KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Descriptive Research is used to describe a particular phenomenon by observing it as it occurs in nature. There is no
experimental manipulation, and the researcher does not start with a hypothesis. The goal of descriptive research is only
to describe the person or object of the study.

Correlational Research identifies the relationship between variables. Data is collected by observation since it does not
consider the cause and effect.

Ex post facto Research is used to investigate a possible relationship between previous events and present conditions.
The term “Ex post facto”, means after the fact, looks at the possible causes of an already occurring phenomenon. Just like
the first two, there is no experimental manipulation in this design.

Quasi-experimental Research is used to establish the cause-and-effect relationship of variables. Although it resembles
the experimental design, the quasi-experimental has lesser validity due to the absence of random selection and
assignment of subjects. Here, the independent variable is identified but not manipulated. The researcher does not
modify pre-existing groups of subjects. The group exposed to treatment (experimental) is compared to the group
unexposed to treatment (control).

Experimental Research is like quasi- experimental. It is used to establish the cause-and-effect relationship of two or
more variables. This design provides a more conclusive result because it uses random assignment of subjects and
experimental manipulations.

(Quarter 1 – Module 2) Illustrates the Importance of Quantitative Research Across Fields

ABM Communication Psychology

Anthropology Education Sports
Behavioral Sciences Medical Education STEM

Read and analyze the following statement scope of research study. Identify what field they belong.
________1. A psychometrician wants to know the attitude of the newly hired employees on a workplace.
________2. The impact of branding on customer behavior: comparative analysis of Apple and Samsung.
________3. Community and Collaboration: The Effects of Participation in an Online Leadership Cohort on the Self-
Efficacy of School Leaders
________4. It is concerned with exploring connections simultaneously, amidst cultural differences, alternatives and
identity.
________ 5. It is an understanding of a particular communication phenomenon might generalize to a larger population.
_________6. Many educational principles in understanding human behavior are the offshoot of this field of research.
_________7. The limitation of fiber optic communication systems and the possibility of further improving their efficiency.
_________8. Investigating the spread of emerging Corona viruses using cross-disciplinary and computational approaches.

(Quarter 1 – Module 3) Differentiates Kinds of Variables and Their Uses

Quantitative Variables, also called numerical variables are the type of variables used in quantitative research because
they are numeric and can be measured.
1. Discrete variables are countable whole numbers.
2. Continuous variables take fractional (non-whole number) values that can either be a positive or a negative.
Numerical data have two levels of measurement, namely:
1. Interval are quantitative variables where the interval or differences between consecutive values are equal and
meaningful but the numbers are arbitrary.
2. Ratio type of data is similar to interval, the only difference is the presence of a true zero value. The zero point
in this scale indicates the absence of the quantity being measured.
Qualitative Variables are also referred to as Categorical Variables are not expressed in numbers but are descriptions or
categories. It can be further divided into nominal, ordinal or dichotomous.
A. Dichotomous are consisting of only two distinct categories or values.
B. Nominal variable simply defines groups of subjects. Here you may have more than 2 categories of equivalent
magnitude.
C. Ordinal variable, from the name itself denotes that a variable is ranked in a certain order. This variable can
have a qualitative or quantitative attribute.
KINDS OF VARIABLES
1. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES – Those that probably cause, influence, or affect outcomes. They are invariably called
treatment, manipulated, antecedent or predictor variables. This is the cause variable or the one responsible for the
conditions that act on something else to bring about changes.
2. DEPENDENT VARIABLES – Those that depend on the independent variables; they are the outcomes or results of the
influence of the independent variable. That is why it is also called outcome variable.
3. INTERVENING OR MEDLING VARIABLES – Variables that “stand between” the independent and dependent variables,
and they show the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
4. CONTROL VARIABLES – These are special types of independent variables that are measured in the study because they
potentially influence the dependent variable. They may be demographic or personal variables that need to be
“controlled” so that the true influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable can be determined.
5. CONFOUNDING VARIABLES – Variables that are not actually measured or observed in a study. They exist but their
influence cannot be directly detected in a study.

Quarter 1 – Module 4 Designing a Research Used in Daily Life, Writing a Research Title, and Describing Background of
Research
STEPS IN DEVELOPING RESEARCH TOPIC
1. Choose a broad topic.
A. Choose an interesting topic.
B. Select a significant topic.
C. Choose a topic relevant to your field.
2. Do preliminary research.
3. Define the problem.
4. Refine the question.

BASIC GUIDELINES IN MAKING A RESEARCH TITLE

1. Use an accurate description of the subject and scope of the study instead of using general terms.
2. Do not use abbreviations except for commonly known ones like DNA and ICT.
3. Do not include words like “The study of,” “analysis of,” “an investigation of” or similar construction as these would only
lengthen the title.
4. Include the main dependent and independent variables.
5. Be mindful of the proper use of grammar and punctuation.
6. Capitalize all nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs as well as the first letter of the first and last words.
7. State in a declarative form, although you may also see titles in question form from time to time.
8. The year the study has been conducted should not be indicated unless it is a historical study.
9. Use current terminology.
10. Depending on the institutional requirements, 5 to15 words are sufficient to describe the research study.
11. Use the common name instead of chemical formula (e.g., NH4)
12. Write and italicize the full scientific names.
13. Must reflect the tone of the paper. An academic research paper has title which is not casual, or informal, or does not
contain humor.

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The background of the study is the part of your paper where you inform the reader of the context of the study (the
situation or circumstances within which your research topic was conceptualized). Ideally, this part is written when you
have already conducted a literature review and it is the part where you justify the need to conduct a research study
about the topic selected by establishing the research gap.

A research gap is an under or unexplored area of a topic that requires further exploration. The gap can be in a form of
other variables, conditions, population, methodology, or test subject.

The background of the study will answer the following questions:

1. What is already known about the topic?
2. What is not known about the topic?
3. Why do you need to address those gaps?
4. What is the rationale of your study?
(Quarter 1 – Module 5) Statement of the Problem and Scope & Delimitation of the Study

A research question is an answer or response to an inquiry into a specific concern or issue. It is the initial or first
step in a research project.
STEPS in Writing a Research Question
➢ Specify your specific concern or issue
➢ Decide what you want to know about the specific concern or issue
➢ Turn what you want to know and the specific concern into a question
➢ Ensure that the question is answerable
➢ Check to make sure the question is not too broad or too narrow
Characteristics of a Good Question
1. A good question is relevant.
2. It is framed in a clear, easily understandable language to avoid ambiguity.
3. It is usually short and single dimensional.
4. It is purposeful and stimulates thinking.
5. It is guiding but not leading.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

The scope of study in the thesis or research paper is the explanation of the coverage or what information or
subject is being analyzed. Whereas the delimitation of study is the detailed description of the scope of study. It will
explain why definite aspects of a subject were chosen and why others were excluded.
In writing this section, a researcher needs to:
• cite data collection, identify school involved, number of classes, their grade/year level, number of participants
(or respondents, subjects), and topics of lessons covered (if applicable).
• state inadequate measures of variables, loss or lack of participants, small sample sizes, errors in measurement,
and other factors typically related to data collection and analysis.
• appreciate that the research must define limitations and inform others about what these limits are.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Important Elements in the Statement of the General Problem
1. Main tasks – they satisfy the question,” what to do” with the major variables such as to associate, to relate, to
assess, to measure, to determine, etc.
2. Main or major variables
3. Participants – subjects or respondents
4. The specific setting
5. Coverage date of the conduct of study
6. For developmental research, the intended outputs such as an intervention program, module, policies
The general problem is followed by an enumeration of the specific problems. The specific problems are usually stated as
questions that a researcher seeks to answer.

The specific problems must meet the following criteria:

1. they must be in question form;
2. they must define the population and the sample of the study;
3. they must identify the variables being studied;
4. they must be empirically tested

(Quarter 1 – Module 6) The Conceptual Framework and the Definition of Terms in a Research Study
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

➢ It provides an explanation of the scope and range of a concept or construct and discusses cases that combine
two or more theories.
➢ This is the diagram that connects variables of the study with lines (correlations) or arrows (cause effect
relationships).

The result of a clear understanding of the conceptual or theoretical framework is a diagrammatic presentation of the
study called the paradigm.

The Common Paradigms or Models of The Study

 1. IPO model (input-process-output). This model is largely used when the research attempts to isolate the factor
or major variable that causes the problem, subject, or phenomenon under investigation.
2. IV-DV model (independent variable-dependent variable model). This model is used in experiment-based
studies. The questions raised are higher order and classified as situation-relating.
3. PC model (predictor-criterion model). This model is used when relating and assessing the influence between
two or more variables. Studies that focus on relationships, associations, differences, and impacts will benefit
from this model.
4. P model. This model is used in research studies that propose a program or any intervention measure. It fits the
situation producing level of questioning.
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Definition of key terms will help clarify the purpose and direction of the study being conducted. Some of these terms
appear in the thesis title, statement of the problem, conceptual paradigm, and in the scope and delimitation of the
study. Certain terms may refer to the respondents, subjects, and the variables and sub-variables. Terms that are defined
must be arranged alphabetically.

PRINCIPLES IN WRITING DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Make sure that in the definition, you focus on what something is, not just what effects it is used for.
2. Extend the definition so that it exactly covers what you want the reader to understand. This may mean that
you will expand the dictionary definition.
3. It is helpful to supplement a definition, where appropriate, to clarify further the meaning of the term.

4. You are advised not to invent a definition for any term which has already a clear and accepted definition in
place. However, the term should be defined as used in the study or research or within the content being
discussed.

5. Once you established a definition, do not change its meaning in the middle of the article or the paper.

CONCEPTUAL AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

A. CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION
➢ It is the universal meaning that is attributed to a word or group of words, and which is understood by many
people.
➢ It is abstract and most general in nature. The usual source of conceptual definition is the dictionary which is
the reference book of everyday language.
B. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
➢ It is the meaning of the concept or term as used in a particular study. Unlike the conceptual definition, it is
stated in concrete term in that it allows measurement. The usual practice when using both types of definition is
to state first the conceptual followed by the operational.
➢ It establishes the rules and procedures, the investigators will use to measure variables.
➢ It provides unambiguous meaning to terms that otherwise can be interpreted in different ways.
➢ It refers to a specific definition of a concept in a research study. It defines a concept solely
in terms of the operation used to produce and measure.
Two Types of Operational Definitions

▪ Experimental operational definition describes how a term’s reference is manipulated.

▪ Measured operational definition which describes how referents of a term are measured.

Advantages of Operational Definitions

✓ Make research methodology used clear to the reader.

✓ Combine statements to things, either directly or indirectly, observable example is empirical.
✓ Help assure good communication by specifying how terms are used.

(Quarter 1 – Module 6) Research Hypothesis and Review of Related Literature

➢ A hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation of the relationship between two variables. It implies that
there is a systematic relationship between an independent and a dependent variable.
➢ A hypothesis helps to translate the research problem & objectives into a clear explanation or prediction of the
expected results or outcomes of the research study.
➢ It is commonly used in an experiment-type research, formulated particularly before the conduct of an
experiment-quantitative research