8

RULES IN GRAMMAR
(B). PRONOUN

1. Since personal pronoun is used instead of a noun, it must be of the same number, gender
and person as the noun for which it stands.
Rama is a kind boy. He has lent his bicycle to Govind.
Seema helps her mother in stitching clothes. She also goes to college.
Those beggars are idle. They refuse to work for their living.

2. When a pronoun stands for a collective noun, it must be in singular number and neuter
gender, if collective noun is viewed as a whole.
The fleet will reach its destination in a week.
After a few minutes the jury gave its verdict.

3. But if we want to talk about individual member or members forming that collective noun,
pronoun used should be in plural form.
The jury were divided in their opinions.

4. When two or more singular nouns are joined by ‘and’ the pronoun used for them must be
plural.
Rama and Hari worked hard. They are praised by their teacher.
Both Sita and Savitri are tired, they went to bed early.

5. But when two singular nouns are joined by ‘and’ refer to the same person, pronoun used
must be singular.
The secretary and treasurer is negligent of his duty.

6. When two singular nouns are joined by ‘and’ – preceded by ‘each’ or ‘every’ – the pronoun
must be singular.
Every student and every teacher was in his place.

7. When two or more singular nouns are joined by ‘or’ , nor, either……or, neither……nor –
pronoun generally used is singular.
Rakesh or Ranjeet must lend his hand.
Either Ratna or Amina forgot to take her umbrella.
Neither Reshma nor Suman had done her homework.

8. When singular noun and plural noun are joined by ‘or, nor, either ….or, neither …nor’ the
pronoun is in plural form.
Either the manager or his assistants failed in their duty.

9. There are many nouns which are of common gender. (person, student, doctor, scholar,
advocate, member etc.) For these the pronoun used is generally masculine (he etc.)
But if it is clear from the context that the person is of a feminine gender (woman/girl) then
use the feminine pronouns.
A good student brings his books to the class.
An advocate is faithful to his profession.
The secretary of Lioness Club has announced that one of the members has not given her
subscription.
 9

10. When two words of different gender are used as subject and indirect object (both are
persons) and the indirect object is used after possessive pronoun – then the pronoun’s
gender is decided by the subject and not by the object.
Narendra gave all the money to his mother. (not her)

11. Personal pronoun used after than – the pronoun following than is always in the same case
as the noun or pronoun preceding it.
Mahendra sings better than she. (not her)
‘she’ is in the nominative case as ‘Mahendra’ is.
He always writes better than I.
A horse runs faster than he.

12. Each other and one another:

These are known as reciprocal pronouns as they express mutual relationship.
Each other is used when two persons are involved.
One another is used when idea is of more than two persons.
The sister and brother loved each other.
The two men hate each other.
The people in the crowd are throwing stones at one another.
They cheated one another.
They all gave evidence against one another.

ERRORS IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS –

13. We should use the nominative case when the pronoun is subject of a clause.
We should use objective case when pronoun is the object of the clause.

14. We should use objective case if the pronoun is direct or indirect object of a preposition or
verb.
She took the pen from Sunita and me. (not I)
They invited both Prachi and me to the party. ( not I)

15. Use a pronoun in possessive case before a gerund.

I appreciate his marrying a widow. (not he or him).

16. A formation of be (is, was etc.) takes a pronoun after it in the nominative case.
That is she. It is he. It is I.
But in informal English objective case has become popular: It’s me. That’s he/she.

17. Pronouns should be in the same case as the nouns or pronouns to which they are connected
with correlative or coordinating conjunctions.
Between him and me there is no problem. (him is the object of between. It is in the objective
case. Me is connected with it by and. So I is not possible.)
As the Principal selected only a girl neither Jonathan nor I got the prize. (here Jonathan is in
nominative case. So the pronoun connected with neither…….nor should be in nominative
case.)

18. The relative pronoun ‘who’ must be used as subject and ‘whom’ as object.
When she reached college, whom did she meet?
Natasha, who I think is a good girl stood, first.

19. If pronoun is the object of preposition, let or of a verb, it is in objective case.

These books are for him and me. (not he and I).
 10

Let her and me go to Madurai. (not she and I because both of them are objects of ‘let’).

20. Use ‘either’ for choice between two and ‘any one’ when the reference is for more than two.
The library has two books on the subject. Either of these will serve my purpose.
She was more intelligent than anyone else in the class.

(C). VERB

AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT –

1. To indentify whether the subject is singular / plural:

When the subject is ‘one of’, followed by a plural noun, it is considered singular, and the
verb agrees not with the plural noun but with ‘one’.
i. One of my friends always stays in hotels. (not stay).
ii. One of the teachers has a good grasp over his subject. (not have).

2. But if ‘one of’ is preceded by a singular ‘ He is/She is/He was’ etc. the noun that follows is in
plural followed by ‘who’ or ‘that’ then verb will be plural in form:
He is one of those men who hate smoking. (not hates).
This is one of the most interesting novels that have appeared this year. (not has)

3. If a long group of words or a clause separates the subject from the verb (generally with the
help of prepositions) the verb agrees with the actual subject which is generally in the
beginning and not with other nouns or pronouns that follow:
The boys who collected in the room of the Principal want (not wants) postponement of the
examination. (The verb ‘want’ will agree with the actual subject i.e. boys).
The television we purchased for our boys works (not work) perfectly. (Here verb ‘work’
will be in the same case as the actual subject ‘television’).

4. Some sentences begin with the formal subject ‘there’. The real subject comes after the verb.
The verb agrees with the real subject that follows:
There are many children in the park.
There is a ten rupee note in the hand of the child.
There have been many such incidents in the past.
There has been quarrel between the two friends.

5. When a subject is formed with two or more nouns, it has generally the force of a plural.
Both Krishnan and Gopalan are wise boys. Banana, mango and guava are fruits.

6. When two or more nouns make a compound name (generally used together) of one thing,
person or idea, the compound name is considered singular.
Age and experience brings wisdom to man.
Bread and butter is his main food.
Time and tide waits for no man.

7. When two nouns refer to two different persons by repeating the article or possessive
pronouns they are considered plural.
My guardian and my father want me to go to the USA.
The poet and the philosopher are no more.

8. If a plural number applies to distances, heights, weights or amounts of money, and

represents a single figure or quantity it is treated singular.
 11

Ten rupees is not a big amount.

Five kilograms of potatoes costs Rs. 10/- in wholesale market.
Twenty kilometers is not a great distance these days.

9. If the title of a book or the name of a building or a hotel is plural, it is considered singular.
Fairy Tales was written by Roget Mary.
The Pool And Lotus is a beautiful building.
Sun And Sand is a five star hotel.

10. All collective nouns are usually singular even when they are followed by ‘of’ and by the
things or persons of which the group is made: a crowd of people, a herd of cattle, a group of
things, a flock of sheep, a regiment of soldiers, a congregation of worshippers.
A regiment of soldiers is sent to the border.
A crowd of people is moving towards Parliament House.

But when individual members of the group are thought of the subject is considered plural:
The committee were divided on the language issue.

11. Class nouns such as food, clothing, crockery, cutlery, furniture, stationery and footwear are
singular:
The cutlery you bought yesterday is beautiful.
Stationery has become costly these days.

12. When ‘of’ is followed by a class noun it (of) cannot have a word denoting number before it
and it is always singular.(Means adjectives of quantity are used not adjectives of number.)
Some of his clothing is lost. (not several of).
Much of the crockery is good. (not many of).
Most of the traffic moves fast. (not many of).
Little of the furniture is broken. (not few of).

13. When the subject begins with ‘A pair of scissors/gloves/socks/trousers/shoes/shears ie.

the two parts are always thought of together it is considered singular.
This pair of scissors is good for tailors.
A pair of shoes is placed in the corner.
But if the words “A pair of” are not used only plural word is used then it is considered
plural.
Those trousers are black.
Her shoes were good.

14. A lot of, a great deal of, most of, some of, plenty of are considered plural when they refer to
number (countable):
Most of the people in India are poor.
There are a lot of opportunities for good men.

15. They are considered singular when they refer to quantity or amount.
Some of work is still to be done.
A great deal of money was spent on project.

16. People and cattle are considered plural when they are used alone.
The cattle were grazing.
People are waiting for the President.

17. News, innings, advice, gallows etc are always singular.

 12

The news is very good.

The advice he gave is useless.
I gave him a piece of advice.

18. The names of some diseases, subjects of study and sciences end in ‘s’ as mumps, Physics,
Economics, measles. They are considered singular.
Economics is a boring subject.
Mumps is a viral infection.

19. Some of, one third of (or any other fraction) are singular when they refer to quantity or
amount, but plural if they refer to numbers.
Half of the land was fertile.
Half of the girls have gone home.
Some of the girls are beautiful.
Some of the milk is spilt.
One fourth of the house is occupied.

20. ‘The majority of’ is usually used for numbers so it is plural.

The majority of boys do not try to understand.
The majority of people support him.

21. ‘Most of’ can be used both with countable and uncountable. It can be singular or plural
accordingly.
Most of the houses are good.
Most of the tickets are sold.
Most of the work is done.

22. ‘Many’ refers to number so it is plural. ‘Much’ refers to quantity or amount so it is singular.
Many of the buds were crushed.
Much of the land was dried.

23. ‘Every’ and words beginning with it (everyone/everything/everybody) are singular. So they
take a singular verb and singular pronoun.
Every student was present here for his certificate.
Everyone is showing his ticket to the conductor.
Everything was put in its proper place.

24. When subject is a sum of money, considered as unit or as a whole it is singular. But when it
refers to bills or coins considered separately, it is considered plural.
Six hundred rupees is the term fee of the college.
There are six hundred rupees in her purse.

25. If idea is ‘wish/ condition/ supposition etc’ plural verb is used even with a singular subject.
If I were you I would not do such a thing.
I wish I were the Prime Minister.
If he were faithful he would not betray us.

26. If the name of a country is used with its team it is considered singular.
Indian team has won the cup this time.
But if name of the country is used for the team itself it is considered plural.
India have won by 2 wickets.
When a certain subject is repeated with prepositions ‘upon’ and ‘after’ it is considered
singular.
 13

27. Row upon row of rose flowers soothes your eyes.

Train after train is passing. But our train hasn’t arrived.

28. If noun equivalent (infinitive, gerund, phrase, clause) is used as subject it is considered
singular.
To tell lies is bad.
Working hard is hours need.
What to read is a problem.
That the nation is not strong is bare fact.

29. Certain adjectives when preceded by ‘the’ become common noun in plural and take plural
verb.
The rich (rich people) are the exploiters; the poor (poor people) are the sufferers .
The honest have to face many problems.
The virtuous help the invalid.

30. ‘Many a’ and ‘more than one’ are followed by a singular noun and are considered singular.
Many a man was killed in a war.
More than one boy was absent from the class.

31. When a word or a phrase in apposition is used the verb is guided not by the apposition but
by the real subject.
I, Ram, am present.
You, boy, are intelligent.

32. If the subject is a distributive pronoun (each, everyone, either, neither) followed by ‘of’ it is
followed by a plural noun but is considered singular.
Each of the boys has finished his work.
Either of them is a thief.
Neither of the three is present here.

33. But if ‘each’ is used after a plural noun or pronoun it is considered plural.
The wheels each have 21 spokes.
The bogies each have 90 berths.

34. None – no + one. It is considered singular.

None was present in the class when the bell rang.

35. If the word ‘former, latter following and undersigned’ are preceded by a clause or sentence
referring to a singular noun the verb will be singular, if by plural noun the verb will be
plural.
Pushkar came with Sita and Renu. The latter have beautiful clothes.
Jain is compared with Mathew and others. The former has written 6 novels.

36. If two subjects are connected with – as well as, and not, with, together with, along with,
rather than, more than, like, unlike, but, except, besides, including and excluding – the
number and person of the verb is guided by the first subject.
Mangal, as well as his brothers, visits the town every Sunday.
She and not her sons is the real culprit.
They together with their son are coming tomorrow.

37. When two nouns or pronouns are joined “Not only --------but also” the verb agrees with the
second noun or pronoun.
 14

Not only the girl but the boys are also well dressed.
Not only the books but the notebook is also good.

38. Either------- or, neither ---------nor, or and nor are used to separate two subjects.
I. If they separate two or more than two singular nouns or pronouns of third person
singular number the verb is singular.
Neither he nor she is here.
Either rain or storm is expected.
Prakash or Suchi has done it.
Seeta has not sung nor has Meena.

II. If they separate plural nouns or pronouns of the same person the verb is plural.
Neither men nor women are mad to fight for nothing.
Either the girls or the boys are responsible for this.

III. If they separate nouns or pronouns of different persons but the same number the
components of the combined subject are arranged as second person – third person –
first person and the verb is guided by the noun or pronoun nearest to it (notice its
placing in an interrogative sentence where the sentence begins with an auxillary).
Either you or he or I have written it.
Neither you nor she was present yesterday.
Is he or I to blame?
Are you or I to go?

IV. If they separate nouns or pronouns of different numbers and persons then the plural is
kept at the end. If there are more than one singular or plural they are arranged in the
series 2,3,1 and the verb is guided the noun or pronoun nearest to it.
Neither my father nor I nor my parents are to blame.
Either you or I or they have done it.
Is he or I or they have to go to Bombay?
Has your brother or you all or we done it?

39. If subject is a distributive pronoun (each, either, neither, everyone) followed by ‘of’ and ‘of’
is followed by a plural noun then also it is considered singular.
Each of the boys has finished his work.
I wonder if either of the boys was present.
Neither of the answers was wrong.
But if ‘each’ is used after a plural noun or pronoun it is considered plural.
The wheels each have 21 spokes.
The bogies each have 72 berths.

40. The relative pronouns (who, whom ,which, whose and that) are followed by a singular or
plural verb according to the number of antecedent.
The class has the boy who stands first (not stand).
The discoveries that have been made are useful.

41. When the adjectives much, more, little, less work as subject they are followed by a singular
verb.
Much of what you say is correct.
More than a month has passed.

42. The verb or auxiliary is placed before its subject or in the beginning in –
 15

Interrogative sentences – did you reach in time?

Imperative (orders, requests, etc) sentences where actually the subject “you” is omitted.
They take a plural verb.
Bring him here?
Go and do good deeds.
Clauses when the subject is introduced by neither or nor.
He did not come nor did his brother.
Seeta has not sung nor has Meena.
Sentences expressing a wish or a prayer take a plural verb.
Long live our nation.
May God give you success!

(D). ADJECTIVE

1. Use of the, than and to with superlatives and comparatives

Than is used immediately after an adjective of comparison.
It is better than the one you selected yesterday.

2. To (not than) is used after adjectives which have been derived from Latin. The most
important are inferior, junior, prior, senior, superior, anterior, posterior.
This cloth is superior to the one in the showcase.
He is junior to me.
Ram’s intelligence is superior to Hari’s.
All his colleagues are senior to him.
He visited us prior to his trip to Singapore.

3. “The” is generally used before the superlatives.

It was the hottest day of the year.

4. When ‘most’ is followed by ‘of’ followed by a noun ‘the’ is put before the noun and not
before most.
Most of the people in India are poor.
Most of the boys in class are sincere.

5. When “the” is used before certain adjectives of quality or some adjectives which describe
human character or condition, the adjective is changed into a generic noun (class noun).
Nouns formed in this way are plural. If they denote a single person a noun must be used
after them.
The rich exploit the poor.

6. Some other constructions with comparisons.

‘as…….as’ is used with positive adjectives in affirmative
She is as intelligent as her mother is.
In the negative we use not as / so…as.
She is not so/as intelligent as her father is.

7. For expressing a parallel increase or decrease two comparatives are used:

The better the suit the more money will it cost.
The more problems he has the sadder he will become.

8. To express a gradual increase two comparatives are joined by and.

The day is getting colder and colder.
 16

9. The verb is repeated when than or as is used for comparison and is followed by a third
person. It is not repeated when followed by first or second person.
Mohan has more books than she has.
I am not as old as you.
She has a bigger house than I.

Correct use of adjectives:

10. Little, a little, the little

Little means almost nil or no. It is used in negative sense.
He has a little chance of getting distinction (no chance)

A little means only some and not much.

He has a little chance of getting distinction (means slim chance is there)
She has a little hope of survival.(means se may survive)

The little means “the small amount or quantity” available. It is always used as an adjective.
She will inherit the little house.
I can finish my work in the little time at my disposal.
The little information he has was not quite reliable.

11. Few, a few, the few

Few like little means hardly any.
Like little it too has a negative sense.
Few people in India care to know about world politics (almost none)
Few towns in India have public libraries (almost none)
Few Parsees write Gujarati correctly (almost none)

A few means a small number. It is used in a positive sense.

A few Parsees write Gujarati correctly (means some can write correctly)
I have a few moments to think over the problem.

The few means the small number. It must be used as an adjective.

The few members who were present decided not to hold the meeting.
The few friends he has are all very poor.
While few is used for countable little is used for uncountable.

12. Some, any

I. Both the words are used for certain quantity (not much).
They are used before plural or uncountable nouns.
Some is used in affirmative sentences.
I have some books on Physics.
I will buy some more books.

II. Any is used in negative or interrogative sentences.

I will not buy any books.
Have you bought any books?
The grocer hasn’t any more eggs.
Any can be used after ‘if’ in affirmative sentences.
If you need any book I will give you.

III. As any is used in negative sense it is used after hardly, barely, scarcely which have
negative idea.
 17

There are scarcely any trees in some areas of Rajasthan.

I don’t think there are any good books in the library.

IV. Some is used in interrogative sentences when they mean an invitation or request.
and when they expect answer “yes”. Any cannot be used in such sentences.
Will you have some more sweets? (not any more)
Will you help me in carrying some baggage (not any baggage)

V. Any has a special use to mean “almost every”

Any man can do it.

13. Many, Much, Many a

Many means quite a good number. Much means quite a good amount (i.e. many can be used
with countable while much is used with uncountable)
She hasn’t many clothes.
He hasn’t much choice left with him.

“Many a” is a singular form and is followed by a noun and a verb in singular form. But it is
plural in meaning with an implication that there are many like him or it.

Many a man in India is technically competent.

14. Later, latest, latter, last

Later and latest refer to time while latter and last refer to position or order.
He is later than I expected.
Mr. Zail Singh was the Home Minister. Later he became the President of India.

Young people want to wear the clothes of latest fashion.

I have not heard the latest news.

Of Ram and Gopal, the latter is more popular.

The latter chapters are lacking in interest.

It is my last chance to appear in IAS exam.

Ours is the last house in the street.
The last chapter is carelessly written.

15. Elder, Eldest, Older, Oldest

Elder and eldest are comparative and superlative of ‘old’ used only of persons and not of
animals or lifeless objects. They are used for members of the same family:
Mohan is the elder of the two brothers
Ram is my eldest son.

Older and oldest are comparative and superlative of old. They are used for persons as well
as lifeless objects while elder is followed by ‘of’ older is followed by ‘than’.
She is older than her brother.
Subhash is the oldest citizen of this city.
This dog is older than the other one.
This is the oldest house in the locality.

16. Nearest and next

Nearest refers to nearness in space – the shortest distance away. Next refers to order or
position.
 18

The nearest village is about 2 kms from here.

Mumbai is the seaport nearest to Europe.
Where is the nearest STD booth?

She was sitting next to the Prime Minister.

He was the next to be called for interview.
Karim’s shop is next to the Market Yard.
My uncle stays in the next house.

(E). ADVERB

Difference in the meaning and usage of certain adverbs:

1. Hard – Hardly:
Hard = laboriously, heavily, strenuously
Hardly = scarcely at all.
Hard is generally placed after the verb while hardly is an adverb of degree and comes before
the verb:
She worked hard yesterday. (not hardly)
It rained hard last week. (not hardly)
When I met him after 20 years I could hardly recognize him. (not hard)
He hardly made any effort to secure good marks in the exam.

2. Late – Lately:
Late = after the time expected or towards the end of the period of time:
This week she has always slept late. (not lately)
He came to me late in the evening. (not lately)
Last night Raghav came home late.

Lately = recently. The difference is that recently can be used both in a perfect structure and
a past one. Lately can be used only in a perfect structure:
I have not seen him lately.
She had not visited us lately.
She has not visited us recently.
She did not visit us recently.

3. Most – Mostly:
Most = to the greatest degree.
Mostly = for the most part.
The flower I like the most is rose. (not mostly)
The people talked mostly of cricket. (not most)

4. Fairly and rather = moderately

I. Fairly is used only before positive adjectives. It is used only if they stress something
which is considered desirable.
Rather can be used both for desirable and undesirable things and ideas:
The festival is fairly interesting.
The audience was fairly good in appreciation.
The speech was rather boring.
The baby was rather sweet.

II. Fairly cannot be used before comparatives and too. We have to use rather:
She is feeling rather better now. (not, fairly better).
He walked rather too slowly. (not, fairly too slowly).
 19

III. Only rather can be used before those nouns that express an attitude towards a person
or a thing.
He makes rather a fuss about ordinary things.
It is rather cruel to keep backward people away from us.

IV. Rather, not fairly is used as an adverb of degree before verbs that express an attitude of
mind or a feeling:
I rather hate the people who hate the country.
I rather wish I had offered English as a subject.

POSITION OF ADVERBS:
5. Adverbs of manner which answer the question “How?” are generally placed after the verb
or after the object. (If it is present)
It is raining heavily.
The train is going slowly.
She speaks English well.
He does his work carefully.

6. Adverbs or adverbial phrases of time are also generally placed after the verb or after the
object.
He will come here.
I looked for the book everywhere.
Please hang the picture there.
I met him yesterday.

7. When there are two or more adverbs after a verb (and its object) the normal order is -
adverb of manner – adverb of place – adverb of time.
She sang well in the concert.
We should go there tomorrow evening.
He spoke earnestly at the meeting last night.

8. When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, the adverb usually comes before
it.
Rama is a rather lazy boy.
The book is very interesting.
Do not speak so fast.

9. But the adverb enough is always placed after the word which it modifies.
Is the box big enough?
He was rash enough to interrupt.
He spoke loud enough to be heard.

10. ‘Only’ should be placed immediately before the word it modifies.

I worked only two sums.
He has slept only three hours.

11. Adverbs of frequency are generally put between the subject and the verb, if verb consists of
one word. (verb should not be form of to be) Means in simple tenses of all verbs
She seldom comes to my house.
His wife never cooks.

12. They are placed after the simple tenses of the verb to be:
 20

They are always late for dinner.

He is never at home on Sundays.

13. In compound tenses they are placed after the first auxiliary:
He has never seen a tiger.
My uncle has just gone out.
I have often told him to write correctly.
He has often been punished by the teacher.

14. With ‘have to and used to’ they are placed before them.
She hardly ever had to attend the lectures.
He frequently used to visit us when we were in Bombay.
He often has to go to school on foot.
He always used to agree with me.

(F). CONJUNCTION

Confusion about the use of certain conjunctions:

1. Though and although - are always followed by yet in the next clause
Although he is rich yet he does not exploit the poor.

2. For and because – they have the same meaning.

Because it was raining he took a four wheeler.
But - He took a four wheeler for it was raining.
Because his father turned him out he is an orphan.
But - He is an orphan for his father turned him out.

“For” cannot be used after not, but or any other conjunction. We have to use because.
He studied not because he wanted a job but because he wanted to increase his knowledge.

A clause beginning with ‘for’ cannot be used to answer a question:

Why did you run? I ran because the dacoits were following me.

3. Unless has a negative sense. So a negative word cannot be used with it.
Unless you do not work hard you will fail. (incorrect)
Unless you work hard you will fail. (correct)

4. ‘That’ cannot be used before interrogatives like what, when, where, why, who, whether etc.
I did not know that what was his name. (incorrect)
I did not know what his name was. (correct)
He enquired that why had the train not arrived. (incorrect)
He enquired why the train had not arrived. (correct)

5. Correlatives ‘either …..or, neither………nor, both……..and, not only………but also’ must be

placed immediately before the words they relate to:
Not only we met the President but also the Vice President. (incorrect)
We met not only the President but also the Vice President. (correct)
Neither he wrote letter nor did he ask me to.
Both Sita and Ram stayed with me.
Dr. Radhakrishnan not only studied Hindu Philosophy but also wrote many articles on it.

6. As and like – used for comparison

 21

She fought like a brave warrior.

She fought as a brave warrior does.
“Like” is used before noun or pronoun, “as” can be used only if verb is repeated after the
noun or pronoun.

7. As, when, while – All three conjunctions when used with simple tenses express time.
As / while – are used for duration.
As / while he sat in the waiting room he read the whole newspaper.
“As” is used with main verbs, it cannot be used with auxillaries.
“While” can be used with main verbs as well as with auxillaries.
As / while he took food he talked to his friends on the table.

8. While he was an MLA he helped many people.

But if you use, “as” the meaning changes.
As he was an MLA he helped many people. – Does not mean “during the period”. It means
“because he was an MLA.”

9. When / As – If there are two actions expressed in one sentence “when” denotes that the
second action occurs at the time of first one or in same span or when one action follows
another action.
When the streets are overcrowded old men do not move out.
When we reached the beach we saw sea.
When he entered the room he turned on the lights.

“As” is used when the second action occurs – the first one still continues.
As I entered the house I remembered fond memories of childhood.

10. As is used when there are two parallel actions usually by the same subject or when one is
the result of the other.
As he walked on a banana skin, he slipped.
As the Principal entered, the class became silent.

11. Not only…….. but also – when one clause has ‘not only’ it must be followed by a clause or
word preceded by ‘but’.
They not only killed him but also looted his house.
Not only Jacob but Joseph also got punishment.

12. ‘Whether’ is followed by ‘or’ while ‘both is followed by ‘and’.

She doesn’t know whether to stay or to go back.
She is both beautiful and intelligent.

13. ‘As…..so’ – in positive sentences

‘So…..as’ – in negative sentences
As a leader behaves so do the followers.
The problem is not so difficult as you think.

14. ‘So as’ - indicates purpose

‘such as’ - indicates result
She did B.Com so as to get a job.
The condition was such as to make all sad.
 22

(G). PREPOSITION

Using prepositions in sentences:

1. At, on, in during, by for and since are the prepositions used for expression of time.
I. For a certain point in time or for festivals or occasions which mark a point in the year
use ‘at’:
At 10 o’clock. At 6 p.m. at dawn/ noon/ sunset/ midnight, at the end/ beginning of the
function/ meeting.
We have a holiday at Diwali/ Christmas/ Eid/ at the New Year, at the week end.
At dinner, at bed time

II. For a particular day, date, day of the week, a special day in the year with a name,
someone’s birthday, anniversary or death or some happening of importance. Use ‘on’:
He will come on Sunday. (not at), on Diwali day, on 3rd February, on Republic day, on
her seventh birthday.

We can use the term on Republic day. But we cannot use ‘on Republic day afternoon/
evening.’ We have to say on afternoon/ on the evening of Republic day.
‘Republic day eve’ is correct but it does not mean the evening of Republic day. It means
the day before Republic day.
‘The Prime Minister will deliver a speech on the Republic day eve.’ Means ‘on the 25th
of Jan.’

2. When something is or was to be done before a particular point of time but not after it use
‘by’:
The applications must reach this office by 15th March.
The plan must be completed by 2008.

3. If some action or state of affairs continue for certain period of time and-
It is calculated from one point of time use ‘since’:
She has served in this college since 1984.
We are staying in Kolhapur since 1998.
Means from where the action has started that point of time is given.

4. When the period is calculated by giving the exact total period of time – duration is given –
then use ‘for’.
She has served in this college for 20 years.
We are staying in Kolhapur for past 10 years.

5. If an adjective is used before a noun expressing time ‘at, on and in’ cannot be used before it.
The bus leaves every hour. (not at every hour)
She came to me last Sunday. (not on last Sunday)
I’ll be sixty next August. (not in next August.)
Important among such adjectives are every, next and last.

6. Yesterday, today and tomorrow do not take a preposition before them:

I shall see you tomorrow.
He reached Bombay yesterday.
I am leaving Bangalore today.

7. Yesterday, evening/ morning or tomorrow morning/ evening are correct. But these words
cannot be used with today. We say this morning, this afternoon, this evening, when we
mean all these for today.
 23

Similarly we can say tomorrow night. But we cannot say yesterday night or today night. We
have to say last night, tonight.

8. ‘In’ and ‘at’ are the prepositions used for the expression of place. Both are used for place of
work and place of residence in different contexts.
I. If we do not mention a particular place of residence but refer only to type of place i.e.
village, city, suburb, the country (rural area) or desert we have to use ‘in’:
Most of the Indians live in the villages.

II. If name of city, a village or a country is mentioned as a place of residence:

‘At’ is used for smaller areas and village
‘In’ is used for big cities, countries, district places, commissionaires and states.
I stay at Ruikar Colony.
He stays at Phulewadi.
But
I stay in Kolhapur.
He lives in Maharashtra.

III. If two places of residence are mentioned where one is the part of the other, then – ‘at’ is
used for the smaller place and ‘in’ for the bigger one.
He lives at Sadashiv Peth in Pune.

IV. If a kind of house is referred to use ‘in’ but if the name of the house or hotel is
mentioned use’ at’:
She lives in a cottage/ bungalow/a flat/ a hotel.
But - Padma lives at Chandan bungalow.

V. If a person’s working place is a building then use ‘in’ i.e

He works in an office/ in a factory/ in a shop/ in a bank.
But if it is not a building – then use ‘on’:
He works on a farm/ on an estate/ on a plantation/ on the Railways.

VI. If name of the place of work is mentioned use ‘at’:

He works at Gokul Restaurant.
She works at the district hospital.
For a particular department or room of a bigger establishment use ‘in’:
He works in the HR Department at Kirloskars.

9. ‘By, on, in’ are used when we talk about forms of transport:
Generally ‘by’ is used to express form of transport:
We travelled by train.
She travels by plane only.
By bicycle/ by car/ by taxi/ by bus/ by train/ by boat/ by ship/ by pane/ by air/ by sea

10. When reference is to a specific mean of transport then ‘by’ is not used:
Use ‘on’ to mean a specific bicycle, bus, train, ship or plane:
Suresh went on my bike.

11. Use ‘in’ to mean a specific car, taxi, van, lorry or ambulance.
We travelled in Mr. Joshi’s car.
But we have to say: He goes to school on foot.
 24

Confusion about the use of certain prepositions:

12. Beside – besides:
Beside: by the side of
Besides: in addition to
My house is beside a lake.
She paints besides writing stories.

13. Between – among:

I. Between: If there is choice or distribution related to two things/ persons – ‘between’ is
used:
I distributed sweets between Asha and Seema.
Raman stood between Keshav and Mohan.
My house is situated between the ridge and the road.

II. Among: if there are more than two persons/ things – ‘among’ is used:
Sweets were distributed among the students on Republic Day.

III. When one thing/ person is surrounded by more than two things/persons and it has
different identity from things/ persons surrounding – in that case use – ‘between’:
Switzerland lies between Italy, France and Germany.
Amitabh Bachhan came out of the hospital and stood between his fans.

IV. Among is used when person/ thing is surrounded by persons/ things of the same
status.
The pen I took was lying among many on the table.

14. By, with:

By is used for the person who acts while with is used for the instrument.
The banana was cut by my mother with (not by) a knife.
He was shot by the dacoit with (not by) a gun.

15. In, into:

In refers to a condition of being inside something else or of rest.
Into is used to show a movement to the interior of a thing.
Baby is in the cradle.
He is in the room.
The old man is in coma.
The people went into the picture hall. The child fell into the well.

(H). ARTICLES

USE OF INDEFINITE ARTICLE: (a and an)

1. An indefinite article is always used before all countable nouns when they are singular.
She saw a man who was sitting on an elephant.
An engineer is not basically a politician.

2. Besides living creatures, plants, natural features, and material objects some other things or
ideas which are not seen with eyes (may be abstract) are also countable as penalties,
rewards, punishments, salaries, emotions, sentiments, ideas, prophesies. A and an must be
used before the singular forms of these.
The Supreme Court imposed a heavy penalty.
 25

He experienced an emotion that he could not express.

3. Use indefinite article before singular countable noun when it is used to make a noun generic
i.e. when the noun is used as an example of a class of things, plants, or living creatures:
A cup (i.e. all cups) is generally made of ceramics.
A palm tree (all palm trees) is generally very tall.
A serpent (all serpents) never forgets.

4. Use indefinite article before names of professions or a noun compliment:

She is an engineer.
My father is a doctor.
Her husband is a shrewd person.
He turned a saint in old age.

5. Use indefinite article in expressions of price, speed and ratio when a unit of amount or
number is shown:
I got bananas a rupee a dozen. A doctor visits his clinic twice a day.
The train runs 80 kms an hour.

6. Indefinite article is used in the sense of single:

After the party whip there was not a member to vote against the bill.
He did not speak a word when he was scolded.

7. Indefinite article is also used in the sense of every:

The mechanic was paid Rs. 5 an hour. (every hour)
The businessman earns Rs. 10,000/- a month. (every month)

8. The indefinite article is, many a time used before a proper noun to make it common noun:
Subramanium Bharati was a Tagore (a great poet) of the south.
He spends as if he is a Tata. (a very rich man).

The indefinite article is not used:

1. Before plurals: The plural of ‘a horse’ is ‘horses’.

2. Before uncountable nouns: sugar, butter, coffee, paste, soap, dirt, grass, salt, all spices,
advice, information, news, baggage, luggage, furniture etc.

3. Before material nous: glass, iron, cloth, paper, stone, tea, wood etc. But some of these are
used for a thing made of them. When used in this sense they take an indefinite article:
She writes on paper.
I get a paper every morning. (News paper)
This window is made up of glass.
Have a glass of milk.
The table is made of iron.
My washerman has an electric iron.

4. Before names of meals when used in general sense. But when it is preceded by an adjective
or when it is a special meal given to celebrate something indefinite article is used:
We have lunch at two.
This canteen serves a good lunch.
She was invited to dinner.
She was invited to a dinner given to the Vice Chancellor.
 26

USE OF DEFINITE ARTICLE ‘THE’:

The definite article is used:
1. Before nouns which are only one or considered one. All natural objects and phenomena fall
under this category.
The sun, the earth, the Antarctica, the sea, the north

2. Before a noun which becomes definite as a result of being mentioned again:

I saw a boy in the garden. The boy was handsome.

3. Before a noun which becomes definite by the addition of an adjectival clause or phrase:
The girl I met was intelligent.
He called the man who was sitting under a tree.
The man on the road was blind.

4. Before a noun, which by reason of locality or context becomes particular:

Mr. Rajesh is on the roof. (the roof of his house)
The Principal asked the boys not to sit on the lawn during lectures. (lawn of the college)
After the meeting I met the Chairman. (Chairman of the meet)

5. Before names of seas, rivers, chains of mountains, gulfs, groups of islands, canals:
The Indian Ocean, the Ganga, the Himalayas, The Persian Gulf, The Andamans, the upper
Ganges Canal

6. Before superlatives, first, third, last etc. and before only, used as adjective or pronoun.
Vivekanand was the best speaker in the Congress of Religions.
AIDS is the worst modern disease.
Edmund Hillary was the first man to conquer Mount Everest.
He was the only boy not to turn up.

7. Before a singular noun, used to represent a class i.e. as a generic noun (indefinite article is
also used in the same sense)
The rose is a beautiful flower.
The camel is the ship of the desert.

8. Before an adjective, to make it represent a class of persons i.e. a generic noun.

The poor (all poor men) are generally exploited by the rich. (all rich men)
The honest are considered fools by many now.

9. Before the names of countries or states who are combination of more than one unit:
The United Kingdom (the UK)
The United States of America (the USA)
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (the USSR)

10. Before the words kingdom, protectorate, republic and federation followed by the name of
the country:
The Republic of West Germany.
The Federation of India.

11. Before the names of classical generally religious books:

The Bible, the Quran, the Vedas, the Ramayan.

12. Before the names of the musical instruments:

 27

He learnt to play the flute when he was a student.

13. Before more and less when they are used in comparative sense and before comparatives
when they are repeated:
The more they receive, the more they wish to have.
The more he speaks the less I follow.
The more the better.
The earlier you reach the better it is.

14. Before nouns which name the inhabitants of a country collectively. If ‘the’ is not used the
word would mean the language spoken by the people:
The Russians sent the first satellite in the space.
Russian is the link language in all states of Russia.
The English spread their empire in Asia and Africa.
English is spoken throughout the world.

15. Before the names of the municipal or government departments, big business houses,
industrial concerns, banks etc. except they begin with a personal name or are nationalized:
The Ministry of Finance, the public library, the house tax department, the Cooperative bank,
the Century Mills, the Modern Book depot

16. Before the names of ships, trains and aeroplanes:

The Kanishka. (the plane that was blasted)
The Punjab Mail, The Grand Trunk Express, The Queen Elizabeth (a famous British liner)

17. Before surnames when they are used in plural to denote either the whole family or the
husband and wife:
I was invited by the Reddys. The Birlas, the Tatas.

Article ‘the’ is not used:

1. Before abstract nouns unless they are used to particularize something or someone:
He experienced joy.
The joy he experienced at his marriage did not last long.

2. After a noun in a possessive case or possessive adjective:

I met the boy’s father. (not the boy’s the father)
It is my saree not yours. (not my the saree)

3. Before the names of countries, towns, villages or proper names.

Exceptions: the Netherlands, The Sudan, the Congo, the Mall, the Strand. (in London)

4. Before parts of body and articles of clothing because they are generally used with
possessive adjectives:
Keep your hand down.
She put on gloves.

5. Before plural nouns used in a general sense:

Mangoes are grown in all parts of India.
Students have to take help of books.
The mangoes grown in Ratnagiri are the best.
The books you brought from the college library are not useful.

6. Before the names of games: all games.

 28

Before the words: king, queen, president, pope, chancellor, principal etc.

7. Before the words showing nationality used in plural by adding ‘s’ or ‘men’ used in general
sense of showing the characteristics of all the individuals:
Africans have dark skin.
Englishmen have ego.
Frenchmen are fashionable.

8. Before the names of mountains or hills:

Everest (not the Everest)

9. Before ‘all day’ and ‘all night’:

It rained all day.
Baby remained awake all night. But: all the morning, all the afternoon, all the evening, all the
week (i.e. for all other divisions of time)

(I). TENSE STRUCTURE

SIMPLE PRESENT:
Also called as present indefinite:
Structure:
Positive: Sub + Verb 1st form + s or es (if sub is IIIrd person singular) + predicate
I /we/you/they/the boys enjoy good food.
But – Raman/ he/ she/it enjoys good food.

Negative: do or does(with sub of IIIrd person singular) is added to the sentence. ‘s’ or ‘es’ is not
added to the verb.
I do not sing.
She does not sing.
They do not sing.

Interrogative: do or does comes in the beginning or the sentence begins with an interrogative word.
The verb remains uninfected (without any change)
Do you like milk?
Does she sing?
When does he come?

Simple present is used to express:

1. What always happens or is recurrent:
She goes to college at 8 in the morning.
I take breakfast at seven.
Sharad pays the installment on the 5th. (5th of every month)

2. Habitual actions/habits:
He smokes
My wife likes sweets.
Ram likes flowers.

3. General truth/natural phenomenon:

Planets move round the sun.
The sun rises in the east.
Honey is sweet.
Stones do not speak.
 29

4. A permanent situation:
My house faces north.
This road runs from Mumbai to Pune.

5. To express future event that is part of a fixed timetable or fixed programme.

The next flight is at 7.00 tomorrow morning.
The match starts at 9 o’ clock.
We reach Bangalore on the 12th and leave for Chennai on the 14th.

6. In conditional sentences – used instead of simple future – in clauses of time and of

condition.
I shall wait till you finish your lunch.
I will accompany you if you come in the morning.
If it rains we will get wet.

7. Instead of present continuous with those verbs which cannot be used in the continuous
form.
I am loving it. (Wrong)
I love it. (Correct)
I am understanding. (Wrong)
I understand.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS:
Structure:
Sub + Aux (be) + verb + ing + predicate
I am studying Geography.
We/you/they/the boys are studying.
He/she/it/Mahendra is eating.

Present continuous is the real present and is used:

1. For an action happening now:
She is washing clothes as the sun is shining.
Why are you looking at him?
She is singing. (now)
The boys are playing cricket.
(An action is going on at the time of speaking)

2. For a temporary action which may not be actually happening at the time of speaking.
He is reading ‘Shantaram’.
(Means now-a-days he is reading the book Shanatram. But not at the time of speaking but in
a general way)
He is taking liquid diet as he is ill.

3. For an action that has already been arranged to take place in the near future.
I am going to the cinema tonight.
My brother is coming back from London next week.

4. In the passive voice when reference is to the future.

The issue is being considered in the next sitting.

5. With ‘always’ for a frequently repeated action which seems unreasonable to or is not liked
by the speaker.
 30

He is always coming to our house at eleven in the night.

She is always complaining of one pain or the other.

6. The following verbs are not used in the continuous structure:

 Verbs of senses – see, bear, smell, notice, recognize
 Verbs of emotions – want, desire, adore, care, hate, love, like, dislike, wish, forgive,
refuse
 Verbs of possessing – owe, belong, possess
 Appear (when used for seem), seem, signify, contain, keep (when used for continue)
 Verbs of thinking – realize, mean, suppose, understand, feel(when used for think),
think (when an opinion is expressed), know, believe, suppose, remember, expect,
forget, recollect, recall, trust (when used for believe), mind
 The auxiliaries except be and have.

Special use of the same verbs given in the above list in continuous structure:
7. Feel – in medical sense:
How is she feeling? She is feeling well.
How does she feel? She feels well.

8. Expect – used in the sense of await:

She is expecting the result by this Monday.
Taran is expecting her today.

9. See – in the sense of interview or meet:

The Principal is seeing the applicants in the afternoon.
He is seeing his advocate this morning.

10. Think – when as opinion is neither asked nor given:

What is he thinking about?
He is thinking about yesterday’s party.
In – “What do you think about it?”
Or – “I do not think anything about it.” – opinion is asked and given, such sentences cannot
be written in continuous.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE:

Structure:
Positive: Sub + Aux have /has (with IIIrd person singular) + verb (past participle form) + predicate
Shruti/he/she/it has received a letter.
I/we/you/boys/have received a letter.

Interrogative: Aux + Sub + verb past participle form + predicate.

Has he received a letter?
Have you received a letter?

Negative: Sub + Aux + not + Verb past participle form + predicate

He has not received a letter.
They have not received a letter.

Usage:
1. To indicate completed activities in the immediate past (with just):
He has just gone out.
It has just struck ten.
 31

2. If an event starts in the past but continues till the moment we speak of it (often with ‘since’
and ‘for’ phrases):
I have known him for a long time.
He has been ill since last week.
We have lived here for ten years.

3. It is used for past actions whose time is neither given nor is definite. Here we talk or think
more about the effect of action in present than the action itself.
I have finished my work. (now I am free)
She has cut her finger. (and it’s bleeding now)

4. For recent actions/past actions whose time is not given.

I have studied all the plays of Shaw.
They have talked to the minister.
Mr. Sharma has been to Japan.

5. For those events that continue for a long time (generally with the words – continue, ever,
never, always) even without time factor.
He has never smoked.
Rattan has always liked swimming.
I have never known him to be angry.

6. With before, earlier, lately, recently, and yet when there is no clear idea when (during that
period) or how many times did the action take place? (If idea of when is clear simple past is
used)
There have been many transfers recently
I have seen him somewhere before/earlier.
He has acquired a big house lately.
They have not yet made arrangements.

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS:

Structure:
Positive: sub + aux have /has + been + verb + ing + predicate
She has been sleeping for the last eight hours.

Negative: She has not been sleeping.

Interrogative: Has she been sleeping?

Usage:
1. It is used for an action which began in the past and is still continuing.
They have been building the bridge for several months.
They have been playing since four o’clock.

2. It expresses a continuous uninterrupted action. [If there is an interruption we should use

present perfect]
She has been practicing music. She won’t hear the children’s cry
I have been telling you.

 The verbs which are not used in Present continuous are not used in present perfect
continuous too.
 32

SIMPLE PAST:
Structure:
Positive: sub + verb second form + predicate
In simple past verb remains same with all the persons and number
I/we/you/he/ Mamta enjoyed the game.

Negative: did is added to the sentence and verb is used in its Ist form
She did not speak to me yesterday.

Interrogative: Sentence begins with did or an interrogative word. The verb is used in its Ist form.
Did the boy work hard for the exam?
Why did he not speak?

Usage:
1. It is used for the actions completed in the past at a definite time.
It is used when time is mentioned or asked:
He took me to his house on Monday.
When did you finish your work?
In such sentences adverbs or adverb phrases of past time are used.
She left school last year.
I received his letter a year ago.

2. When the time is not mentioned means adverb of time or adverb phrase of time is not used
but from the context it is clear that the action took place at some definite time.
I learnt Hindi in Nagpur.
I didn’t sleep well.
She met me on the road.

3. For habitual actions in the past:

He studied many hours every day.
She always carried an umbrella.
Raghu’s father always went for a walk at five.

4. It is also used for action whose time is not known.

Action ended in past, after continuing for some period of time in past. Period is directly or
indirectly mentioned.
He studied in Rajaram College for four years.
She lived in this house for a long time.
Action that happened at any moment during a past period
My father once saw Rajeev Gandhi.

5. Simple past is also used in conditional sentences:

Suneeta would be ill if she ate all these sweets.

6. Simple past is used when in one sentence two actions are mentioned – one is static
(momentary), the other is continuity of another action. The continuous action is mentioned
in past continuous.
I met him when he was working in the office.
She was writing when I reached the room.

PAST CONTINUOUS:
Structure:
Sub + was/ were + verb + ing + predicate
 33

We were listening to the radio all evening.

Usage:
1. It is used to denote an action going on at some time in the past. The time of the action may
or may not be indicated.
We were listening to the radio all evening.
It was getting darker.

2. It is mainly used with past simple when new action happened in the middle of a longer
action. The simple past is used for new action.
The light went out while I was reading.
When I saw him he was playing chess.

3. It is used with point of time. Then it indicates the action was continuous before and after
that point.
At 12.00 he was having lunch. [Means he was in the middle of the lunch]

4. With always – Refers to an action which annoys the speaker.

He was always trying to escape from his duties.
He was always grumbling.

PAST PERFECT:
Structure:
Sub + had + verb (past participle form) + predicate
When she reached there, her friend had already left.

Past perfect describes an action completed before certain moment in past.

Actually all present tenses are prior to simple ones in time. Present perfect denotes an action that
happens before the present. Similarly past perfect denotes an action taking place before a past
action.

Thus it is either in the form of a clause used before or after the simple past clause or in the form of
sentence following another sentence in past indefinite.

1. Simple rule is that the action that takes place earlier is in the past perfect later one is in the
simple past.
When the police reached there the terrorists had disappeared.
When I reached the station the train had started.
I had written the letter before he arrived.
She reached the house. It was locked. The family had left for Pune.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS:

Structure:
Sub + had been + verb + ing + predicate
He was very happy as he had been enjoying the dance the whole night.

Usage:
1. It is used for an action that began a certain point in past and continued up to that time.
At that time he had been writing a novel for two months.
When Mr. Mukherji came to the school in 1995; Mr. Anand had already been teaching there
for five years.
 34

2. When an action is repeated in past perfect structure but the number of recurrence is
eliminated it is considered in past perfect continuous to maintain continuity.
He had tried three times to clear the admission test but failed. (number mentioned)
He had been trying to clear the admission test but failed. (Three times eliminated)

SIMPLE (INDEFINITE) FUTURE:

Structure:
Sub + shall/ will + original form of verb + predicate
Sunita will come by train

Usage:
1. The simple future is used to talk about things which we cannot control. It expresses future
as fact.
I shall be twenty next Saturday.
We will know our result in May.

2. It is used to talk about what we think or believe will happen in future.

I think England will win the match.
I am sure Anita will get a first class.
This tense is often used with, I think…., I believe ….., I am sure ……., I expect ……, probably
etc.

3. It is used when we decide to do something at the time of speaking.

It is raining. I will take an umbrella.
He hasn’t finished his work. I will wait for him

4. For future events which we have decided/planned prior to speaking ‘going to …’ form is
used. (Be going to + base form of verb)

5. We are going to start a factory next year. (Means it has been decided and preparations have
been made)
Have you decided what to do? Yes, I am going to resign the job.
‘Going to..’ form may also express an action which is on the point of happening.
Let’s get into the train. It’s going to leave.
Look, the cracker is going to explode.

6. Be about to –
Be about to + base form of verb - to show immediate future.
Let’s get into the train. It’s about to leave.
Don’t go out now we are about to have lunch.

7. To show near future, planned future or time tables, expected near future, ‘present simple’
and ‘present continuous’ is used as we have discussed earlier.

FUTURE CONTINUOUS:
Structure:
Sub + shall/ will be + verb + ing + predicate
He will be coming to our house next week.

Usage:
1. It is used to talk about actions which will be in progress at a time in future.
I suppose it will be raining when we start.
This time tomorrow I will be sitting on the beach in Singapore.
 35

2. This can also be used to talk about actions in the future which are already planned or which
are expected to happen in the normal course of time.
I will be staying here till Sunday.
The postman will be coming soon.

3. Be to :
Be to + base form of verb – to talk about official plans and arrangements.
The Prime Minister is to visit America next month.
The conference is to discuss “Nuclear Tests”.
“be to” is used in a formal style, often in news reports. “be” is usually left out in headlines –
“Prime Minister is to visit America.”

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE:

Structure:
Sub + shall/ will have + verb (IIIrd form) + predicate
I shall have written my exercise by then.

It is used to talk about actions that will be completed by certain future time.
He will have left before you go to see him.
By the end of this month I will have worked here for five years.

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS:

Structure:
Sub + shall/ will have + been + verb + ing + predicate
I will have been teaching for twenty years next July.

It is used for actions which will be in progress over a period of time that will end in the
future.
By next March we shall have been living here for four years.