NETWORKING

Evolution of networking
Introduction to computer networks:

Definition:
Computer Network is a collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single technology.
Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information. A computer
network is a system that connects independent computers in order to share information and resources.
Advantage of Computer Network:
➢ Central Storage of Data
➢ Sharing of Information
➢ Sharing of Resources (Hardware & Software)
➢ Reliability
➢ Communication
➢ Reduced Cost
Disadvantage of Computer Network:
➢ Computer networks require a specific setup
➢ Lack of Security
➢ Cost of network hardware and software

Evolution Of Networking:

➢ 1969 - First network came into existence - ARPANET (ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECT
AGENCY NETWORK) to connect computers at U.S. defense and different universities.
➢ MID 80’S - NSFNET (NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION NETWORK) a high-capacity
network to be used strictly for academic and engineering research.
➢ In 1990’s Internet came into existence. It is the internetworking of ARPANET, NSFnet and other
private networks.

Notes:
Internet - A public network that's accessible to anyone with an internet connection and a device. It's a
global network that connects millions of devices and computers worldwide.
Intranet - A private network that's only accessible to authorized users within an organization. It's used
for internal communication, collaboration, and operations management.
Interspace - An interspace is a software that allows multiple users in a client-server environment to
communicate with each other online to send and receive real time data of various types such as data files,
video, audio, and textual data. Example: Online video conferencing.

Data communication terminologies

Components of Data Communication:
➢ Message – It is information to be communicated
➢ Sender – The device which send the message
➢ Receiver – The device which receive the message
➢ Transmission media – It is physical path by which message travel from sender to receiver
➢ Protocol – It is set of rules that governs data communication. Actually, it is agreement between the
sender and receiver regarding various communication parameter.
Network Terminologies:
➢ Node - The device connected to a network.
➢ Client – The device that requests for a service
➢ Server – The Device that renders the services
➢ Client-Server - In this model, the data are stored on powerful computers called Server that can be
accessed by a much simpler computer called Client that are connected by a network.
➢ Network Interface Card or Unit (Network Adapter or LAN card) - It is hardware that allows a
computer (or device) to connect to network.
➢ MAC (Media Access Control) address – Each NIC is assigned a unique 12-digit hexadecimal
number, known a MAC address, is used as network address in communication. The format for the MAC
address is

MM : MM : MM : SS : SS : SS
Manufacturer ID Card Id
Examples of MAC address: 01-23-45-67-89-AB and 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E
➢ IP Address - Every device on network has unique identifier called IP address. It consists of 4 bytes
(IPv4) decimal number (between 0 to 255) separated by ‘.’ (Period).
An example of an IP address is 192.168.123.132
2 power (8*4) IP addresses are possible.
An IPv6 address is represented as a set of 16-bit hexadecimals separated by colons. An IPv6 address is
divided into eight groups, and each 16-bit group is represented by four hexadecimal numbers, for
example, 2001:0000:130F:0000:0000:09C0:876A:130B.
2 power (16*8) IP addresses are possible.
➢ Channel – It is communication path through which data is actually transmitted.
➢ Communication Media - It allows data or signal to be communicated across the devices. It is means
of communication.
➢ Data – Information stored within the computer system in form of ‘0’ and ‘1’
➢ Signal - It is electric or electromagnetic encoding of data to be transmitted. It can be categorized into
following two types:
o Analog Signal – that has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time.
o Digital Signal – that can have only a limited number of defined values.
➢ Data Transfer Rate – It defines the amount of data transferred. It is defined as number of bits per
second (bps). [bps – bits per second]
➢ Baud – The number of changes in signal per second.
➢ Bandwidth – Data transfer rates that can be supported by a network is called its bandwidth. It is
difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies contained in the signal. It can be expressed in
either hertz (Hz) or bits per second (bps), depending on whether the medium is analog or digital.

IP Address vs MAC Address

IP Address MAC Address
It is of 4 bytes It is of 6 bytes
Represented by decimal number Represented by hexadecimal number
It is logical address It is physical address
Its value can vary for the same machine It is fixed address
It can be assigned only when a device is It is assigned by manufacturer of the card
connected to network irrespective of connectivity
Command to know the IP address is Command to know the MAC address is
Ipconfig ipconfig/all
Switching Techniques:
➢ A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes called switches capable of creating
temporary connections between two or more liked devices.

➢ Switching techniques:
Circuit Switching: In circuit switching a dedicated path is established before sending data from sender
to receiver and entire communication is carried out the same path.
Packet Switching – In packet switching in a message is broken into a number of parts called packet
which are sent independently from sender to receiver and reassembled at the destination.
Circuit Switching vs Packet Switching
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
A dedicated path is established No dedicated path is established
Entire message follows the same Each packet travels independently to
path each other

Network Devices
➢ Modem
• It stands for modulator and demodulator
• It a computer hardware device that converts data from a digital format into a format suitable for an
analog.
• A modem transmits data by modulating one or more carrier wave signals to encode digital
information, while the receiver demodulates the signal to recreate the original digital information.

➢ Repeater
• Repeaters are network devices that amplify or regenerate an incoming signal before retransmitting it.
• It operates at physical layer of the OSI model.
• The repeater allows to transfer the data through large area distance .

➢ Hub
• It is a multiport device that allows multiple computers to communicate with each other over a
network.
• It is a non-intelligent network device that sends message to all ports ( i.e. Broadcast) .

Types of Hubs
Active Hub –
• It strengthens the signal and may boost noise too.
• It is relatively costlier than passive hub.

Passive Hub –
• It repeat/copy signals.
• It is relatively cheaper than active hub.

➢ Switch
• Network Switch is also a network multiport device that allow multiple computers to connect together.
• Network switch inspects the packet, determine source and destination address and route the packet
accordingly.
➢ Bridge
• It connects multiple network segments having same protocol
• Bridge does not simply broadcast traffic from one network.
• Bridges use bridge table to send frames across network segments.
• It also improves the overall network performance.

➢ Router
• A router is a device that connects two or more packet-switched networks or sub networks.
• It serves two primary functions:
o Managing traffic between these networks by forwarding data packets to their intended IP
addresses,
o Allowing multiple devices to use the same Internet connection.
• It connects LANs (local area networks) and WANs (wide area networks).

➢ Gateway
• It is simply a device or hardware that acts as a "gate" between the networks.
• It connects two networks with different transmission protocols together.
• It converts information, data or other communications from one protocol or format to another.

➢ RJ45
• It stands for Registered Jack.
• It is common interface to connect Twisted Pair Cable.
• It is used for Ethernet Network.

➢ Ethernet Card
• It also known as NIC card.
• It enables a computer to access an Ethernet network (LAN)
• It has MAC id which gives it unique identity in the network.

➢ Wi-Fi card
• It is also known wireless network adaptor.
• It is a wireless network technology that allows devices to communicate over wireless signals.
• It uses radio waves for the communication.

➢ Difference between a Router and Gateway

Router Gateway
It ensure that data packets are To connect two networks of
switched to the right address with different protocols as a translator
the best route.
It routes the data packets via It connects two dissimilar networks
similar networks
It supports dynamic Routing. It does support dynamic Routing.

➢ Difference between Router and Switch

❖ A network switch forwards data packets between groups of devices in the same network, whereas a
router forwards data between different networks.
➢ Difference between a Router and a Modem
❖ A router forms networks and manages the flow of data within and between those networks, while a
modem connects those networks to the Internet.

Types of Networks
➢ PAN
❖ It stands for Personal Area Network. It covers only less than 10 meters or 33 feet of area.
❖ It is a computer network formed around a person.
❖ It generally consists of a computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant.
❖ Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.
❖ PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.

➢ LAN
❖ It is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are connected in a limited area such as room,
building & campus.
❖ Higher Data Speed.
❖ LANs are in a narrower geographic scope (1 to 10 Km).
❖ It is a private network.

➢ MAN
❖ A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network that span across a city.
❖ It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 100 km range.

➢ WAN
❖ It connects device across globe, more than 100 km range.
❖ It uses public network
❖ Internet
❖ A bank, including its branch offices and ATM machines, is another example of an organization using a
WAN.

Transmission Media
Guided or Wired Media:

Twisted Pair Cable

➢ A twisted pair cable comprises of two separate insulated copper wires, which are twisted together
and run in parallel.
❖ A STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) cable has a fine wire mesh surrounding the wires to protect the
transmission.
❖ UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) cable does not has a fine wire mesh.
➢ It is also known as Cat# cable where # denote number. e.g., Cat6
➢ Connector: RJ 45

Co-axial Cable
➢ Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center, and a plastic layer that provides
insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield.

Optical Fibre
➢ An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass or plastic to a diameter slightly
thicker than that of a human hair.
➢ It uses light for data transmission using total internal reflection.
Unguided Media or Wireless Media:

Radio Wave
➢ Frequency – 3KHz – 1GHz
➢ Omni-Directional
➢ Penetrate obstacle
➢ Antenna of sender and receiver should not be aligned

Infrared
➢ 300GHz to 400THz
➢ Line of sight- antenna of sender and receiver must be aligned
➢ Short distance communication
➢ It cannot penetrate obstacle – best suited for indoor
➢ Secure
➢ Support high data rate
➢ TV Remote

Microwave
➢ 1GHz to 300 GHz
➢ Line of sight- antenna of sender and receiver must be aligned
➢ Cannot penetrate obstacles
➢ Rain or other disturbance cause issue with Microwave
➢ Types of microwave propagation
❖ Terrestrial Microwave propagation
❖ Satellite Microwave propagation

Bluetooth
➢ It also uses radio waves
➢ 2.4 GHz
➢ Range 10mtr
➢ Short distance

Network Topologies

Physical and Logical arrangement of nodes in the network is called Network Topology.

Bus Topology
➢ In Bus Topology all the nodes are connected
to single cable or backbone
➢ Both the end has terminators.

Star Topology
➢ In Star Topology all the nodes are
connected to a central device called Hub/Switch.
➢ All communication is controlled by the
central Device (Hub/Switch)
Tree Topology
➢ In Tree Topology, the devices are arranged
in a tree fashion similar to the branches of a tree.
➢ It has multilayer architecture.

Network Protocols

It is set of rules or standard that governs communication.

Types of Protocol (Broadly can be kept in two suites of Protocols TCP/IP or OSI):

TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol

The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a set of protocols that enable
communication between devices on the internet.
➢ TCP ensures reliable transmission or delivery of packets on the network. It is Connection-oriented
protocol.
➢ IP provides addressing and routing of packets across networks. It is connectionless protocol.

HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

➢ It is the main way web browsers and servers communicate to share information on the internet.
Most websites use HTTP, so when you click on a link or download a file, HTTP is at work.
➢ HTTP works on a request-response system. Your browser (client) asks for information, and the
website’s server responds with the data.
➢ It is a stateless protocol, using cookie it can save information about each user's session.

HTTPS (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure)

➢ It is an extension of HTTP protocol for transmitting hypermedia documents, such as HTML securely
over a network.
➢ It encrypts data to be sent using TLS (Transport Layer Security)/SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) to keep
it secure from eavesdroppers. Data integrity is maintained as the data cannot be modified during tranfer.
It also provides authentication that the users communicate with the intended website.
➢ HTTPS speed is slower than HTTP.
➢ It is a stateless protocol, like HTTP.

FTP (File Transmission Protocol)

➢ It is used for the transfer of computer files among hosts over TCP/IP (internet).
➢ It is a popular way to update web sites.
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
➢ It is a standard protocol for transporting data between two directly connected computers.
➢ It is a byte-oriented protocol that is widely used in broadband communication having heavy loads and
high speeds.

SMTP (Simple Main Transfer Protocol)

➢ It is used to send mail from mail client to mail server over internet.
➢ Port 25(non-encrypted, unsecure), Port 465(encrypted, secure).

POP3 (Post Office Protocol)

➢ It provides mechanism for retrieving emails from a remote server for a mail recipient.
➢ POP3 downloads the email from a server to a single computer, then deletes the email from the
server.

VoIP (Voice over IP)

➢ It is also known as Internet Telephony or Internet calling.
➢ It allows to make voice calls using a broadband Internet connection instead of a regular (or analog)
phone line.

Telnet (TErminaL NETWork/ Teletype Network)

➢ It is an application protocol that allows a user to communicate with a remote device.
➢ Secure Shell (SSH) is a protocol that is similar to Telnet. Others include TeamViewer, AnyDesk.

Introduction to web services

WWW:
➢ The World Wide Web, commonly known as the Web, is an information system where documents
and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, which may be interlinked by
hyperlinks, and are accessible over the Internet.
➢ The Web is not the same as the Internet: The Web is one of many applications built on top of the
Internet.
➢ Tim Berners-Lee proposed the architecture World Wide Web in 1989.
Application of Internet Web 2.0:
➢ The term web 2.0 is used to refer to a new generation of websites that are supposed to let people to
publish and share information online.
➢ It aims to encourage the sharing of information and views, creativity that can be consume by the
other users e.g.: YouTube
Web 3.0
➢ It refers to the 3rd Generation of web where user will interact by using artificial intelligence and with
3-D portals.
➢ Web 3.0 supports semantic web which improves web technologies to create, connect and share
content through the intelligent search and the analysis based on the meaning of the words, instead of on
the keywords and numbers.

Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML):

➢ HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language
➢ HTML is the standard markup language for creating Web pages
➢ HTML describes the structure of a Web page
➢ Various Tags are
o <html> represents the root of an HTML document
o <head> element is a container for metadata (data about data) and is placed between the <html> tag
and the <body> tag.
o <title> tag defines the title of the document
o <body> defines the document's body.
o </ br> Line Break Tags
o <h1> <h2> ……</h6> - Heading Tags - tags are used to define HTML headings.
o <font> - defines font face, font size, and color of text etc.

Extensible Markup Language (XML):

➢ XML stands for eXtensible Markup Language.
➢ XML was designed to store and transport data.
➢ XML was designed to be both human- and machine-readable.
➢ XML is a markup language much like HTML.
➢ XML was designed to be self-descriptive.

The Difference between XML and HTML

HTML XML
It designed to display the data It is designed to carry data
Its tags are predefined Its tags user defined
It is not case sensitive It is case sensitive
It is static It is dynamic
It is Markup Language It is framework to define Markup language
Closing tags are not necessary in HTML Closing tags are necessary in XML

Domain names:
➢ A domain name is a website's address on the Internet, as communicating with IP address is difficult.
➢ Domain names are used in URLs to identify to which server belong a specific webpage.
➢ The domain name consists of a hierarchical sequence of names (labels) separated by periods (dots)
and ending with an extension.
Example: cbse.nic.in, gmail.com (in is the primary domain, nic is the subdomain of in and cbse is the
subdomain of nic)
Generic domain names: .com, .edu, .gov, .net, .org
Country specific domain names: .in, .au, .ca, .ch, .us

URL:

Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a text string

that specifies where a resource (such as a web
page, image, or video) can be found on the
Internet. Each website has an unique address
called URL. Basic format: type://address/path
Website:
➢ Website is a group of web pages, containing text, images and all types of multi-media files that is
identified by common domain name and published on any one web server. Example: google.com
➢ All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute www.
➢ Website is broadly of 2 types:
Static website: It is used to display information without any interaction with the user or the web
server.
Dynamic website: It allows user interaction with website and can communicate with web server
again and again.

Web browser:
➢ A web browser, or simply "browser," is an application used to access and view websites.
➢ Common web browsers include Microsoft Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and
Apple Safari, which support graphics.
➢ Lynx is a text-based web browser.
➢ Web browser act as a client to send request to server.

Web servers:
➢ A web server is a computer that stores web server software and a website's component files (e.g.
HTML documents, images, CSS style sheets, and JavaScript files).
➢ Web server and client communicate with the help of HTTP protocol.
➢ Web server returns the requested page to the client with response code like 404 (if requested page not
found), 200 (if requested page found) etc.

Web hosting:
➢ It is a service which allows individual or organization to make their website accessible through www.
➢ Website is hosted on special computer called web servers. If the site is hosted users can access the
website from anywhere in the world.
➢ To host a website we require domain name and web space.
➢ It provides various services like FTP upload, email account, website building tool, databases etc.
➢ Types of Web Hosting
o Shared Hosting - Web server shared among customers
o Reseller Hosting – Become yourself as web host to sell others
o Virtual Private Server – One server as multiple server for multiple websites
o Dedicated Server- Entire web server is dedicated to same website