Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Comparing bio-binders, rubberised asphalts, and traditional

pavement technologies
Filippo Giammaria Praticò a, Giusi Perri b, *, Manuel De Rose b, Rosolino Vaiana b
a
DIIES Department, University “Mediterranea” of Reggio Calabria, Via Graziella - Feo di Vito 89100 Reggio Calabria, Italy
b
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Calabria, Via P. Bucci 87036 Rende, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Nowadays pavement technologies must comply with sustainability requirements, including global warming,
Sustainable road construction energy consumption, and quietness. On the one hand, global warming is the most important category of impacts
Life cycle assessment (LCA) analysed as it is primarily associated with climate change and with intrinsic effects on human health, weather,
Alternative materials
and natural habitats. The emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs), is essentially related to fuel combustion during
Waste reuse
Expected life
construction and transportation operations, but also during the materials production processes. On the other
Bio-asphalt hand, traffic noise is a major concern, being related to premature mortality and years lived with disability.
Rubberised asphalt The road industry is focused on developing solutions able to face these issues and in the last years, the use of
Noise impacts crumb rubber from end-of-life tyres and the use of binders combined with renewable natural resources (bio-
binders) have gained momentum. Despite this, many uncertainties arise when comparing different solutions and
this calls for specific comparisons in terms of life cycle assessment (LCA).
Based on the above, the objectives of the study described in this paper have been confined to i) comparing
rubberized and bio-asphalts, and traditional pavement technologies from a broader perspective, including LCA-
based criteria; ii) setting up a method to compare innovative (e.g. green) and traditional pavement technologies;
iii) detecting, discussing, and promoting competitive equilibria among pavement technologies.
Six different alternative solutions were studied including two reference scenarios (traditional dense-graded
and porous asphalt concrete), a solution with the use of crumb rubber, and a solution with a bio-binder.

1. Introduction application mode), 25–75% replacement of bitumen (bitumen extender,

common application mode), 0%-10% replacement of bitumen (bitumen
Recent European Union strategies pursue the goal of gradual modifier, the application mode is rather mature) [5,6].
reduction of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emissions for 2030 to minimise The use of bio-binders with proper physical and chemical features to
climate change impacts. The latest regulations [1] set the target of replace traditional petroleum-derived asphalt allows obtaining several
climate neutrality in the Union by 2050 establishing the purpose of benefits such as a reduction in the production temperature (compared to
achieving zero emissions by that date. All sectors of the economy should hot mix asphalt mixtures, HMA), a reduction in energy input and paving
contribute to climate action, including energy, industry, transport, costs (about 20%), and a decrease in GHG emissions up to 30% [7,8].
waste, and land use. The long-term strategic objective is to achieve a Tokede et al. [9] reported a 5.72% reduction in global warming
climate-neutral economy with more cost-efficient resource use, potential (GWP) by replacing a percentage of bitumen (about 25%) with
improved energy efficiency, no net emissions of GHGs, and lignin in asphalt production. In their study, Samieadel et al. [10]
environment-related risks and impacts. compared the traditional asphalt binder with a bio-modified binder
To this end, over the last years, the focus has shifted to the use of bio- produced by mixing asphalt binder with bio-binder obtained from swine
materials in bituminous binders and mixtures (wood bio-oils, waste manure; the purpose of their research was to assess both processes in
cooking oil, vegetable bio-oils, bio-oils of animal origin) [2–4]. Indeed, terms of energy consumption and environmental performance. LCA re­
the dependence on petroleum-based products can be diminished by sults showed an improvement for the bio-binder strictly related to the
100% replacement of bitumen (direct alternative binder, limited lower energy required to ensure the proper workability of asphalt (the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Perri).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132813
Received 4 April 2023; Received in revised form 22 July 2023; Accepted 1 August 2023
Available online 10 August 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F.G. Praticò et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

reduction is over 50%). Furthermore, the production of conventional point, regardless of the bio-binder used (with waste cooking or vegetable
asphalt binder is characterised by CO2 emissions that are five times oil, pine resin and gum rosin).
higher than those of the bio-binder production process. A comparison The importance of the issues and perspectives above is going to gain
with traditional asphalts highlighted the most significant advantages momentum because paved surfaces cover a high percentage of our cities’
associated with bio-asphalts such as lower emissions and energy con­ surfaces (e.g., 30%, cf. [29]). Furthermore, the majority of these surfaces
sumption during the production and application stages [11]. are asphalt concretes (e.g., 94%, cf. Bucher, [30]). From a LCA
Mantalovas et al. [12] performed an LCA to discuss the impactful perspective, this explains how much important is to improve the sus­
factors of three different asphalt pavements including a bio-asphalt tainability and the performance of pavements and to assess the best
mixture incorporating a bio-based binder with the function of replac­ pavement technology through comparisons and analyses [31].
ing virgin bitumen. The authors concluded that the bio-asphalt To this end, it is noted that two crucial aspects are often disregarded,
contributed to reducing the global warming potential indicator. i.e., the availability of the reused/recycled resources and, as mentioned
In some cases, products and processes do not meet adequate criteria above, the expected life of the products (i.e., friction courses) set up. In
from a sustainable perspective and their implementation may not be other terms, this also refers to the assessment of the actual amount per
considered beneficial to the environmental system. For this reason, the year of the given waste material (e.g., plastics) and the corresponding
environmental impacts of specific materials should be investigated in actual amount needed for the specific product (e.g., HMA with plastics).
each situation in order to analyse the adequate use of waste materials, Additionally, for the expected life, note that this issue is linked to the
the potential decrease in the demand for imported petroleum, and the tendency to develop reference ranges based on a product family
achievement of sustainability and circular economy criteria. approach, because of the possibility to group different products that
Another important issue refers to the consideration of the durability have a common set of traits, having “product families for LCA compar­
coupled with the LCA [13,14]. Indeed, the current research on the ison” (cf. [32]). To this end, for the expected life of the bituminous
benefits of using alternative binders in terms of service life is lacking, materials produced using bio-asphalts, from an experimental stand­
does not cover all bio-solutions, and should analyse both durability- point, it is possible to observe what follows:
related performance and environmental impacts synergistically. The
reduction of service life is significantly affected by the ageing of the • Usually, the penetration of bio-asphalts (i.e., bio-binder plus asphalt
asphalt binder. For example, some bio-asphalt binders are more sus­ binder) is higher than the corresponding value for the asphalt binder
ceptible to oxidative and thermal ageing with a direct effect on the [3].
performance of the mixture [15–17]. However, some experimental ap­ • Furthermore, the bio-asphalt-based HMAs have a certain probability
plications demonstrated good anti-ageing properties of bio-asphalt; for to undergo failures due to high-temperature stability and water-
example, Chebil et al. [3,18] observed that biochar can reduce the related stability).
oxidation process. • Furthermore, from a predictive standpoint, the same average prop­
Some bio-asphalts exhibit low moisture resistance with conse­ erties of bio-binders imply lower moduli and lower fatigue life.
quences on the properties of the mixture such as adhesion and cohesion Indeed, in the first approximation, the number of repetitions to
[17], whereas other test results show that the water stability of the bio- failure decreases for higher tensile strains and these latter correspond
asphalt is better than that of traditional asphalt mixture [3]. to lower moduli (cf. [33–35]).
Compared with traditional petroleum mixtures, bio-asphalt mixtures • All these facts imply that there is a quite high probability that their
have lower high-temperature stability and higher crack resistance at low expected life is lower than the one of a traditional HMA.
temperatures [3]. Zhang et al. observed that bio-binders obtained using
waste oil and refined waste oil improved asphalt performance at low The use of alternative materials, wastes from everyday life, renew­
temperatures [3,19]. Mohammad et al. [20] investigated asphalt mix­ able materials, industries, and agricultural and forestry by-products is
tures with different percentages of bio-binder and draw the conclusion attracting growing attention in order to reduce carbon footprint. The
that the presence of bio-binder improved the low-temperature fracture comparison with traditional materials and means of construction is
performance; in addition, they observed a lower fracture resistance for essential, given the fact that these alternatives could help in the reduc­
the bio-binder mixture when compared with traditional mixes. This last tion of emission generation and the consumption of natural non-
result was associated with the stiffening effect of the bio-binder on the renewable resources such as aggregates or bitumen [36–40]. Among
mix. Djumari et al. [21] reported an improvement in the stability of different sustainable pavement materials, crumb rubber from end-of-life
asphalt mixtures produced using resin-modified bitumen. tires is the most commonly investigated in the field of flexible pavement
Generally, bio-binders are linked to performance issues in terms of construction [41,42]. For example, Chiu et al. [43] compared the
ageing resistance and high-temperature behaviour. Several authors environmental loads of rehabilitating one lane-kilometre of asphalt
report a reduction in the softening point, compared with virgin asphalts. pavement using traditional HMA and three recycled materials, including
Wang et al. [22] reported a softening point of 46.5 ◦ C for bio-asphalt asphalt rubber. In this study, the use of asphalt rubber is associated with
(15% bio-binder content, derived from rice husk, wheat straw, etc) a reduction in eco-burden by 23%, given the longest service life of this
[23,24]. He et al. [25] observed a softening point of 56–60 ◦ C for a option when compared to traditional HMAs. Zanetti et al. [44] reported
modified bio-asphalt, Gao et al. [26] found that the softening point was lower environmental impacts and contaminants in the asphalt fumes of
in the range of 49–51 ◦ C for a bio-asphalt modified with Styrene- mixtures with crumb rubber. However, increasing the percentage of
Butadiene-Styrene (SBS). Furthermore, bio binders often undergo an crumb rubber in the mix can be associated with higher energy con­
increase in penetration and ductility and this condition is strictly sumption but lower GWP [45].
affected by the low viscosity and the high fluidity of the binder [3]. A Puccini et al. [46] reported a 50% decrease in environmental bur­
review of previous studies reports that for some types of bio-asphalt dens associated with the use of warm mix asphalt containing crumb
(derived from sawdust, waste oil, cottonseed and soybean waste) the rubber and reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) for wearing course.
penetration and the ductility increase when the percentage of bio-binder Gamboa et al. [47] concluded that environmental damage could be
also increases, whereas the softening point is approximately comparable reduced by 48% by implementing rubberized asphalt (where the crumb
[3]. The addition of waste vegetable oil resulted in increased penetra­ rubber is added through the dry method) instead of the conventional
tion, ductility, and susceptibility to high temperatures (decrease in alternative.
asphalt resistance to rutting) [27,28]. In summary, a review by Yuniarti The LCA performance of both bio-binders and rubberised is affected
et al. [28] points out that the effects of bio-binder are correlated with an by paving technologies and/or by the use of other concurring recycled
increase in penetration and ductility and a decrease in the softening materials.

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F.G. Praticò et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

For paving technologies, the focus is on warm mix asphalts which • If competing pavement technologies have different expected lives is
result in lower energy consumption and pollutant emissions, compared it possible to neglect this diversity when comparing the impacts
to traditional HMA-related processes [41]. The reduction of the amount during their life cycle? Is it possible to disregard that the life cycles of
of asphalt and heat consumption are the key factors contributing to a the competing alternatives are very different and consequently their
lower environmental load [43]. In pavement construction, energy and impacts referred to a common baseline are biased if their expected
environmental impacts are strictly related to the production process. life is not considered [58,59]? This issue is quite difficult to solve,
According to Siverio Lima et al. [48], this phase is responsible for 78% due to the uncertainties that refer to the derivation of the expected
and 55% of the impacts in terms of non-renewable cumulative energy life of a friction course, where there is a sort of superposition of many
demand and global warming potential, respectively. characteristics to fulfil (e.g., friction, surface texture, and mecha­
The use of recycled materials, such as RAP, requires less consump­ nistic performance) [60].
tion of virgin bitumen and aggregates [41,49]. Compared to conven­
tional mixtures, higher percentages of RAP involve the mitigation of
negative environmental impacts [48,50]. When high percentages are 1.1. Objectives
considered, also the inclusion of crumb rubber in the mixture allows
smaller amounts of aggregates [51]. The impact on resources is esti­ Based on the above, the objectives of this paper were confined to:
mated to be 43% higher for conventional asphalt when compared with
rubberized asphalt [47]. 1) comparing rubberized, bio-asphalts, and traditional pavement tech­
The use of eco-friendly materials is encouraged for two main reasons: nologies from a broader perspective, including LCA-based criteria;
i) these materials may allow the partial replacement of virgin materials 2) setting up a method to compare innovative (e.g. green) and tradi­
(depletion of resources); ii) new asphalt mixtures less dependent on tional pavement technologies;
petroleum-based products may contribute to reducing environmental 3) detecting, discussing, and promoting competitive equilibria among
burdens in the life cycle as the asphalt binder is the most energy- pavement technologies.
consuming process [50]. In several LCA applications, asphalt produc­
tion in the plant is the primary contributing factor to the increase in both Innovative and traditional pavement technologies were considered.
fuel and electricity consumption [52]; this condition is mainly due to the In particular, the alternatives include the use of crumb rubber (dry
high temperatures required for most of the process subphases, such as method) and a solution involving 100% replacement of bitumen (bio-
for drying aggregates, the melting of bitumen and additives, the mixing binder produced by mixing different materials including wastes such as
and storage of asphalt mixtures [53]. waste olive oil and crumb rubber from end-of-life tires - wet method).
Table 1 illustrates examples of GWP and global energy requirement
(GER) for HMAs. Global warming is the most important category of 2. Methodology
impacts analysed as it is primarily associated with climate change and
with intrinsic effects on human health, weather, and natural habitats Based on the issues above, the overall methodology has been set up
[54]. The emission of GHGs is essentially related to fuel combustion and developed as follows (cf. Fig. 1):
during construction and transportation operations, but also during the
materials production processes. • Task 1: Pavement technologies (goal and scope definition, selection
Finally, it is noted that the following issues arise when dealing with of scenarios, selection of the functional unit, cf. Section 2.1).
bituminous mixtures for friction courses: • Task 2: Tests and Inventory (cf. Section 2.2).
• Task 3: Derivation of pollution indicators and impacts (cf. Section
• Many impacts and indicators derive from the processes that each 2.3).
material undergoes during its life cycle. Is it consistent to consider • Task 4: Derivation of scenarios’ durability and subsequent normal­
these impacts as different impacts or, on the contrary, are they isation of impacts (cf. Sections 2.4 and 2.5).
basically the same impact? Is there a so-called multi-collinearity • Task 5: Analysis of the results and conclusions (cf. Sections 3 and 4).
issue (i.e., where GWP and GER are not independent variables and
are correlated)? In the case of non-proportionality between GWP and
GER, what could be the main causes (e.g., different energy sources
2.1. Pavement technologies
or/and non-GHG emissions)?
• When setting up a method to compare different alternatives that
The functional unit used in this study is 1 m2 of road pavement. This
imply the reuse or recycling of waste materials with the aim of
reference unit is chosen for comparison purposes among the selected
improving the sustainability and the quietness of pavement tech­
pavement solutions and with the literature.
nologies, should other supplementary impacts (e.g., acoustic impact
The analysis follows the “cradle-to-grave” approach, assuming that
and diversion of waste from landfill) be considered? For example, the
system boundaries include all the activities related to raw materials
use of crumb rubber implies the reduction of the waste volume due to
acquisition and composite materials production, construction and
old tyres. Furthermore, these volumes depend also on the same ex­
transportation operations, and end-of-life (EoL) stage processes (milling
pected life, because higher expected lives result in lower volumes,
and disposal of the milled material). In detail, impact contributions can
the remaining factors being constant.
be associated with four main life cycle phases: i) production, ii)

Table 1
Carbon footprint and energy consumption for HMA.
Note GWP GER Reference

Bituminous concrete (binders, aggregates, manufacture, transport, laying) 0.054 kg CO2-eq/kg 0.68 MJ/kg [55,56]
HMA (10 cm, 2240 kg/m3) (raw materials, heating, mixing, transport, placement, and compaction) 13.1 kg CO2-eq /m2 198.5 MJ/m2 [56]
Porous asphalt concrete (production, transport, construction) 12.87 kg CO2-eq /m2 – [51]
HMA (16 cm) (Production, transport, construction) 14.6 kg CO2-eq /m2 – [53]
HMA (4 cm, 2300 kg/m3) (Laydown, hauling, production, aggregate and binder production) – 55.2 MJ/m2 [57]
HMA (4 cm, 2300 kg/m3) (Laydown, hauling, production, aggregate and binder production) – 62.56 MJ/m2 [57]

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F.G. Praticò et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

Fig. 1. Methodology.

construction, iii) transportation, and iv) end of life; these stages can be - B-B_DG: the friction layer is composed of a mixture of aggregates (the
split into sub-processes depending upon the considered pavement same as per Scenario_0), hydrated lime, and bio-binder obtained by
alternative. mixing colophony rosin, crumb rubber (wet method), paraffinic wax,
Significant differences between the analysed solutions relate to the SBS, and waste olive oil (no longer suitable for human consumption).
input materials and resources thus production is the phase that requires Bio-binder production refers to the project PRIN 2017 | USR342.
a deeper investigation. - B-B_PA: bio-binder mixture where the same aggregate grading as per
The study is extended to a road 150 m long section and 3.75 m wide Scenario_0* was used.
with a total pavement thickness of 34 cm. Pavement thickness was
assumed to be the same for the different scenarios in order to simplify By referring to the differences between the dry method (rubberized
the comparison process. The pavement structure, which is placed on the asphalt, cf. scenario L_DG*_CR) and the wet method (cf. scenarios B-
subgrade, is composed of a friction course (4 cm) and a granular base B_DG and B-B_PA), these were considered in terms of both pre-
course (30 cm). The friction course is the main variable in all three processing (different size) and processing (mixing vs. modifying).
investigated alternatives. The variation in the friction layer allows The unbound base layer is common to all the scenarios and it in­
defining the following scenarios: cludes a given gradation of mineral aggregates (60% coarse aggregate,
30% fine aggregate, and 10% calcareous filler), compacted at a given
- REF_DG: (reference scenario) the friction course is a dense-graded moisture content (11% water by aggregates weight).
asphalt concrete. Asphalt mixture includes modified bitumen by Subgrades, embankments, drainages, and road markings are not
SBS polymer, hydrated lime (cf. [61]), calcareous filler, and mineral included in the analysis.
aggregates (23.5% fine aggregate and 68.5% coarse aggregate); Table 2 summarises the scenarios investigated in the study.
- REF_PA: (reference scenario) the friction course is porous asphalt
concrete. Asphalt mixture includes: modified bitumen by SBS and 2.2. Tests and inventory
cellulose fibres used to mitigate binder drainage, hydrated lime,
calcareous filler, and mineral aggregates (6% fine aggregate and 88% Table 3 and Fig. 2 refer to the main tests carried out in this study,
coarse aggregate); while Tables 4 to 8 refer to the inventory of the impacts for production,
- L_DG*_CR: the friction course asphalt mixture includes modified transportation, construction and end of life.
bitumen by SBS, hydrated lime, calcareous filler, and mineral ag­ While Table 3 clarifies how the tests carried out refer to the impacts,
gregates (48% fine aggregate and 42% coarse aggregate), crumb from Fig. 2 the differences among the solutions emerge, where the
rubber (CR, type RARX, 1.9% by mix weight) added to the mixture composition of the bio-binder (without bitumen) leads to higher pene­
by dry method. This scenario refers to the project LIFE E-VIA and to a trations and higher softening points.
low nominal maximum aggregate size grading (low NMAS, DG*); The inventory is based on the systematic definition of the inputs and
- L_DG*: where the same aggregate grading, hydrated lime, and outputs of the system allowing a quantitative assessment of materials,
bitumen weight as per Scenario_1 was used but no crumb rubber was energy consumption, and air emissions from an environmental point of
included in the mix; view [65]. To accomplish this activity, information concerning each

Table 2
Summary of the analysed scenarios.
Scenarios REF_DG L_DG*_CR B-B_DG REF_PA L_DG* B-B_PA

Friction course Mix type Dense-graded Dense-graded Dense- Porous asphalt Dense-graded Porous asphalt
graded

Binder type Modified bitumen (MB) Rubberized asphalt Bio-binder Modified bitumen (MB) Modified bitumen (MB) Bio-binder
Aggregate type A A + CR A A A A
Aggregate DG16 DG8 DG16 PA DG8 PA
gradation
Base course unbound base course

Symbols.
DG: dense-graded asphalt; A: mineral aggregates; CR: crumb rubber (type RARX); B-B: bio-binder; PA: porous asphalt concrete; MB: modified bitumen by SBS polymer;
DG: gradation for DGs (8% mineral powder, 23.5% fine aggregate, 68.5% coarse aggregate);
DG*: 10% mineral powder, 48% fine aggregate, 42% coarse aggregate;
gradation for PAs (6% mineral powder, 6% fine aggregate, 88% coarse aggregate);
where: mineral powder < 0.075 mm (1% by aggregate weight of mineral powder is hydrated lime), fine aggregate 0.075/2 mm, and coarse aggregate 2 mm/15 mm.

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F.G. Praticò et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

Table 3
Main tests carried out. (CPX: Noise measurements according to the Close ProXimity method; Leq,D,0 and Leq,N,0 are the day (D) and night (N) equivalent sound pressure
levels of the pavement surface, information on the year of noise monitoring since construction is reported too (in this case 0 stands for the construction year).
Material Main tests carried out (*) (**) Methodology Main impact addressed

Bio-binder Penetration = 84 Softening Point = 93.8 ◦ C Modulus estimate and Empirical-mechanistic design Expected life
dmm [62]
Modified Penetration = 54 Softening Point = 51.2 ◦ C Expected life
bitumen dmm
Aggregate Gradation (see Fig. 2) Expected life
Pavement CPX (see Fig. 2) (**) Leq,D,0 (see Leq,N,0 (see See standards below DALY (Disability-adjusted life
Fig. 2) Fig. 2) year)

(*) Standards: Penetration (EN 1426), Softening Point (EN 1427), aggregate gradation (EN 933–1), CPX (ISO 11819–2).
(**) cf. [63,64].

selected impact must be acquired for each process involved in the system not considered. Indeed, used tires were taken into account. For the
from cradle to grave. Data are collected from the literature, publicly biomasses, in Table 4 it is specified that acquisition and processing were
available databases, manuals, and manufactory specifications. Further considered (for example, see “Olive oil production”, cf. Table 4). Indeed,
details on the data collection can be found in the following subsections. this oil was supposed to be inedible (after “used by” date), but it un­
The corresponding amounts per functional unit are derived. derwent as usual the production cycle.
For the production of input materials data on bitumen Data on emission generation related to the production of rubber
manufacturing are acquired from Eurobitume [66], which reports the asphalt (L_DG*_CR) were assumed to be the same obtained for the
life cycle inventory for the production of 1 tonne of bitumen. Informa­ traditional asphalt mixture as literature shows that values are similar
tion includes the environmental impacts of the following subphases: [78,79]. Moreover, the addition of crumb rubber by the dry process does
crude oil extraction, transport to Europe (pipeline and ship transport), not increase the energy consumption during mixing [80].
manufacturing of bitumen in the refinery, and hot storage of the final For B-B_DG and B-B_PA it was assumed that emissions and energy use
product. were similar to those assessed for the HMA plant operation process [69].
Table 4 lists data for each production process confined to emissions The ISO standard [81] requires LCAs to include the feedstock energy
to air and energy consumption. Furthermore, Table 4 reports the data for relevant inputs of raw materials which are not used as sources of
source for each input material process associated with the investigated energy in the modelled process system, such as asphalt binder, which is
scenario. used as a material rather than as fuel [54]. However, the inclusion of
For bio-binder production (by a mixer powered by electricity) an feedstock energy in LCA studies is recommended for cradle-to-grave
energy consumption of 72.00 MJ/t bio-binder was assumed [66]. studies and not necessarily for cradle-to-gate investigations [82]. In
Furthermore, the energy consumption needed to produce tires was this study, the feedstock energy of bitumen was assessed according to

Fig. 2. Main results of the tests carried out.

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F.G. Praticò et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

Table 4
Average air emissions and energy consumption for each production process.
Scenarios Process Emissions [kg CO2-eq/t] Energy consumption [MJ/t] Reference

REF_DG Bitumen production 189.12 510.00 [66]

REF_PA
L_DG*_CR
L_DG*
All Coarse aggregate production 3.37 16.60 [67,68]
Fine aggregate production 5.89 22.62 [68]
Calcareous filler production 7.36 28.00 [68]
Asphalt mixture production 26.24 363.24 [69]
SBS production and transport 3,715.54 73,042.86 [66]
Hydrated lime production 1,260.00 3,000.00 [70]
REF_PA Cellulose fibres extraction and processing 880.00 70.00 [71]
L_DG*_CR Crumb rubber (type RARX) production 206.04 9,236.65 [72]
B-B_DG and B-B_PA Crumb rubber production 345.00 1,822.63 [73]
Colophony rosin production 1,680.00 19,000.00 [74]
Olive oil production 600.00 37,663.76 [75,76]
Paraffinic wax production 609.00 510.00 [77]

Table 5
Emission Factors for on-road and off-road diesel vehicles considered in the study [84].
Vehicle Class Vehicles/Equipment used in the study CH4 N2O

kg/l kg/l
Construction/Mining Equipment Paver, Vibratory roller, Motor grader, Milling machine, Truck (32 t) 2.48E-04 2.30E-04
Industrial/Commercial Equipment Tanker truck, 2.46E-04 2.30E-04
kg/km kg/km
Light-Duty Trucks Small lorry (3.3 t) 1.80E-05 1.33E-05

Table 6
Processes and vehicles used in the considered transportation activities.
Scenario Process Vehicles/Equipment type

REF_DG Transport of bitumen from the refinery to the mixing plant Tanker truck (11,924 l [85])
REF_PA
L_DG*_CR
L_DG*
B-B_DG Transport of waste olive oil to the mixing plant
B-B_PA
L_DG*_CR Transport of crumb rubber (type RARX) to the mixing plant Small lorry (3.3 t)
B-B_DG Transport of colophony rosin to the mixing plant
B-B_PA
B-B_DG Transport of crumb rubber to the mixing plant
B-B_PA
B-B_DG Transport of paraffinic wax to the mixing plant
B-B_PA
All Transport of aggregates from the quarry to the mixing plant Truck (32 t)
Transport of manufactured materials from the production site to the construction site
Transport of milled material to landfills

ISO standards and it was considered separately from the process energy processes comprised in the study system and the vehicles used in each
used within the system [82]. activity. These activities include the transportation of input materials
For GHG emissions during transportation and construction activities from the source to the mixing plant (such as bitumen, waste olive oil,
the environmental impacts are strictly related to the combustion-related aggregates, crumb rubber, colophony rosin, and paraffinic wax) and the
emissions from vehicle and equipment usage. GHG emissions of the transportation of manufactured mixtures close to the paver in the con­
specific vehicle “v” were assessed by multiplying the fuel needed (FC) for struction site (the mixing plant-construction site distance is 25 km).
each task (j) by the corresponding emission factor (EF), according to the The fuel consumption assessment is different for each process and
general equation: type of vehicle, depending on the available information. The fuel
consumed by the tanker trucks was obtained considering the total
Emissionij = FCvj ⋅EFi (1)
number of trips required to complete the specific transportation activity
and including empty returns. The number of trips was calculated based
where the subscript “i” refers to each air pollutant: carbon dioxide
on the volume to be moved and the capacity of the tanker truck (11,924
(CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), and methane (CH4).
l/tank [85]). The fuel consumption of the tanker truck per km is
The emission factor for diesel was assumed to be 2.60 kg of CO2 per
assumed to be 0.42 l [85]. Air emissions associated with the trans­
litre [83]. Table 5 summarizes the emission factors for N2O and CH4,
portation activities of the selected small lorry were calculated by taking
depending on the vehicle type.
into account data available in the European Reference Life Cycle Data­
For transportation activities, Table 6 lists all the transportation
base (ELCD) [67]. In particular, CO2 emissions [kg] depend on the

6
F.G. Praticò et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

Table 7
Average transportation distances and quantities needed for each material used.
Materials Quantity [kg/FU] Transportation Distance [km]

Scenarios

REF_DG REF_PA L_DG*_CR L_DG* B-B_DG B-B_PA

Mineral aggregates 40
Coarse aggregate 64.10 72.09 36.90 37.87 60.13 64.38
Fine aggregate 21.99 4.91 42.17 43.28 20.63 4.39
Calcareous filler 6.55 4.10 7.91 8.11 6.14 3.66
Bitumen 4.97 4.80 5.53 5.56 – – 60
Hydrated lime 0.94 0.82 0.88 0.90 0.88 0.73 80
SBS 0.25 0.24 0.28 0.28 0.19 0.16 80
Cellulose Fibres – 0.24 – – – – 80
Crumb rubber – – 1.81 – – – 80
(type RARX)
Colophony rosin – – – – 2.44 2.03 80
Waste olive oil – – – – 0.85 0.71 80
Crumb rubber – – – – 0.80 0.66 80
Paraffinic wax – – – – 0.53 0.44 80

Table 8
Construction site equipment and main specifications.
Scenarios Life cycle stage Construction site equipment Producer/model Fuel consumption [l/h] Average operating width Average working speed
[m] [km/h]

All Construction Paver Bomag BF 600 43.1 2.5 1.3

Vibratory roller Bomag BW 203 ad-4 37.6 2.1 3.0
Motor grader CAT 12 M2 40.0 3.7 23.0
EoL Milling machine Wirtgen 220 Fi 60.0 2.2 2.64

distance travelled in kilometres and the mass transported by the lorry specifications and fuel consumption of each machine, is reported in
expressed in tonnes. CH4 [kg] and N2O [kg] emissions were evaluated as Table 8. The equipment data were collected from the manufacturer’s
a function of the distance covered [km] and the corresponding emission specifications, available free databases, and previous studies [90].
factors values stated by EPA [84] for light trucks (Table 5). The total fuel consumed in each activity was assessed as a function of
For the 32 t selected truck, fuel consumption was calculated using the following parameters:
the following equation [86,87]:
- the total operating time required to complete each task (laying and
[ ] K[− ]⋅d[km]⋅Ic [l/km]
FCtruck l/m3 = (2) compaction for the construction and milling for the disposal of the
C[m3 ]
friction course);
- the specific equipment productivity that depends on the machine
where K is a coefficient taking into account the different fuel con­
specifications such as the average working speed, the operating
sumption between a fully loaded truck and an empty one (K = 1.7), d is
width, and the number of machine passes (e.g., the number of roller
the average distance covered during the specific activity, C is the ca­
passes to achieve the desired compaction level).
pacity of the truck (22 m3), and Ic is the fuel consumption at maximum
load. Concerning the evaluation of this last parameter, a linear rela­
The GHG emissions for construction activities are evaluated using
tionship was assumed between Ic and the truckload in order to consider
Eq. (1) and the emission factors for the “construction/mining equip­
the different maximum loads depending on the type of transported
ment” class of vehicles are listed in Table 5.
material. The relationship was defined based on the values found in the
The end-of-life phase includes two main activities: the milling of the
literature for the type of truck considered [88]. In light of the above, it
surface pavement layer and the transportation of the milled material to
was assumed that Ic was 0.44 and 0.41 for the transportation of aggre­
the landfill (the average transportation distance worksite-landfill was
gates and the asphalt mixture, respectively [89].
100 km).
Table 7 reports the transport distances for each material used in the
study. Also, each quantity of material to be transported is reported in the
table. It is worth noting that the same distance (80 km) was selected for
2.3. Derivation of the impacts
transporting hydrated lime, SBS, crumb rubber, and bio-binder com­
ponents to the mixing plant. The assumption of considering a fixed
The main impact categories assessed in this study are:
transportation distance (e.g., the distance between the storage centre
and the mixing plant) allows for a more significant comparative analysis
- Global warming potential (GWP) for the production, construction,
between the scenarios, as emissions generated during transportation
transportation, and end-of-life stages;
activities are affected by the distance covered and the mode of transport.
- Global energy requirement (GER) for the production, construction,
In the assessment of energy consumption during transportation ac­
transportation, and end-of-life stages;
tivities, the energy required to maintain the bitumen temperature within
- Disability-adjusted life year (DALY) for the operations stage;
the storage tank was also taken into account. More specifically, a
- Volume of waste generated (end-of-life).
contribution of 70.1 MJ/t was considered [66].
For the construction stage and EoL phase, note that fuel consumption
is related to different types of equipment used in laying and compaction
2.3.1. GWP and GER
operations. Information on construction equipment, such as the main
These indexes were evaluated at the midpoint level from resource

7
F.G. Praticò et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

consumption flows (energy, natural resources) and emissions to air where DWHA and DWHSD are the disability weights assumed to be 0.02
(climate change on a 100-year horizon) [65]. and 0.07, respectively [95]. Eqs (3)–(5) allow quantifying the human
GWP is a measure of the effects of different gases that remain in the health impacts of noise for the X-th year of pavement service time (with
atmosphere over a chosen time horizon. The Kyoto Protocol is based on X = 0…N) where N is the expected life and 0 refers to the construction
GWPs for a period of 100 years from emission. The selected GHGs are time. The values of Leq,D,0 and Leq,N,0 (construction year) were obtained
carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), and methane (CH4). These by traffic noise monitoring (see Fig. 2). The assessment of DALY over
gases are considered contributors to GHG emissions by the Intergov­ time requires some hypothesises on the acoustic aging of the asphalt
ernmental Panel on Climate Change [36]. Carbon dioxide equivalents pavements. To this end, it is noted that recent studies report an increase
(CO2-eq) is the standard reference unit for the comparison of different of about 0.5 dB per year for CR-added mixes, an increase of about 1 dB
GHG emissions [91]. Gas emissions were converted to CO2 equivalents per year for DG mixes, and 0.9 dB per year for porous graded asphalt
by multiplying their global warming potential reported by the EPA [84]. pavements at city streets and with low traffic speed [96,97].
In particular, CO2 has a GWP of 1 because its concentration in the at­
mosphere lasts more than 100 years; the GWP of methane is assumed to 2.3.3. Waste volumes
be 25 for a 100-year timescale; N2O is estimated to have a GWP of 298 The sustainability of the different alternatives was assessed also in
over 100 years. This process allows for a better understanding of the terms of wastes (namely materials that would be disposed of in landfills)
magnitude of potential impacts by translating environmental flows into with the general aim of evaluating, from a quantitative point of view, the
environmental impacts [54]. pavement scenario that can help in reducing the burden on landfills. As
Furthermore, the different alternatives are compared in terms of is well known, the use of crumb rubber in asphalt mixtures contributes
energy consumption, allowing for quantifying the direct and indirect to avoiding impacts for landfills due to end-of-life tires; the recoverable
energy use over the investigated life cycle phases. rubber in a tyre is about 70%. It is worth noting that the processes
needed to convert waste vehicle tyres into crumb rubber were allocated
2.3.2. DALY to the tyre life cycle and not to the investigated pavement systems.
This study addresses human health impacts in terms of annoyance Similarly, the bio-asphalt (B-B_DG, B-B_PA) allows for recycling the
and sleep disturbance due to acoustic impact of traffic during opera­ waste olive oil which would be unsuitable for human consumption thus
tions. Vehicles noise is not a negligible issue in urban centres and can it would be associated with impacts and costs of transport and disposal.
significantly affect the quality of life of people living in the closest areas The volume of waste generated by each alternative is calculated by
to the road [92,93]. The reference unit used in the quantitative assess­ adding the volumes of materials recycled in the pavement system
ment of the acoustic impact on human beings is the DALYs (disability- (negative contribution to waste generation) with the volume of RAP to
adjusted life years). The use of DALY is recommended by the World be transported to landfills (positive contribution to waste generation).
Health Organization (WHO) and refers to the loss of the equivalent of The sum of these contributions is the indicator “LANDFILL” and it is
one year of full health [94]. Data on traffic noise emissions (cf. Fig. 2) expressed in m3/m2.
allowed assessing the equivalent sound pressure levels for the day-time
(6.00 AM – 22:00 PM) and night-time (22:00 PM – 6:00 AM), Leq,D and
Leq,N, respectively. The number of potential impacted people was 2.4. Expected life
assessed taking into account the buildings close to the case study road (9
buildings) and the population density which was assumed to be three In task 4 (Task 4: Derivation of scenarios’ durability and subsequent
persons per household. The number of people with high annoyance normalisation of impacts), each impact was divided by the pertaining
(HAx) and high sleep disturbance (HSDx) in the service year X was ob­ expected life and the matrix (namely, a column) of the given impact per
tained by the following relationships [95]: year was derived. This crucial task was carried out based on the litera­
ture and based on Witczack derivation of mixture modulus (Eq. (6))
[33–35].

Vbeff
log10 E* = − 1.249937 + 0.02923ρ200 − 0.001767(ρ200 )2 − 0.002841ρ4 − 0.058097Va − 0.802208 +
Vbeff + Va
( )2 (6)
3.871977 − 0.0021ρ4 + 0.003958ρ3/8 − 0.000017 ρ3/8 + 0.00547ρ3/4
+
1 + e(− 0.603313− 0.313351(log f )− 0.393532(log η) )

∑
9
P(j) In Eq. (6), E* is the dynamic modulus [105 psi], η is the asphalt
HAX = ( )) (3) binder viscosity [106 poise], f is the loading frequency [Hz]; further­
1 + exp(− − 8.4495 + 0.1115 • Leq,D,X (j)
j=1
more: Va = air-void content, by volume [%] (cf. [98]), Vbeff = effective
asphalt binder content, by volume [%], ρ3/4 = cumulative percent
∑
9
HSDX = (
P(j)
)) (4) retained on the 19-mm (3/4 in.) sieve, ρ3/8 = cumulative percent
j=1 1 + exp(− − 7.1315 + 0.0976 • Leq,N,X (j) retained on the 9.5-mm (3/8 in.) sieve, ρ4 = cumulative percent retained
on the 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve; and ρ200 = percentage passing through the
where Leq,D,X and Leq,N,X are the sound pressure levels related to day-time 0.075-mm (No. 200) sieve. The viscosity was assessed through the
and night-time, respectively, P(j) is the total number of people in the following model [99]:
household “j”.
The human health impacts (HI) of noise, expressed in DALY, were log(η) = 10.5012 − 2.2601⋅log(Pen) + 0.00389(Pen)2 (7)
calculated as follows:
where Pen (0.1 mm) is the penetration of a standard needle of 100 g
HI X = HAX • DW HA + HSDX • DW HSD (5) which penetrates the asphalt binder for 5 s.

8
F.G. Praticò et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

Fig. 3. Focus on ranking and analyses.

2.5. Data treatment total score. Importantly, as an ancillary result of this task, the breakeven
durations were derived (i.e., the expected life corresponding to having
Based on the matrix of impacts, (cf. Fig. 3), the corresponding matrix the same ranking for all the scenarios).
of the normalised values was derived (feature scaling in 0,1/n, where n In more detail, the formalised method is as follows. For the s-th
is the number of impacts). Based on this n matrix the base for the scenario (one scenario per row, overall S scenarios) and for the i-th
comparison of alternative pavement technologies was derived. Under impact (one impact per column, overall N impacts), the following matrix
the hypothesis that the impacts are negative impacts (in the sense that is derived:
the higher the value the poorer the performance), the sum of the n
vectors brings to a column where each pavement technology has a given

Fig. 4. Contribution of each life-cycle stage (cradle-to-grave) to GWP and GER.

9
F.G. Praticò et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

Fig. 5. Contribution of each life-cycle stage (cradle-to-grave) to the global warming potential.

Fig. 6. Energy consumption for each scenario and each life-cycle step (cradle-to-grave).

⎡ ⎤
x11 x1N equilibrium expected life (breakeven points) and implies having the
X=⎣ xsj ⎦ same ranking for all the scenarios. The algorithm for the derivation of
xS1 xSN the equilibrium expected life vector is based on a simple optimization
process where: XPR1 = XPR2=…XPRs that it to say on having the same
Under the hypothesis that the N impacts have the same weight, from
ranking for all the options.
this matrix the corresponding normalised matrix can be derived, where
the given element is defined in 0,1 the following matrix can be derived:
3. Results and discussion
⎡ ⎤
⎢
⎢ xsj − minxsj ⎥
⎥ 3.1. Preliminary analyses
⎢ ( s
) ⎥
XN = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ N • maxxsj − minxsj ⎥ 3.1.1. GWP and GER results analysis
⎣ s s
⎦
Figs. 4 to 8 summarise the results obtained for the six scenarios in
terms of GWP and GER.
At the same time, for each scenario, the following vector of the ex­ The cradle-to-grave analysis reported in Fig. 4 highlights that the
pected lives, EL, is derived: production stage contributes to GWP in a measure always higher than
⎡ ⎤
84% for all scenarios. The results in terms of energy consumption, GER,
EL=.⎣ ELi ⎦ during the investigated life phases confirm that the contribution of the
production phase is always greater than 73%.
Finally, for each s-th scenario, the following running sum is derived: The contribution of transport activities to emission generation ranges
⎡ ⎤
between a minimum of 6% and a maximum of 8%. On site construction
⎢ ( ) ⎥
⎢ ⎥ processes result in the least impactful activities. This stage is almost the
⎢∑ xsj − minxsj ⎥
XPR
⎢
=.⎢
s ⎥ same in all the scenarios, accounting for about 1% for all the
( ) ⎥
⎢ ⎥ technologies.
⎢ N • max x sj − min x sj • ELs ⎥
⎣ s s
s
⎦ End-of-life phase contributes to GWP and GER with a magnitude of
about 4–7% (in terms of emission generation) and 5–12% (in terms of
Importantly, the value of the expected life vector, EL, that implies energy requirement).
that the different scenarios have the same running sum XPR, is the Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 show LCA results for the selected scenarios with

10
F.G. Praticò et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

Fig. 7. Contribution of the production process of each material (per FU) to GWP.

respect to GWP and GER for the functional unit (1 m2 of pavement). Data particular, these comparisons suggest that GWP and GER are
are reported for each life-cycle step (production, transport, construction, higher for the dense-graded mixtures (REF_DG and B-B_DG) while
and end-of-life) and aggregated in the “cradle-to-grave” indicator. It is they decrease when considering the PA mixtures (REF_PA vs B-
easy to note that the production phase is the most impactful of all pro­ B_PA). This condition is strictly related to the higher quantity of
cesses, both in terms of air emissions and energy consumption, regard­ fine-graded aggregates in dense-graded mixtures. Indeed, the
less of the scenario considered. Construction activities generate 0.08 production of fine minerals generates higher quantities of CO2-eq
CO2-eq/m2 and require 1.07 MJ/m2 for each scenario. than the process associated with the production of coarse ag­
The scenarios REF_DG, L_DG*_CR, B-B_DG, and B-B_PA are linked to gregates. The results obtained for the GER assessment confirm
the highest environmental burdens (GWP). In addition, the scenarios this consideration. In fact, the energy required for the production
including the bio-asphalt mixture are correlated with higher energy stage is higher for the dense-graded mixtures as the production of
requirements. fine aggregates and calcareous filler/ hydrated lime requires
The data reported in the previous figures allow for the following set more energy than coarse aggregate production (cf. Table 4).
of comparative considerations in terms of binder type and aggregate iii) L_DG*_CR and L_DG* present the same aggregate gradation (DG*)
gradation: and binder (MB) but they differ in the presence of crumb rubber
in the mix. This comparison shows that the GWP results are
i) the contribution of binder type to the generation of air pollutants approximately comparable (7.64 vs 7.32 kg CO2-eq/m2, for the
and energy requirement can be estimated when the aggregate L_DG*_CR and the L_DG*, respectively), in particular, GWP values
gradation is fixed. The mixtures presenting the same aggregate are slightly higher for the L_DG*_CR, when compared with L_DG*.
gradation but different binder types are REF_DG vs B-B_DG, and The difference in terms of GER is more significant (74.71 vs
REF_PA vs B-B_PA. It can be noted that there is a substantial 58.12 MJ/m2, for the L_DG*_CR and the L_DG*, respectively).
difference between REF_DG and B-B_DG in terms of GWP and These results are affected by the production process of the crumb
GER; in particular, the bio-asphalt dense-graded mixture has the rubber (type RARX) which generates air pollutants and requires a
highest impact. More specifically, the highest values are observed considerable amount of energy.
for the production process in B-B_DG (bio-binder mixture). When iv) Comparing all the scenarios, results show that the REF_PA
comparing the PA mixtures (REF_PA vs B-B_PA), B-B_PA presents (traditional mixture) has the lowest GWP and GER rates whereas
the highest values. Taken together, these results underline that the BB_DG (dense-graded bio-asphalt mixture) has the highest
the production of bio-binder mixture accounts for the highest impact indexes. The outcomes of life-cycle energy comparative
amounts of air pollutants and the highest energy requirement, analysis show that material production causes the highest share
regardless of the aggregate gradation. In particular, for the GER, in bio-binder scenarios (135.11 MJ/m2 and 113.63 MJ/m2 for
the production process of the bio-asphalt mixture dissipates more BB_DG and BB_PA, respectively); the energy consumed during
energy in the case of the reference mixture. production activities in the scenarios BB_DG and BB_PA is
ii) The comparisons REF_DG vs REF_PA and B-B_DG vs B-B_PA allow approximately 2.5 times higher than that required in the pro­
analysing the differences related to the type of aggregate grada­ duction phase of the reference mixture (scenario REF_DG and
tion used in the mixture as they have the same type of binder. In REF_DG) and about two times higher than the energy required in

11
F.G. Praticò et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

Fig. 8. Energy consumption of the production process of each material (per FU).

the production of the asphalt mixture of L_DG*_CR and L_DG*. - bitumen, hydrated lime, and SBS production for the reference sce­
The energy data do not include the feedstock energy of the narios (REF_DG and REF_PA) and for the scenario with no crumb
bitumen which varies in the range 193.15–223.64 MJ/m2 rubber (L_DG*);
(feedstock energy is proportional to the quantity of bitumen in - the production of bitumen, hydrated lime, SBS, and crumb rubber for
the mixture). the rubberized asphalt (L_DG*_CR);
- the production of colophony rosin, SBS, and hydrated lime for the
Concerning the transportation stage, the scenarios BB_DG and BB_PA bio-alternatives (B-B_DG and B-B_PA).
are associated with the highest share of both environmental and energy
impacts, in comparison with the reference scheme and the alternative Energy consumption values (Fig. 8) confirm the GWP findings.
solution. This last result is strictly related to the fact that bio-binder The comparison of the scenarios involving asphalt mixtures (sce­
production implies additional transportation processes compared with narios REF_DG, REF_PA, L_DG*_CR, and L_DG*) confirms the results of
the alternatives. For example, in the scenarios BB_DG and BB_PA the the literature that state that bitumen production is generally associated
transportation of waste olive oil, colophony rosin, crumb rubber, and with the highest energy and carbon footprints [50,51]. In scenarios B-
paraffinic wax to the mixing plant is required to produce bio-binder, B_DG and B-B_PA the replacement of the bitumen with bio-binder allows
instead of the transportation of bitumen involved in the alternative for preserving the consumption of natural non-renewable resources.
mixtures. Importantly, for colophony rosin, the 0/0 approach was Nevertheless, the production of bio-binder components involves a sig­
considered, where: 1) the CO2 uptake during pines growth is equivalent nificant contribution to the generation of emissions to air and requires
to the CO2 released at the end of the life [100,101]; 2) the rosin is not high energy consumption; also waste olive oil contributes to this in­
involved in CO2 balance. crease (an energy value of about 37.66 MJ/kg was assumed for this
On the basis of the above, the production phase requires a specific product [76]). Furthermore, the scenarios B-B_DG and B-B_PA imply a
focus as the production of materials is the life-cycle phase that con­ share of energy attributable to bio-binder production (mixing of bio-
tributes a significant share of the total environmental and energy bur­ binder components). The use of bitumen in the asphalt mixture
dens. Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 report the contribution of each material to the including crumb rubber (dry method) involves lower environmental and
GWP and GER of the production stage. energy consumption impacts when compared with the bio-alternative
From Fig. 7, it can be seen that the most impactful production pro­ (L_DG*_CR vs B-B_DG); in fact, the sum of the impacts related to the
cesses in terms of GWP are the following: production of both bitumen and crumb rubber is lower (76% in terms of
GWP and 83% in terms of GER, respectively) than the sum of the impacts
associated with the bio-binder components. Comparing REF_DG with B-

12
F.G. Praticò et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

Fig. 9. DALY over time for each scenario.

Fig. 10. Waste volumes for each scenario.

Table 9 Table 10
Moduli for each mixture. EL vector and corresponding scenarios.
REF_DG REF_PA L_DG*_CR L_DG* B-B_DG B-B_PA EL Scenario

E* [Mpa] 2,851 1,044 2,611 2,605 2,171 1,278 10 REF_DG

6 REF_PA
10 L_DG*_CR
B_DG (both DG) it is possible to note a significant difference in terms of 10 L_DG*
binder production; in fact, the production of bitumen generates 0.94 kg 9 B-B_DG
6 B-B_PA
CO2-eq/m2 and requires 2.54 MJ/m2, the production of bio-binder is
associated with the emission of 5.93 kg CO2-eq/m2 and the consumption
of 114.29 MJ/m2.

13
F.G. Praticò et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

Table 11
Summary of impacts (A) and ranking without expected life (B), with expected life (C) and with equilibrium expected life (D).

14
F.G. Praticò et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

Concerning the production of natural aggregates (calcareous filler, high value of the effective bitumen volume, the corresponding
coarse and fine aggregates), GWP ranges between 0.3 and 0.4 kg CO2- modulus is high and this implies a higher expected life. It is worth
eq/m2 for the open- and dense-graded mixture, respectively. The energy noting that according to several authors (e.g., [102]) the CR content
consumed in the aggregate production process is about 1.3–1.4 MJ/m2 would imply per se a higher expected life but this factor was not
for the PAs and 1.6–1.8 MJ/m2 for the DGs. However, the contribution considered. Furthermore, it is noted that the durability of this
of the aggregate production process to the GWP and GER rates of the mixture is crucial because this solution, ranked first when consid­
production stage is about 3–7% and 1–4% in terms of emission gener­ ering its durability, would rank second without taking into account
ation and energy consumption, respectively. its durability.
The mixing plant operations (including the heating of the aggregates • The worst performance is associated with scenario B-B_DG, (where
and their mixing with binders) generate approximately 2.02–2.59 kg the bio-binder was used) regardless of the information on the dura­
CO2-eq/m2 and consume about 28.03–35.89 MJ/m2. Plant operations bility. This scenario has three main drawbacks: the energy required
are the most impactful process for the traditional asphalt mixture and (among the highest ones), the corresponding carbon footprint, and
the rubberized asphalt mixture, in terms of energy requirement. the acoustic performance. This is mainly due to the colophony,
which amounts to 51% of the binder (w/w) and to the corresponding
3.1.2. DALY results analysis low viscosity of the binder, which, in turn, affects the expected life.
Fig. 9 summarizes the results obtained for the human health impact This latter is the crucial parameter and is responsible for the unsat­
category investigated. The graphs show the values of DALY over time for isfactory ranking. Future studies will be focused on increasing this
each scenario, taking into account the service life of each pavement. The binder performance and consequently the mixture expected life.
DALY values suggest that the rubberized asphalt (L_DG*_CR) yields the • The traditional dense-graded asphalt friction course (REF_DG) allows
lowest noise impact. In particular, the reduction in DALY is approxi­ obtaining optimized results in terms of reduction in GWP and GER
mately 31% and 25% lower, when compared with the traditional dense- but a decrease in terms of acoustic performance.
graded mixture (REF_DG) and with the mix with no crumb rubber
(L_DG*). At the same time, in order to have N ex aequo results, the equilibrium
vector EL of the expected life illustrated in Table 11 D would be needed.
3.1.3. Waste volumes analysis This vector is pivotal because it represents the targets to pursue in order
Fig. 10 reports the values of waste volumes for each investigated to allow the existence of competitive equilibria between eco-solutions
scenario. Negative quantities refer to waste materials while positive and traditional pavement technologies.
quantities refer to the RAP, disposed into landfills at the end of the life
cycle. It easy to note that the traditional dense-graded mixture (REF_DG) 4. Limitations of the study and conclusions
and the dense-graded mixture with no crumb rubber (L_DG*) present the
highest rate. The lowest impacts are recorded for the rubberized asphalt In this study, a comprehensive analysis was carried out dealing with
and for the bio-asphalt. In particular: different pavement technologies including six different types of mixture
for the friction course. Traditional friction course mixtures (dense-
- Scenario_1 allows reusing 0.013 m3 of tyres per m2. graded and open-graded mixtures) were compared with two innovative
- Scenario_2 and 2* allow reusing 0.01 and 0.008 m3 of tyres per m2, solutions including the use of crumb rubber (dry method) and a solution
respectively. involving 100% replacement of bitumen (bio-binder produced by mix­
- Scenario_2 and 2* allow reusing 0.0009 and 0.00078 m3 of waste ing different materials including wastes such as waste olive oil and
olive oil per m2, respectively. crumb rubber from end-of-life tires - wet method). The analysis covers
all the activities related to raw materials acquisition and composite
3.2. Normalising and aggregating materials production, construction processes, and transportation oper­
ations. The study discusses and highlights differences in terms of energy
Table 9 illustrates the moduli of each mixture. consumption, GHG emissions, noise impact, and landfill-related im­
Based on the equations and methods illustrated in sections 3.7 and pacts, with the general aim of quantifying the magnitude of the contri­
3.8 and on the moduli in Table 9, the following vector EL of the expected bution that each different construction material and process has in
life (Table 10) was obtained (cf. [62]): producing “burdens”.
Table 11 A summarises the impacts for each scenario in terms of This study has the following limitations:
GWP (kg CO2-eq/m2), GER (MJ/m2), DALY (years/m2), and LANDFILL
(m3/m2). • Selection and numerosity of impacts and scenarios. Even if the
While Table 11 A illustrates the results in terms of impacts/m2, methodology was set up for general purposes the selection of the
Table 11 B illustrates the corresponding values after the normalisation scenarios was carried out based on the consideration of project-
in (0, 0.25), due to the need for having scores (XPR) in (0,1). Table 11 C specific targets. Future studies will be devoted to the consideration
focuses on the same normalised impacts expressed in terms of impact/ of further impacts.
year/m2. Finally, in Table 11 D the same impacts (impact per year per • Normalisation. The choice of an internal normalisation method could
square meter) are derived under the assumption of having the same affect the comprehensiveness of the study because of the consider­
score (i.e., 0.5). In other terms, they refer to the equilibrium expected ation of selected scenarios that could be non-representative of more
life, i.e., the expected life needed to have the same overall score (XPR). complex scenarios (see also [103]).
It is possible to observe that: • Weighting. This applies also weighing, where the choice of equal
weights for all the impacts could neglect particular issues or con­
• the best performance can be associated with the scenario L_DG*_CR. tingencies (e.g., collateral damages arising from rosin extraction).
In particular, this pavement technology allows optimizing two • Aggregation. The aggregation process was carried out based on the
impact indicators: the DALY and the LANDFILL. This result suggests methodology set up. Future research will address the study of
that rubberized asphalt can be correlated with the decrease in the optimal aggregation algorithms.
human health impact of traffic noise and with the optimization of the • Shortage of components and materials. The shortage of virgin/raw
production of waste volumes. At the same time, its gradation and materials (e.g., oil-based materials such as bitumen) could lead to the
bitumen percentage lead to a high modulus. Indeed, due to the low need for considering supplementary impacts, introducing different
value of the percent retained to the 9.5 sieve and to the (consequent) weights, and/or setting up diverse aggregation criteria.

15
F.G. Praticò et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132813

The main findings of the study are as follows: Acknowledgements

• The technology where the mixture includes crumb rubber (dry The authors would like to thank all who sustained them with this
method, rubberized asphalt) has a very low environmental (GWP) research, especially:
and energetic (GER) impact when compared with the bio-binder
solution, regardless of aggregate gradation. • the European Commission for its financial contribution to the LIFE18
• The Scenario including the bio-binder generates significant amounts ENV/IT/000201 LIFE “E-VIA” Project into the LIFE2018 programme,
of air pollutants, due to the production process of input materials. • the Italian Ministry of University and Research, grant PRIN
Indeed, while this technology (bio-binder without bitumen addition) (Research Projects of National Relevance) number PRIN 2017
allows preserving the consumption of bitumen (given its 100% USR342.
replacement in asphalt mixture), this scenario drawback is related to • the European Commission for its financial contribution to the LIFE20
the fact that the production of bio-binder components involves sig­ ENV/IT/000181 LIFE “Sneak” Project into the LIFE2020
nificant contributions in terms of emissions to air and energy re­ programme.
quirements. Taken together, these study findings suggest that the • The personnel of the laboratory of tests on road, railway, and airport
environmental impacts of specific materials where biomass is used materials of the University of Calabria.
cannot be generalised as negligible. In other terms, these solutions • The personnel of the laboratory of tests on road, railway, and airport
are not necessarily a panacea for a particular set of problems. These materials of the University Mediterranea of Reggio Calabria.
latter should be systematically investigated because the imple­ • The personnel of the spin-off IPOOL of the CNR of Pisa.
mentation of biomass and bio-binders could not be considered
beneficial to the environmental system under all conditions.
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