Prepared by Eng.

Ala’a Nabil Signals and Systems

Introduction

Signal and systems are an essential subject in electrical engineering and it is not just limited to this particular
branch of engineering but students of many other branches such as computer engineering learn and practice this
subject in their field. For design and analysis, all engineering topics make use of models of real-world things.
Signals and systems provide you with the ability to take on the challenge of getting the job done.

Signal and system are two terms that, when studied and performed together, form a fantastic visualization of
different phenomena. Have a look at these two terms.

What is a signal?

A signal is a description of how one parameter varies with another parameter. For instance, voltage changing over
time in an electronic circuit, or brightness varying with distance in an image. We know that a signal can be a rather
abstract notion, such as a flashing light on our car's turn signal.

Signals are represented mathematically as functions of one or more independent variables. For example, a speech
signal can be represented mathematically by acoustic pressure as a function of time, and a picture can be
represented by brightness as a function of two spatial variables. But we focus our attention on signals involving a
single independent variable.
A signal is a physical quantity that varies with time, space, or any other independent variable by which
information can be conveyed.
There are two types of signals: continuous-time signals and discrete-time signals.
• Continuous-time signal: the variable of time is continuous. A speech signal as a function of time
is a continuous-time signal.
• Discrete-time signal: the variable of time is discrete. The weekly Dow Jones stock market index
is an example of discrete-time signal.

To distinguish between continuous-time and discrete-time signals, we will use the

symbol t to denote the continuous-time independent variable and n to denote the discrete time
independent variable.
Continuous signals are usually represented with parentheses x(t) for the input and y(t) for the output,
while discrete signals use brackets x[n] for the input and y[n] for the output.

1
 Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Signals and Systems

Some basic signals

1- Unit step function:

1 for t ≥ 0
μ(t) = {
0 for t < 0

1 for n ≥ 0
μ[n] = {
0 for t < 0

2- Unit impulse function:

1 for n = 0
δ[n] = {
0 for n ≠ 0

3- Ramp function:

0 , t<0
x(t) = {
t , t≥0

2
 Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Signals and Systems

Classification of Signals

1- Periodic Signals

A periodic signal is one that repeats the sequence of values exactly after a fixed time, known as the
period.

• Continuous time a signal is periodic if

x(t) = x(t + T) for all values of t --------------- eq. 1

Periodic continuous time signal has the property that it is unchanged by a time shift T

The fundamental period T of x(t) is the smallest positive value of T for which eq.1 holds.
2𝜋
Fundamental period: T =
ω
if x(t) is a constant. In this case the fundamental period is undefined, since x(t) is periodic for any choice
of T (so there is no smallest positive value).
• Discrete time a signal is periodic if

x[n] = x[n + N] for all values of n ------------ eq.2

Periodic discrete time signal has the property that it is unchanged by a time shift N
The fundamental period N of x[n] is the smallest positive value of N for which eq.2 holds.
2𝜋
• Fundamental period: N = m where m is an integer number
ω

Notes

𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑇 = 1 for ωT is multiple of 2π

𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑁 = 1 for ωN is multiple of 2π

3
 Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Signals and Systems

Example 1.1

Determine whether or not each of the following signals is periodic. If a signal is

periodic, specify its fundamental period.

a. x[n] = 𝑒 𝑗7𝜋𝑛
b. x(t) = 𝑒(−1+𝑗)𝑡
c. x(t) = j𝑒 𝑗10𝑡
𝑗3 𝜋 (𝑛 + 1 )
d. x[n] = 3𝑒 5 2

Solution
a. x[n] = 𝑒 𝑗7𝜋𝑛
x[n+N] = 𝑒𝑗7𝜋(𝑛+𝑁) = 𝑒𝑗7𝜋𝑛 . 𝑒𝑗7𝜋𝑁 = 𝑒 𝑗7𝜋𝑛 When N = 2
• x[n] = 𝑒 𝑗7𝜋𝑛 is periodic signal
2𝜋 2𝜋
• The fundamental period: N = m =7 ⟹ N=2
ω 7𝜋
b. x(t) = 𝑒(−1+𝑗)𝑡
x(t) is not periodic signal ⟹ multiplied by a decay exponential 𝑒 −1𝑡

c. x(t) = j𝑒 𝑗10𝑡
𝜋
x(t+T) = j𝑒 𝑗10(𝑡+𝑇) = j𝑒 𝑗10𝑡 . 𝑒 𝑗10𝑇 = j𝑒 𝑗10𝑡 When T =
5
• x(t) = j𝑒 𝑗10𝑡 is periodic signal
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
• The fundamental period: T = = ⟹ T=
ω 10 5
𝑗3 𝜋 (𝑛 + 1 )
d. x[n] = 3𝑒 5 2
𝜋 1 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋 1
𝑗3 (𝑛+ )
x[n+N] = 3𝑒 𝑗3 5 ((𝑛+𝑁) + 2) = 3𝑒 5 2 . 𝑒 𝑗3 5 𝑁 = 3𝑒 𝑗3 5 (𝑛 + 2) When N = 10
𝜋 1
• x[n] = 3𝑒 𝑗3 5 (𝑛 + 2) is periodic signal
2𝜋 2𝜋
• The fundamental period: N = m =3 3𝜋 ⟹ N = 10
ω
5

Example 1.2

Determine the fundamental period of the signal x(t) = 2 cos (10t) – sin (4t)
Solution
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
T1 = = ⟹ T1 =
ω1 10 5

2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
T1 = = ⟹ T2 =
ω2 4 2

• To find the overall fundamental period T = LCM (T1,T2)

𝜋
T1 5 T1 2
= 𝜋 ⟹ = (Rational) ⟹ T = 5T1 = 2T2 ⟹ T=π
T2 T2 5
2

4
 Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Signals and Systems

2- Signal Energy and Power

A signal can be classified based on its power or energy content. Signals having finite energy are energy
signals. Power signals have finite power.
a) Energy Signal
A signal is said to be an energy signal if and only if its total energy is finite, i.e., 0 < E < ∞, for the energy
signal, the average power is zero (P = 0). The non-periodic signals are examples of the energy signals.

b) Power Signal
A signal is said to be an power signal if and only if its average power is finite, i.e., 0 < P < ∞, for the
power signal, the total energy is infinite (E = ∞). The periodic signals are examples of the power signals.

Notice that A signal cannot be both an energy signal and a power signal

c) Neither an Energy signal nor a Power signal:

1. Consider a signal of increasing amplitude defined by x[n] = n
This signal has infinite energy and power ⟶ E = ∞ and P = ∞
Therefore, the ramp signal is neither energy nor power signal

0 , t<0
2. Consider a ramp signal defined as x(t) = {
t , t≥0
This signal has infinite energy and power ⟶ E = ∞ and P = ∞
Therefore, the ramp signal is neither energy nor power signal

Energy and power for continuous-time signals

• The signal energy of x(t) is given by



|x |
2
E= 𝑑𝑡
−

• The signal power of x(t) is given by

T

 |x |
1 2 E
P = lim 2T 𝑑𝑡 or P = lim 2T
𝑇 →∞ 𝑇 →∞
−T

Energy and power for discrete-time signals

• The signal energy of x[n] is given by


E= | x [n ]|
−
2

• The signal power of x[n] is given by

N
1
P = lim 2N +1
𝑁 →∞
| x [n ]|
−N
2

5
 Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Signals and Systems

Example 1.3

Determine the power and the energy values for each of the following continuous time signals:

a. x(t) = 𝑒−2𝑡 μ(t)

𝜋
b. x(t) = 4 𝑒 𝑗 (2𝑡 + 4)
c. x(t) = 3cos(t)

Solution

a.
• 𝑒 −2𝑡 μ(t) is non periodic signal ⟹ Energy signal
|𝑥(𝑡)|2 = 𝑒 −4𝑡 μ(t)
  
E =  | x | 𝑑𝑡 =  e 𝑑𝑡 = - 4 𝑒 −4𝑡
2 −4t 1
| 0
⟹
1
E = 4 and P = 0
− 0

b.
𝜋
𝑗(2𝑡 + 4)
• 4𝑒 is periodic signal ⟹ Power signal

|𝑥(𝑡)|2 = 16 × 1 = 16
T T T

𝑇 →∞
1
P = lim 2T  |x |
2 1
𝑑𝑡 = lim 2T
𝑇 →∞ 
1
16 𝑑𝑡 = lim 2T [ 16 T
𝑇 →∞
|
−T
] ⟹ P = 16 and E = ∞
−T −T

c.

• 3cos (t) is periodic signal ⟹ Power signal

9
|𝑥(𝑡)|2 = 9 cos2(t) = 2 (1 + cos 2t)

T T

 |x | 
1 2 9 1 9
P = lim 2T 𝑑𝑡 = 2 lim 2T (1 + cos 2t) 𝑑𝑡 ⟹ P = 2 and E = ∞
𝑇 →∞ 𝑇 →∞
−T −T

Example 1.4

Determine the power and the energy values for each of the following discrete time signals:

1 n
a. x[n] = (2) μ[n]
𝜋 𝜋
𝑗( 2 𝑛 + 8 )
b. x[n] = 𝑒
π
c. x[n] = cos ( n)
4

6
 Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Signals and Systems

Solution

a.
1 n
• (2) μ(t) is non periodic signal ⟹ Energy signal

1 n
|𝑥[𝑛]|2 = (4) μ(t)

 
E= | x [n ]|2 =
−
0
1 n
(4) =
1
1− 14
⟹
4
E = 3 and P = 0

b.
𝜋 𝜋
𝑗( 2 𝑛 + 8 )
• 𝑒 is periodic signal ⟹ Power signal

|𝑥[𝑛]|2 = 1
N N

𝑁 →∞
1
P = lim 2N +1 | x [n ]|
−N
2 1
= lim 2N +1
𝑁 →∞

−N
1
(1) = lim 2N +1 (2N + 1) ⟹
𝑁 →∞
P = 1 and E = ∞

c.
π
• cos ( n) is periodic signal ⟹ Power signal
4

π 1 π
|𝑥[𝑛]|2 = cos2 ( n) = 2 (1 + cos 2 n)
4
N N
1
P = lim 2N +1
𝑁 →∞
| x [n ]|
−N
2 1 1
= 2 lim 2N +1
𝑁 →∞

−N
π 1
(1 + cos 2 n) = lim 2N +1 (2N + 1)
𝑁 →∞

1
⟹ P = 2 and E = ∞

Example 1.5

Calculate the energy of the signal shown below

Solution

|𝑥(𝑡)|2 = 4
 1 1

|x |  4 𝑑𝑡 = 4t |−1 ⟹
2
E= 𝑑𝑡 = E= 8
− −1

hhhhhhhh

7
 Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Signals and Systems

3- Transformations of the independent variable

In many situations, it is important to consider signals related by a transformation of the independent

variable. These modifications will usually lead to
• Reflection (Time Reversal)
• Scaling
• Shift.

a- Reflection

The time reversal of a signal is folding of the signal about the time origin (or t = 0). The time reversal or
folding of a signal is also called as the reflection of the signal about the time origin (or t = 0). Time
reversal of a signal is a useful operation on signals in convolution.

The time reversal of a signal is the rotation of the signal by 180° about the vertical axis

8
 Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Signals and Systems

b- Scaling

c- Shifting

Time shifting or Shifting of a signal in time means that the signal may be either delayed in the time axis or
advanced in the time axis.

9
 Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Signals and Systems

4- Even and Odd signals

The storage and processing requirements of a signal can be reduced by exploiting its symmetry.

• Continuous time a signal is even if

x(-t) = x(t)
• Discrete time a signal is even if
x[-n] = x[n]
• Continuous time a signal is odd if
x(-t) = - x(t)
• Discrete time a signal is odd if
x[-n] = - x[n]
Properties:
• Even signal is symmetric about vertical axis.
• Odd signal is anti-symmetric about origin.
• Odd signal is zero for t = 0

Even - Odd decomposition:

An important fact is that any signal can be broken into a sum of two signals, one of is even and one of
which is odd.
An arbitrary signal x(t) can always be decomposed in terms of its even and odd components:
x(t) = ℰv { x(t) } + 𝒪d { x(t) }
1
• Even part of x(t): ℰv { x(t) }= [ x(t) + x(-t)]
2
1
• Odd part of x(t): 𝒪d { x(t) }= [ x(t) - x(-t)]
2

An arbitrary signal x[n] can always be decomposed in terms of its even and odd components:
x[n]= ℰv { x[n]} + 𝒪d { x[n]}
1
• Even part of x[n]: ℰv { x[n]}= [ x[n] + x[-n] ]
2
1
• Odd part of x[n]: 𝒪d { x[n]}= [ x[n] - x[-n] ]
2
Example 1.6

10
 Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Signals and Systems

2, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
A discrete time signal x[n] is defined as 𝑥[𝑛] = {
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Sketch a signal x[n] and its even and odd parts
Solution

Example 1.8

0 , t <3
Let x(t) be a signal with x(t) = { . For each signal given below
1 , t ≥ 3
Sketch and determine the values of t for which it is guaranteed to be zero.
(a) x(l - t)
(b) x(l - t) + x(2- t)
(c) x(l - t) x(2 - t)
(d) x(t/3)

Solution

a) x(l - t) = 0 for t > -2

b) x(l - t) + x(2- t) = 0 for t > -1
c) x(l - t) x(2- t) = 0 for t > -2
d) x(t/3) = 0 for t < 9

Example 1.9

Plot the amplitude of the signal x(t) = 𝑒 𝑗3𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗2𝑡

Solution
𝑗2.5𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗.2.5𝑡
x(t) = 2𝑒 𝑗0.5𝑡 ( 𝑒 2
) ⟹ x(t) = 2𝑒 𝑗0.5𝑡 cos 0.5t ⟹ | x(t) | = 2cos 0.5t

11
 Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Signals and Systems

Representation discrete time signal as the sum of unit impulses

A discrete time signal can be represented as the sum of unit impulses as


x[n] = 
k =−
x[k]δ[n - k], this can be expanded as

x[n] = … + x[-2]δ[n +2] + x[-1]δ[n +1] + x[0]δ[n] + x[1]δ[n -1] + x[2]δ[n - 2] + …

Example 1.10

A discrete time signal x[n] is defined as

x[n] = - 3δ[n + 2] + 2δ[n +1] - δ[n] + δ[n - 2] - δ[n - 3]. Sketch the signal and the even and the
odd components of the signal x[n]

Solution

12
 Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Signals and Systems

Exercises

1- Determine the fundamental period of each of the following signals

i) x[n] = 𝑒 𝑗(2𝜋/3)/𝑛
ii) x(t) = 2 cos (10πt) – sin (4πt) + sin (3πt)
iii) x[n] = 𝑒 𝑗(2𝜋/3)/𝑛 + 𝑒 𝑗(3𝜋/4)/𝑛
3 1
iv) x[n] = 3𝑒 𝑗 5 (𝑛 + 2)

0 , t<0
2- Consider a ramp signal defined as 𝒙(t) = {
t , t≥0
Show that, the following signal shown below is neither energy nor power signal

3- Find the energy following signal x(t). Find the even and the odd components of the signal x(t)

4- Sketch a signal x(t) which defined as

2t , 2 ≥ t ≥ 0
x(t) = { 4 , 4 ≥ t ≥ 2
−2 , 6 ≥ t ≥ 4

5- Write down expression for each of the following:

i) The power of the Continuous/Discrete Time signals.
ii) Energy of the Continuous/Discrete Time signals.
iii) Odd/Even Continuous/Discrete Time signals.
iv) Convolution for Continuous/Discrete Time signals.
v) Fundamental period for Continuous/Discrete Time signals

6- Determine the power and the energy values for each of the following continuous time signals:
i) x(t) = 𝑒 −2𝑡 μ(t)
𝜋
ii) x(t) = 4 𝑒 𝑗 (2𝑡 + 4)
iii) x(t) = 3cos(t)
1 , −1 ≤ t ≤ 3
iv) 𝑥(t) = {
0 , otherwise

13
 Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Signals and Systems

7- Determine the power and the energy values for each of the following discrete time signals:
1
i) x[n] = (5)n μ[n]
π
ii) x[n] = cos [ n]
8

0 , t<3
8- Let x(t) be a signal with 𝑥(t) = { . For each signal given below
1 , t≥3

Sketch the following:

i) x(3 - t)
ii) x(l - t) - x(2+ t)

2, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
9- A discrete time signal x[n] is defined as 𝑥[𝑛] = {
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Sketch a signal x[n] and its even and odd parts.

0 , t<3
10- Let x(t) be a signal with 𝑥(t) = { . For each signal given below
1 , t≥3
Sketch and determine the values of t for which it is guaranteed to be zero.
i) x(t/3)
ii) x(3t)

11- A signal x(t) is given as: x(t) = 2 + cos t. Find the odd and the even parts of a signal x(t).

0 , t<3
12- Let x(t) be a signal with 𝑥(t) = { . Sketch each signal given below
1 , t≥3
i) x(l - t)
ii) x(l - t) + x(5+ t)

13- Plot the amplitude of the signal x(t) for each of the following:

i) x(t) = 𝑒 𝑗3𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑗2𝑡

ii) x(t) = 𝑒 −𝑗3𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗2𝑡

14