What Is a Photodetector?

An optical detector is a device that converts light signals into electrical signals, which can then be
amplified and processed. The photodetector is an essential element of any fiber optic system as the
optical fiber or the light source. Photodetectors can dictate the performance of a fiber optic
communication link.

Semiconductor Photodiodes

Semiconductor photodiodes are the most commonly used detectors in optical fiber systems since
they provide good performance, being small in size, and are of low cost. Semiconductor
photodiodes are made of silicon, germanium, GaAs, InGaAs, etc.

How Does a Photodetector Work?

The following illustration shows how a photodetector work. The detector is electrically reverse-
biased. (In contrary, LEDs and Lasers are forward-biased to emit light).
In the first illustration when there is no light, the reverse bias draws current-carrying electrons and
holes out of the p-n junction region, creating a depleted region, which stops current from passing
through the diode.

In the second illustration when there are lights on the detector, photons with the proper energy
(wavelength) can create electron-hole pairs in this region by raising an electron from the valence
band to the conduction band, leaving a hole behind. The bias voltage causes these current carriers
to drift quickly away from the junction region, so a current flow proportional to the light hitting
the detector.

The wavelengths at which the detector responds to light depend on the detector’s material
composition.

Photodetector Response Curves

As we said above, the wavelength that a photodetector can respond to depends on its composition.
The following graph shows the detector response curve for different materials.
 PIN Photodetector

The most common semiconductor photodetector is the PIN photodiode as shown below.

PIN photodiode has an intrinsic (very lightly doped) semiconductor region sandwiched between a
p-doped and an n-doped region (as shown below).

Figure: PIN Photodiode Construction

The PIN photodiode is reverse-biased as shown above. Since the intrinsic i region has no free
charges, its resistance is high, so that most of the reverse-biased voltage is applied to this i region.
The i region is usually wide so that incoming photons have a greater probability of absorption in
the i region rather than in the p or n regions. Since the electric field is high in the i region, any
electron-hole pairs generated in this region are immediately swept away by the field. Electron-hole
pairs generated in the p and n regions have to first diffuse into the depletion region before being
swept away. Also, these electron-hole pairs may suffer recombination, resulting in a reduced
current.

Avalanche Photodiode

An APD is a very responsive semiconductor detector that used the photoelectric effect to change
light into electricity. In fiber-optic communication systems, the light is changed into electrical
signals using a single component like avalanche photodiode (APD). In the avalanche process,
charge carriers are produced through collisions. A light particle-like photon generates many
electrons to produce an electric current. The diode which uses the avalanche method to provide
extra performance as compared to other diodes is known as avalanche photodiode.

These diodes are used to change the signals from optical to electrical. These diodes can be operated
in high reverse bias. The avalanche photodiode symbol is similar to the Zener diode.

Avalanche Photodiode Construction

The construction of both the PIN photodiode and Avalanche photodiode is similar. The diode
includes two heavily doped & two lightly doped regions. Here, heavily doped regions are P+ &
N+ whereas lightly doped regions are I & P.
 Figure: Avalanche Photodiode Construction

In the intrinsic region, the depletion layer width is fairly thinner in this diode as compared to the
PIN photodiode. Here, the p+ region works like the anode whereas the n+ region acts as the
cathode.

As compared to other photodiodes, this diode works in a high reverse bias condition. So, this
allows avalanche multiplication of the charge carriers formed through the light impact or photon.
The avalanche action allows the gain of the photodiode to be enhanced several times to provide a
high range of sensitivity.

Working Principle

Avalanche breakdown occurs mainly once the photodiode is subjected to maximum reverse
voltage. This voltage enhances the electric field beyond the depletion layer. When incident light
penetrates the p+ region then it gets absorbed within the extremely resistive p-region then electron-
hole pairs are generated.

Charge carriers drift including their saturation velocity to the pn+ region wherever a high electric
field exists. When the velocity is highest, then charge carriers will collide through other atoms &
produce new electron-hole pairs. A huge charge carrier’s pair will result in high photocurrent.
 Avalanche Photodiode Operation

This diode operation can be done in a depleted mode completely. However, they can also work in
the Geiger mode in addition to the linear avalanche mode. In this type of operation mode, the
photodiode can be operated at the above breakdown voltage.

Avalanche Photodiode in Optical Fiber Communication

In optical fiber communication (OFC) systems, avalanche photodiodes are generally used for the
recognition of weak signals but circuits need to optimize enough so that high Signal to noise ratio
(S/N). Here, SNR is

S/N = Power from the photocurrent / (photo detector’s power + Amplifier noise power)

For obtaining the perfect signal-to-noise ratio, quantum efficiency should be high because this
value is almost maximum, so most of the signals are noticed.

Avalanche Photodiode Characteristics

Avalanche photodiodes are highly sensitive, high-speed-based diodes which use an internal gain
method that works through applying a reverse voltage. As compared to PIN type photodiode, these
diodes measure low range light so used in different applications where high sensitivity is required
like measurement of optical distance and optical communication for long-distance.

Advantages & Disadvantages

The advantages of avalanche photodiode include the following;

➢ The sensitivity range is high.

➢ High performance.
➢ Quick response time.
➢ These diodes are applicable here the gain level is very important as the high voltage
required, through lower reliability means that they are frequently less convenient to utilize.
➢ It detects low-intensity light.
➢ A single-photon generates a huge number of charge carrier pairs.
The disadvantages of avalanche photodiode include the following;

➢ The required operating voltage is high

➢ The output of this diode is not linear
➢ High range of noise
➢ It is not used regularly because of the low reliability
➢ It uses high reverse bias for its proper operation

Applications

The applications of avalanche photodiode include the following.

➢ LASER scanner
➢ Analyzer bridge of antenna
➢ PET scanner
➢ Barcode reader
➢ Laser microscopy
➢ Laser Rangefinders
➢ Speed gun
➢ APDs are used in receivers of OFC (optical fiber communications), imaging, finding the
range, laser microscopy, laser scanners & OTDR (optical-time domain reflectometers).
➢ These are used in optical communications like receiving detectors. Their wide bandwidth
& high sensitivity will make it very famous with designers. These diodes work through a
reverse voltage beyond the junction that allows the formation of charge carrier pairs in
reply to the radiation.

Thus, this is all about an overview of an avalanche photodiode and it’s working. This is a two-
terminal PN junction diode that works in the reverse breakdown region. These photodiodes include
high SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) as compared to PIN photodiodes, quick time response, high
sensitivity & less dark current. Its spectral response range is normally from 200 to 1150 nm.