SOIL RESOURCES

Soil
The word soil is derived from a Latin word „solum‟ meaning earthy material in which plants grow.
The study of soil is known as Soil science or Pedology (pedos = earth) or Edaphology (edaphos = soil).
The study of soil is important in many respects. Soil is natural habitat for Plants and animals. It provides
water and nutrients to the living organisms.

Soil developed from the pre-existing rocks, the regolith of the crust. Here soil means the loose,
friable, unconsolidated top layer of the earth crust. The soil is differentiated into several layers or
horizons which can be distinguished from one another by their colours, textures and other
characteristics.

It contains water, gases, complex minerals organic substances and micro-organisms. The dead
remains of plants and animals are degraded by micro-organisms and after degradation a number of
organic substances, generally called humus, are contributed to the soil. The mineral component of the
soil is derived from the rocks.

Definition of soil:
Soil may be defined as “the part of earth crust in which humus is present”. It is mixture of
organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids and organisms that together support life. Earth‟s body of soil,
called the pedosphere, has four important functions:
- as a medium for plant growth
- as a means of water storage, supply and purification
- as a modifier of Earth‟s atmosphere
- as a habitat for organisms

Components of Soil:
The soil is made up of the following components:
(1) Mineral particles,
(2) Organic matter or humus,
(3) Soil atmosphere,
(4) Soil water, and
(5) Biological system or soil micro-organisms.

1. Mineral Components:
The mineral constituents of the soil are derived from the parental rocks or regolith. They may be
found in the form of particles of different sizes; from clay (.0002 mm or less in diam) to large pebbles
and gravels. The minerals represent about 90% of the total weight of the soil. Important elements which
are found in compound state are Oxygen, Si, Fe, Al, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, C, H, etc. In soil, nitrogen comes
from atmosphere in the form of nitrogen salts.

2. Organic Matter or Humus:

Besides inorganic minerals, some organic residues derived either from dead remains of plants
and animals or through metabolic activities of living organisms are present in the soil. When the plants
and animals die, their dead remains are acted upon by a number of microorganisms and are finally
degraded or decomposed into simple organic compounds. A product of this microbial decomposition is
humus which is a dark coloured, jelly-like amorphous substance composed of residual organic matters
not readily decomposed by soil microorganisms. The process of humus formation is called
humification.
The chief elements found in humus are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen. The
important compounds found in it (humus) are carbohydrates, phosphoric acid, some organic acids, fats,
resins, urea, etc. Tree litter (very little decomposed dead matter) also contains some inorganic
substances as lime, potash, Mn, Mg, silica, Cu, Al, Ga, Na, K, etc. Humus is a dynamic product and is
constantly changing because of its oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis. Hence, it has no definite
chemical composition. It has much carbon content and less nitrogen.
Humus is not soluble in water. It is present in soil in the form of organic colloids. The amounts of
humus in different soils vary greatly. Humus percentage in the soil is affected by climatic and biological
factors. It is less in arid soils and very high in humid soils. In the top layer of the soil, humus quantity is
greater than in the deep layers.
 In dark humid areas which are thickly covered with vegetation, the humus may be found
in the following three stages of degradation:
(i) The top floor is covered with dead organic parts showing low degree of decomposition. These poorly
decayed dead parts of plants form litter. (Fig. 21.2).

(ii) Below the litter may be found a layer of partially decomposed organic matter which is known as duff
layer.

(iii) When the duff is decomposed completely into organic substances, the decomposition products,
generally called leaf moulds, are accumulated below duff layer.

Sometimes under anaerobic conditions, the dead remains are not at all acted upon by the
microorganisms. Accumulation of such un-decomposed organic remains is termed as peat.

Humus plays many important roles in the soil, such as:

(a) It makes the soil fertile.
(b) It provides nutrients to the plants and microorganisms.
(c) On complete decomposition, it forms several organic acids which serve as solvents for soil
materials. Thus humus increases the availability of minerals in dissolved state to plants.
(d) Because it is porous, it has got high capacity for retaining water.
(e) Humus makes the soil porous, thus increases the aeration and percolation which make the soil
more suitable for the plant growth.
(f) It also acts as weak cement thus binds the sand particles.
(g) Presence of humus in the soil increases the rate of absorption in plants.

3. Soil Atmosphere:
Gases found in soil profiles are said to form the soil atmosphere which is one of the most
important components of the soil. The spaces between soil particles and soil organisms are called pore
spaces. These are filled with moisture and air in varying quantities which account for approximately half
of the total volume of soil. In dry soils, percentage of moisture is lesser than that in wet soils.

The soil atmosphere contains three main gases, namely oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen In
soil atmosphere, oxygen is 20%, nitrogen is approximately 79 per cent and carbon dioxide is 0.15 to
0.65 per cent by volume. In the cultivated land, percentage of CO 2 is much higher than that of
atmospheric CO 2, but oxygen content in such soil is poorer than the percentage of oxygen in
atmospheric air.

The important factors which bring about changes in the soil atmosphere are temperature
atmospheric pressure, wind and rainfall. Temperature and atmospheric pressure cause expansion and
contraction of the soil air. Wind helps the soil in sucking the air in and rain water displaces the soil air.
Any considerable change in the soil atmosphere affects the size and function of micro-flora and other
biological populations.

4. Soil Water:
Soil water plays very important role in the plant growth. Plants absorb a small quantity of ram
water and dew directly from their surfaces but most of water absorbed by them comes from the soil.
Soil water maintains the soil texture, arrangement and compactness of soil particles. It is good solvent
for minerals and it makes the concentration of nutrients low so that nutrients may be absorbed by plants
easily.

Water affects the plant growth and other physiological activities In plant growth, water forms a
major part of the plant itself It is essential for the process of photosynthesis, it maintains the turgidity of
the plants and acts as a medium by which mineral salts essential for plant growth enter the plants from
the soil. In brief, water regulates the physical, chemical and biological activities in the soil.

Water in the soil comes mainly through infiltration of precipitated water (rain, sleet, snow and
hail) and irrigation whereas it is lost from the soil chiefly through evaporation, percolation stream flow
and transpiration. The quantity of water available in the soil varies from place to place. The amount also
depends upon the quality of soil. In loamy, silty and clay soils, the amount of water is greater than that
in coarse sandy soil.

5. Biological System of the Soil or Soil Microorganisms:

Organisms present in the soils are called soil organisms. Important group of soil organisms are given
below.
Soil Flora Soil Fauna
1. Bacteria 1. Protozoa
2. Soil fungi 2. Nematodes
3. Soil actinomycetes 3. Insects and mites
4. Algae 4. Rodents and earthworms
5. Root, rhizoid and rhizome of higher plants 5. Burrowing vertebrates

Many of these soil organisms are stable, many are mobile, but some are held in the colloidal
films of the soil particles. Protozoa, mites and insects are example of moving organisms. They move in
or on the surface of soil in search of food. Earthworms by the burrowing habit make the soil loose and
fertile. They are found in abundance. In some forests their number may reach up to 10,000 per square
foot. These soil organisms feed on the organic matter of the soil.

The majority of soil fungi are found in acidic soils. Actinomycetes prefer saline soils and soil
bacteria grow fairly well in the neutral soils richly supplied with organic nutrients. These microorganisms
are found in the soil at variable depths. Algae are found in the top layer of soil under the conditions of
constant shade and moisture.

It is estimated that in soil micro flora bacteria form about 90 per cent of the total microbe
population. Fungi and algae together represent only one per cent and actinomycetes cover 9 per cent.
Density of microbial population is actually governed and influenced by climatic conditions, physical and
chemical nature of soil and vegetation cover. The greatest amount of microbe (10, 00 000 per cubic
cm) is found in the top layer of soil at a depth of 5 to 15 cm.

In deeper layer (1.5 to 5 m) individual microbes are found. However, they have been discovered
at a depth of 17.5 inches in coal, oil and artesian water. It has been calculated that in the ploughed
layer of cultivated soil over an area of one hectare there may be from 5 to 6 tons of microbial mass and
one gram of ploughed soil contains 1-10 thousand million bacteria

Role of Soil Organisms:

Soil organisms take part in a number of processes in the soils. Some of their important roles are
as follows:
(1) Decompose the dead organic matter and increase plant nutrients in available forms,
(2) Production of toxins,
(3) Production of growth stimulating substances,
(4) Nitrogen fixation in the soil,
(5) Mixing of soil,
(6) Improvement in soil aeration,
(7) Improvement in the aggregation of soil particles or soil binding, and
(8) Cause injury to the plants.
EROSION
Erosion is the geological process in which earth materials are worn away and transported by
natural forces such as wind or water. Most erosion is performed by liquid water or ice (usually in the
form of a glacier).

Increased demand for agriculture commodities generates incentives to convert forests and
grasslands to farm fields and pastures. The transition to agriculture from natural vegetation often
cannot hold onto the soil and many of these plants can actually increase soil erosion beyond the soil‟s
ability to maintain itself.

Half of the topsoil on the planet has been lost in the last 150 years. In addition to erosion, soil
quality is affected by other aspects of agriculture. These impacts include compaction, loss of soil
structure, nutrient degradation, and soil salinity. These are very real and at times severe issues.

The effects of soil erosion go beyond the loss of fertile land. It has led to increased pollution and
sedimentation in streams and rivers, clogging these waterways and causing declines in fish and other
species. And degraded lands are also often less able to hold onto water, which can worsen flooding.
Sustainable land use can help to reduce the impacts of agriculture and livestock, preventing soil
degradation and erosion and the loss of valuable land to desertification.

The health of soil is a primary concern to farmers and the global community whose livelihoods
depend on well managed agriculture that starts with the dirt beneath our feet.

HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT SPEED UP EROSION

Soil is especially vulnerable to erosion if it is bare or exposed. Plants therefore serve a
tremendous role in preventing soil erosion. If the soil is covered with plants, erosion is slowed down.
But when soil is bare, the rate of erosion speeds up tremendously. Here are some human activities that
leave the soil exposed and speed up erosion. We speed up erosion through the following actions.

1. Agricultural Depletion
Farming can degrade the topsoil and lead to an increase in erosion. To plant a field, a farmer
must first till the soil, breaking it up and loosening it so the new plants can take root. Once the plants
are harvested, the loose soil remains and wind or rain can easily wash it away. In the 1930s, much of
the American plains suffered greatly from erosion due to non-sustainable farming practices, creating
the Dust Bowl and leading to widespread poverty and migration to the west coast. Planting cover crops
in the fall can help maintain the soil through the winter months, reducing the amount of erosion. In
addition, rotating the crops planted can help return nutrients to the soil to prevent its degradation.

2. Overgrazing Animals
Grazing animals are animals that live on large areas of grassland. They wander over the area
and eat grasses and shrubs. They can remove large amounts of the plant cover for an area. If too many
animals graze the same land area, once the tips of grasses and shrubs have been eaten, they will use
their hooves to pull plants out by their roots.

3. Deforestation
Deforestation is another practice that can greatly increase the rate of erosion in a region. One of
the most important barriers to erosion is plant life as long-lived trees and other species put down roots
that literally help hold the soil together. Logging kills these plants, and even if the operation plants new
trees to replace the old ones, the younger plants require years to put down the kind of root system that
once protected the soil. Timber companies utilize a variety of different techniques, such as partial
clearing and replanting, to prevent soil degradation and erosion in their work zones.

4. Mining
Mining operations are major contributors to erosion, especially on a local level. Many mining
techniques involve shifting large amounts of earth, such as strip mining or mountaintop removal. These
operations leave large amounts of loose soil exposed to the elements, and they often require large
amounts of water, which can exacerbate the erosion process. Even once the mining operation is
completed and the company replaces the earth, it lacks the established vegetation that helped it
maintain its coherency before removal, and until plants can re-establish themselves, erosion will
continue to be a problem.
5. Development and Expansion
Urban and suburban development can also exacerbate erosion, especially if the developers ignore the
natural state of the land. Construction of a building often begins by clearing the area of any plants or
other natural defenses against soil erosion. In addition, some landscapers replace natural ground cover
with plant species unsuited to the climate, and these plants may not be as effective at preventing
erosion.

6. Recreational Activities
Recreational activities, like driving vehicles off-road or hiking - Humans also cause erosion through
recreational activities, like hiking and riding off-road vehicles. An even greater amount of erosion occurs
when people drive off-road vehicles over an area. The area eventually develops bare spots where no
plants can grow. Erosion becomes a serious problem in these areas.

REFERENCES:
Teaching Guide for Senior High School in Earth Science
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/erosion/
https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/edu/?cid=nrcs142p2_054280
https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/soil-erosion-and-degradation