an apprehension of the fleeing operator is made.
Whenever the scene search reveals the nature of the damage to the car or
the probable make or model of the car, this information should be immediately
added tot eh alarm and broadcast to all units in the search.
Experienced hit-and-run investigators attempt to identify the original
purpose of the hit-and-run driver. What brought the driver into the neighborhood
of the accident scene? What brought him or her into this area at the time of the
accident, on the day of the week on which the accident happened? This
assumption of purposefulness is coupled with the habits of motorists who utilize
the same routes to and from work or for leisure activty. This is the bases for the
concept of returning to the accident scene on stakeout duty in a quest for
witnesses. It is also an emerging concept for locating the vehicle

Chapter IV:Traffic Accident Investigation 118

ved in a hit-an-run case and for evidence that will connect the ect
with the scene or vice versa.

sfer Evidence

Science has provided the police with one of their most tive
weapons against hit-and-run cases. The scientific analysis /idence
found at an accident scene sometimes identifies the and model of
the wanted car. Comparison analysis of such
nce with that ehicle at
/ered from a the crime
ect's automobile e. Some of
des data placing the
common types of
ence found in hit-
run accident
stigation are
nable to
scientific /sis.

MINAL INVESTIGATION: Basic Perspectives. Paul B. Weston Charles A.

Lushbaugh, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle r,NJ 07458)