Introduction and Unit 1

Quantum Mechanics
I B Tech GR 20 Applied Physics
Dr. G. Patrick
 Unit 1
Quantum Mechanics
•Introduction, Black body radiation, Planck’s law,
Photoelectric effect- Einstein's Photoelectric equation,
Compton effect (Qualitative), Wave-Particle duality,
de Broglie hypothesis, Davisson and Germer
experiment, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, Born’s
interpretation of the wave function, Schrodinger’s time
independent wave equation, Particle in one
dimensional infinite potential box.
Atomic Structure
 Atoms and ions
• Atoms are electrically neutral.
• Atoms lose or gain electrons to attain stability.
• When an atom looses an electron, it becomes a positive ion or cation.
• When an atom gains an electron, it becomes a negative ion or anion.
• A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid is a solid material whose
constituents (such as atoms is a solid material whose constituents
(such as atoms, molecules is a solid material whose constituents
(such as atoms, molecules, or ions is a solid material whose
constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a
highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that
extends in all directions.
Crystalline solid
 Bonding in solids
• Types of bonding
1. Ionic bonding
2. Covalent bonding
3. Metallic bonding
4. Hydrogen bonding
5. Van der Waals bonding
 Orbits and Orbitals
• The innermost shell or orbit has the lowest energy level. The furthest
orbit has the highest electron energy level.
• Each orbit has a certain capacity and can hold only a certain number
of electrons.
• The inner shells must be filled first before going to the next level.
• An atom in its lowest possible energy state (called the ground state).
 Ionic bonding
• An ionic bonding is the attractive
force existing between a positive ion
and a negative ion when they are
brought close.
• Properties
1. Crystalline in nature
2. Hard and brittle
3. High melting and boiling points
4. Good insulators of electricity.
 Covalent bonding
• In covalent bonding the stable arrangement
of electrons in an outer shell is achieved by a
process of valence electron sharing rather
than electron transfer.
• Properties
1. Directional
2. Low melting and boiling points compared to
ionic bonds
3. Pure covalent solids are good insulators of
electricity at low temperature.
4. Semiconductors like germanium and silicon
are covalent solids.
 Metallic bonding
• The valence electrons from all
the atoms belonging to the
crystal are free to move
throughout the crystal.
• The crystal may be considered as
an array of positive metals ions
present in a cloud or sea of free
electrons.
 Metallic bonding
• Metallic bonds are relatively weak
• Metallic solids are malleable and ductile
• Metallic bond is non directional
• Possess high electrical and thermal conductivity
• Metals are opaque to light.
Classical and Quantum Mechanics
Classical Mechanics Quantum Mechanics
It deals with macroscopic particles It deals with microscopic particles

It is based on Newton’s Law of motion It takes into account Heisenberg’s

uncertainty principle and de Broglie
concept of dual nature of matter
It is based on Maxwell’s electromagnetic It is based on Planck’s quantum theory
wave theory according to which any according to which only discreet values of
amount of energy may be emitted or energy are emitted or absorbed
absorbed continuously
The state of a system is defined by It gives probabilities of finding the
specifying all the forces acting on the particles at various locations in space.
particles as well as their positions and
velocities (momentum). The future state
can then be predicted with certainty.
Black Body Radiation
• A body that completely absorbs radiation of all wavelengths incident
on it is referred to as a blackbody. When such a body is heated, it
emits radiation called as blackbody radiation.
• Radiation emitted by a body due to temperature is called thermal
radiation.
• Thermal radiation is electromagnetic in nature and its energy is
smoothly distributed over all wavelengths.
• A thermal source produces continuous spectrum.
Black Body Radiation
• A cavity made out of a hollow
container of any material (iron
or copper) with a narrow
opening and painted with
lampblack in the inside portion
resembles a blackbody.
Spectrum of Black Body Radiation
•At a given temperature, the intensity
of radiation initially increases with
increasing wavelength, reaches a
peak and then decreases.
• The spectral distribution of radiation
is a function of temperature alone.
• The position of maximum peak
shifts towards lower wavelength
with increasing equilibrium
temperature.
Black Body Radiation
• Classical mechanics could not explain the spectrum of black body
radiation.
• Max Planck proposed the Planck’s radiation law which could explain
the spectrum of black body radiation.
Planck’s Law
• Max Planck in 1900 introduced the quantum theory of radiation to
explain the distribution of energy in the spectrum of black body
radiation i.e. frequency distribution of thermal radiation.
• He assumed that the atoms of the walls of the blackbody behave like
small harmonic oscillators, each having a characteristic frequency of
vibration.
 Planck’s Law
Planck’s assumptions:
• An oscillating atom can absorb or reemit energy in discrete units. The
indivisible discrete unit of energy is “hν” and is called energy
quantum (E). E = hν
Where h is the Planck’s constant and ν is the frequency of radiation.
• The energy of the oscillator is quantized. It can have only certain
discrete values of energy En . En = n hν where n = 1, 2, 3, …
Planck’s Law
• The hypothesis that radiant
energy is absorbed or emitted in
a discontinuous manner and in
the form of quanta is known as
Planck’s quantum hypothesis.
Continuous and quantized
Properties of Photons
• Energy of photon: E = hν
• Velocity: Photons travel with velocity of light.
• Rest mass: Photon can never be at rest.
• Relativistic mass: E = m c2 or m = E/ c2
• Linear momentum P = h/λ
• Electric charge: Photons are electrically neutral and cannot be
influenced by electric and magnetic field.
• They cannot ionize matter.
 Photoelectric effect
• Photoelectric effect establishes that light behaves as streams
of particles.
• Hertz gave experimental evidence of photoelectric effect.
• Einstein explained Photoelectric effect using Planck's quantum
theory.
 Photoelectric effect
• The emission of electrons from a
metal plate when illuminated by
light radiation of suitable
wavelength or frequency is called
photoelectric effect. The emitted
electrons are called photo
electrons.
• (Bound electrons are emitted in
Photoelectric Effect)
 Photoelectric effect – Experimental arrangement

• The set up consists of a vacuum

chamber consisting of a metal
surface and a detector metal
plate.
• The metal surface is connected
to negative terminal of the
battery and the detector metal
plate is connected to positive
terminal of the battery.
 Photoelectric effect – Experimental arrangement
• In the absence of light, there is no flow of current and hence
there is no deflection in the ammeter. When monochromatic
light falls on the metal surface, a current starts flowing in the
circuit shown by the ammeter. The current is known as photo
current.
 Characteristics of Photoelectric effect
• Threshold frequency is different for different materials.
• Photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of
light.
• The kinetic energy and stopping potential of photoelectrons is
directly proportional to the frequency of light.
• It is an instantaneous process.
 Einstein’s Photoelectric equation
• Einstein explained Photoelectric effect using Planck's quantum
theory i.e. energy is given out in packets called as quanta.
• Energy Supplied = Energy Consumed in ejecting an electron +
maximum Kinetic energy of electron (or)
• Energy Supplied = Work function+ maximum Kinetic energy of
electron
• hν = hν0 + K.E.
 Applications of Photoelectric effect
• Used to generate electricity in Solar Panels.
• Lighting sensors such as the ones used in smart phones enable
automatic adjustment of screen brightness according to the
lighting. This is because the amount of current generated via
the photoelectric effect is dependent on the intensity of light
hitting the sensor.
• Digital cameras can detect and record light because they have
photoelectric sensors that respond to different colors of light.
 Compton Effect
• Compton effect is the name given to the scattering of x-ray
radiations by electrons that are weakly bound to the atoms in
the target.
• The American Physicist Arthur H. Compton discovered this
effect.
• The Compton effect can be explained on the basis of quantum
theory of light.
• Compton effect provides the direct confirmation of the particle
nature of electromagnetic radiation.
 Compton Effect
• Compton discovered that when a monochromatic radiation of
high frequency like X-rays is scattered by a substance, the
scattered radiation contains two components, one having a
lower frequency (or higher wave length) and the other having
same frequency (or wave length). The radiation of unchanged
frequency in the scattered beam is known as unmodified
radiation while the radiation of lower frequency(or higher
wavelength) is called as modified radiation. This phenomenon
is known as Compton Effect.
Compton Effect
• A beam of monochromatic
wavelength ( ) is incident on a
target.
• The wavelength of the scattered
x-rays are measured at various
scattering angles(ϴ).
• The scattered radiation consists of
a displaced component( )
• Compton shift
 Compton Effect
The Compton scattering results in
1) modified frequencies or wave length ( )
2) unmodified frequencies or wave length ( )
Compton found that the shift in wavelength
depends on the scattering angle ϴ and is
independent of the initial wavelength or the
scattering substance.

or (1 - cos ϴ)
Compton shift = and =
 Compton Effect
• Modified wavelength occurs due to collision of x-ray photons
with free electrons. On collusion the x-ray photon looses
energy and hence frequency decreases or wavelength
increases.
• Un modified wavelength is due to collision of x-ray photons
with the tightly bound electrons in the target. The whole atom
is involved in the collusion and hence is the mass of the
atom which is large. Hence shift is negligible.
 Wave particle duality: de-Broglie hypothesis
• In 1924 Louis de-Broglie extended the wave particle dualism to
all matter particles.
• If light can act as a wave sometimes and as particles at other
times, then matter particles like electron can also behave as
waves.
• According to this hypothesis, all matter particles in motion
possess a wave character also. The waves associated with
matter particles is called as matter waves or de-Broglie waves.
 de-Broglie wavelength of matter waves
• Energy of a photon
• Where c = velocity of light, λ = wavelength of photon and h =
Planck's constant
• According to Einstein’s mass energy relation
• where m = mass of photon
• From the above equations
• Or where p is the momentum of the photon.
 de-Broglie wavelength of matter waves
• de-Broglie proposed that like photons all matter particles have
dualistic behaviour.
• For a matter particle of mass m moving with a velocity v,
wavelength
 de-Broglie Wavelength in terms of K.E
• Wavelength in terms of kinetic energy
• Let E = K.E. of the particle =
• Multiply and divide by m
• E = p2 / 2m or p =
• λ = h/p
• λ =
de-Broglie wavelength for electrons
• If a velocity v is given to an electron by accelerating it
through a potential difference V , then the work done
on the electron is ‘eV’, and the work done is converted
into the kinetic energy of an electron.

Multiply both sides with m

where h= 6.625 x 10-34 J sec,

m = 9.1 x 10-31 kg and
e = 1.6 x 10-19 C
 Properties of Matter waves
• Lighter the particle, greater will be the wavelength associated with
it.
• Smaller the velocity of the particle, greater will be the wavelength
associated with it.
• Matter waves are generated by the motion of the particles.
• Waves are produced whether the particles are charged or
uncharged.
• Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves.
• The wavelength of matter waves is not a constant. It depends on
the velocity of matter particles.
 Davisson and Germer Experiment
• Waves exhibit diffraction and hence if de Broglie hypothesis is
valid, then the matter waves should exhibit diffraction effects.
• In 1927, Davisson and Germer observed the diffraction of an
electron beam incident on a nickel crystal.
• The experiment provided a convincing proof of the wave
nature of matter particles.
 Davisson and Germer Experiment
• Apparatus consists of a electron
gun with a filament ’ F’ connected
to battery B1 which produces
collimated beam of electrons.
• An anode A connected to a
variable voltage source, B2,
accelerates the electrons.
• These electrons are scattered by
the nickle crystal. The crystal can
rotate about the axis.
• The number of electrons
scattered by the crystal in
different directions is measured
by a detector called Faraday
cylinder. The detector can move
on a circular scale.
 Davisson and Germer Experiment
• In the experiment the intensity of the scattered electron beam
is determined as a function of the scattering angle, ϕ.
• It is found that for the accelerating voltage of 54 volts, the
electrons are scattered more pronouncedly at an angle of 50°
with the direction of the incident beam.
• Maximum indicates that the electrons are diffracted.
 Davisson and Germer Experiment
• The rows of atoms at the surface
of nickle crystal act like a
diffraction grating and the de
Broglie waves associated with
the electrons undergo diffraction
when incident on the crystal.
 Davisson and Germer Experiment
• The incident beam make a glancing angle(θ) of 650 with the
family of Bragg’s planes.
• The spacing of planes(d) in Nickel crystal as determined by
x-ray diffraction is 0.91 Å
• From Bragg’s law 2dsinθ = n λ
• λ
• λ = 1.65 Å
Davisson and Germer Experiment
• The wavelength of electron wave can be obtained
from de Broglie equation
• V = 54 volts
• λ = 1.66 Å
• It is seen that the value obtained experimentally
using Bragg’s equation and de Broglie equation
agreed well.
• Hence Davisson and Germer experiment gave
conclusive evidence that electrons exhibit
diffraction property.
 Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

• Classically, the state of a particle can be defined by specifying

its position and momentum at any given time “t”.
• At each instant, the position and momentum can be measured
accurately.
• When a atomic particle is considered as a de Broglie wave
packet, then such a accuracy is not possible.
 Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

• A moving particle is equivalent to a wave group and having a

group velocity.
• If the group is considered to be narrow, it is easier to locate its
position, but the uncertainty in calculating its velocity and
momentum increases.
• If the group is wide, its momentum is estimated easily, but
there is great uncertainty about the exact location of the
particle.
 Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

• Heisenberg a German scientist in 1927 gave the uncertainty principle

which states that “The determination of exact position and momentum
of a moving particle simultaneously is impossible’’.
• If △x is the uncertainty in measurement of position of particle along
x-axis, and △p is the uncertainty in measurement of momentum, then
• Or
• Statement: Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that both the
position and momentum cannot be measured simultaneously with
perfect accuracy.
Schrodinger 1 dimensional time independent wave equation

• Schrodinger describes the wave nature of a particle in mathematical

form and is known as Schrodinger’s wave equation.
• Consider a plane wave moving along +ve x- direction with velocity ‘v’.
The equation of the wave is written as

• Where, a= amplitude of wave

y = displacement of wave in y- direction
x = displacement along x- axis at any instant of time ‘t’.
Schrodinger 1 dimensional time independent wave equation
• Taking first and second order derivative w.r.to ‘x’ on both sides

• Using y in the above equation, where

Schrodinger 1 dimensional time independent wave equation

• In complex wave, the displacement ‘y’ is replaced by ‘ψ’ and wavelength’ λ’ is replaced by de-Broglie’s
wavelength
For a moving particle, the total energy is

Where E= total energy,

V= potential energy, U = kinetic energy
 Schrodinger 1 dimensional time independent wave equation

•U =

Multiply both sides with m

Subs. The value of
in the above equation.

But

This is 1 D equation.
Schrodinger 3 dimensional time independent wave equation
 Physical significance of the wave function:
Born’s interpretation
• The wave function has no direct physical significance as it is not an
observable quantity. It is a complex quantity which connects the
particle nature and its associated wave nature statistically.
• = is the probability density function.

• can be considered as probability amplitude since it is used to find

the location of the particle.
Particle in 1 dimension infinite potential box
• If one –dimensional motion of a
particle is assumed to take place
with zero potential energy over
a fixed distance, and if the
potential energy is assumed to
become infinite at the
extremities of the distance, it is
described as a particle in a 1-D
box, and this is the simplest
example of all motions in a
bound state.
 Particle in 1 dimension box
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 Particle in 1 dimension box
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 Particle in 1 dimension box
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 Particle in 1 dimension box
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 Particle in 1 dimension box
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 Particle in Three dimensional box
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Particle in 1 dimension box
 Numerical’s
1. Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron raised to a
potential of 1600 volt.
 Numerical’s
1. Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron raised to a
potential of 1600 volt.
Solution: Given Potential(V) = 1600 volt
Formula: For an electron
Substitute the value of V.
Wavelength = 0.31 Å
 Numerical’s
2. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a proton whose kinetic
energy
is 1 * 106 eV. Given mass of proton is 1.67 * 10-27 kg.
 Numerical’s
2. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a proton whose kinetic
energy
is 1 * 106 eV. Given mass of proton is 1.67 * 10-27 kg.
Solution: Given K.E. = E = 1 * 106 eV = 1 * 106 * 1.6 * 10-19 J
Planck's constant = h = 6.626 * 10-34 Js
Mass of proton = m = 1.67 * 10-27 kg.
Formula λ =

Substituting

λ = 2.86 * 10-14 m.
 Numerical’s
3. Calculate the velocity and kinetic energy of an electron of
wavelength 1.66 * 10-10 m.
 Numerical’s
3. Calculate the velocity and kinetic energy of an electron of
wavelength 1.66 * 10-10 m.
Solution: Given wavelength of electron, λ = 1.66 * 10-10 m
Planck's constant, h = 6.626 * 10-34 Js
Mass of electron, m = 9.1 * 10-31 kg.
Formula, on substituting, velocity, v = 0.4386*107 ms-1

K.E. = on substituting, K.E. = 54.5 eV.

 Numerical’s
4. Calculate the minimum energy that an electron can possess in an
infinitively deep one dimensional potential well of width 4 nm.
 Numerical’s
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 Numerical’s
5. The wavelength of yellow light is 5890 Å. What is the energy of the
photon in the beam.
 Numerical’s
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