A TECHNIQUE OF MORPHOLOGICAL MAPPING’

R. A. G. SAVIGEAR
Universitg of Sheffield, Eiagland

ABSTRACT. The technique is based on the assumption that the plane and curved surfaces
(facets and segments) of the ground surface adjoin in discontinuities (breaks of slope
and inflections ) whose characteristics may be recognized, measured, and mapped.
The minimum sizes of the lines, symbols, and arrows and figures that can be drawn
clearly on a map in the field to represent these land forms are one-fiftieth, one-six-
teenth, and one-eighth of an inch, respectively. These assumptions and the scale of
the map selected for field mapping are used to define the minimum ground-horizon-
tal equivalents of the morphological units, micro-units, and discontinuities that can be
represented at that scale. The technique is applied most successfully at scales of ap-
proximately 1/7,000 to 1/10,000 but may be used to give a satisfactory representation
of morphology at scales down to approximately 1/75,000.

HE technique of morphological mapping were in charge of the field training of under-

T described in this article was developed in
the Department of Geography at the Univer-
graduates, became aware that it was virtually
impossible to draw up a comprehensive clas-
sity of Sheffield. In 19448, I. S. Maxwell de- sification of mutually exclusive symbols, which
vised a scheme of mapping for training could be used in the field for mapping land-
undergraduates in the recognition of land- forms.
forms and this was followed by another more Independently of this work, and in partic-
comprehensive scheme compiled by D. L. ular in South Wales in 1950, I recognized the
Linton. The features included were, for ex- problem of the origins of the innumerable
ample, floodplain, planation surface, and river small discontinuities that occur on the surface
cliff; and a symbol was devised for each one of soil-covered slopes and searched for a
which reflected the nature of the landform method of recording and analyzing their char-
represented. In attempting to apply these acteristics.2 Wherever a group of closely
schemes in the field, R. S. IT’aters and I, who
Straw, of the Department of Geography of the
The meaning of “morphology” is clearly defined University of Sheffield, and to Professor R. S. Waters,
in the Oxford Dictionary. It is derived from the now of the Department of Geography of the Univer-
Greek words morphe (form) and logos (studies). sity of Canterbury, New Zealand, who have given
Biologists, philologists, and others use it to mean much time and thought to the problem of defining
form studies, and within the subject of geomorphology the geometry of the land surface.
its meaning may be logically restricted to surface- I gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance
farm studies. i t should not be synonymous with that made the development of this technique possible
geomorphology and a morphological map should and which was provided by the Research Fund of
represent surface form only. if some other aspect, the University of Sheffield. I also acknowledge with
or classification, or interpretation of the earth’s surface gratitude the financial assistance provided by Professor
is shown the map becomes, for example, either a B. J. Gamier from the travel fund of the Department
geological, or a soils, or a morphographic, or a of Geography of the University College of ibadan,
morphogenetic map. Nigeria, for the fieldwork in West Africa during
It is appropriate here to define also the meanings which the map in Figure 10 was compiled. I am
of the words landform and Eand form as they are indebted to the Editor of the Zeitschrift f i i r Geomor-
used in this article. A lundforrn is a feature of the plaologie, for permission to reproduce this map which
earth‘s surface with distinctive form characters which first appeared in Supplementband I; Contributions
can be attributed to the dominance of particular Internationales B la Morphologie des Versants ( 196Q).
processes or particular structures in the course of 1 am also indebted to Mr. J. E. Hall and Rlr. H.
its development and to which the feature can be Walkland of the Department of Geography of the
clearly related. On thr other hand land form (two University of Sheffield, for their help in devising
words) means only thc form of the land. and drawing the diagrams. Their contributions are
I am responsible for the definition of the technique gratcfully acknowledged.
but I owe a great deal to the helpful criticisms of ‘R. A. G. Savigear, “Some Observations on Slope
my colleagues in the British Geomorphological Re- Development in South Wales,” Transactions and
search Group and, above all, to Mr. G. M. Lewis, Papers, Institute of British Geographers, Publication
hlr. I. S. Maxwell, Mr. J. L. H. Sibbons, and Dr. A. 18 (1952), pp. 31-51.
514
1965 MORPHOLOGICAL
M.4PPING 515

spaced slope profiles was surveyed it was nique for the compilation of a geomorpho-
usually possible to correlate the major breaks logical map of Britain. A more exact defini-
of slope on neighboring profiles and to relate tion of the technique was prepared for the
them to particular factors in the development conference and forms the basis of this article.”
of the area; however, in addition, there were It is appropriate to describe the develop-
always a large number of small discontinuities ment of the technique first so that the origins
which seemed to bear no relation to the of certain conventions may be appreciated and
patterns of similar features on adjoining pro- because the earlier, less sophisticated, tech-
files; yet the positions and angular character- nique is more suitable for the initial training
istics of these small discontinuities contributed of undergraduates, and for quick reconnais-
very largely to the profile forms. It seemed sance work than the more precisely defined
reasonable to suppose that they had been technique which was outlined later.
developed by processes such as those defined
by Sharpe, and that if maps were compiled THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TECHNIQUE
of the evidences of such processes, they might
give some indication of the origins of the In the early period of the development of
micro-patterns of the small discontinuities.3 the technique the definitions and uses of the
Taking Sharpe’s classification as a model, I symbols were based on the assumption that the
devised a list of features and symbols to ground surface consisted of planes inter-
represent them, and tried to make large-scale secting in concave and convex, angular or
maps of the evidences of mass movements. curved, discontinuities. An angular discon-
Field sheets compiled with this scheme of tinuity was defined as a break of slope and a
mapping left most discontinuities of the sur- curved discontinuity as a change of slope.
face unrecorded. To ascertain the patterns These forms and relationships and the symbols
of these residual features their distributions devised to represent them are illustrated in
were traced by drawing lines to represent the top half of Figure 1. A break of slope
them on large-scale base maps and, from is depicted by a continuous line, and a change
this beginning, a more comprehensive system of slope is depicted by a discontinuous line
of mapping was devised? It was then realized which is located, as nearly as possible, along
that the technique of recording discontinuities the center of the zone of change. In the initial
rather than landforms was capable of wider symbols the line representing the convex
application and it was included in the under- break, or change, of slope is ornamented with
graduate field training program. the letter X ; the line representing the concave
In 1957 V17aters attempted to combine the break, or change, of slope is ornamented with
techniques of tracing discontinuities of the the letter V.
surface and of mapping landforms.5 This These were modified later so that the down-
synthesis was criticized on several grounds, slope direction could be represented without
the most important being that the classifica- the use of additional symbols on the map.
tion of the landforms and the symbols defined Lines representing convex discontinuities were
to represent them were unsuited for the defi- ornamented with half of the letter X and those
nition and representation of every kind of representing concave discontinuities with the
terrain. letter V. In each case the ornamentation was
In 1958 a number of geomorphologists met placed on the downslope side of the line.
at the University of Sheffield to discuss the In applying these symbols in the field it
possibility of using the morphological tech- became apparent that whatever the scale of
the map areas always occurred, either of very
3 C . F. S. Sharpe, Landslides and Related Phe- steep inclination or of very small extent, whose
nomena (New York: Columbia University Press,
1938). boundaries were too close together to be repre-
4R. A. G. Savigear, “Technique and Terminology sented separately by ornamented lines. When
in the Investigation of Slope Forms,” Premier Rapport
de la Commission pour l’Etude des Versants, 1956, pp. 6 R . A. G. Savigear, “The Technique of Morpho-
66-76. (Prbpar15 pour le CongrBs International de logical Mapping,” Report No. 1 , 1959, British Geo-
Geographie, Rio d e Janeiro. Amsterdam, 1956). morphological Research Group, pp. 14-24 ( Sheffield:
R. S. Waters, “Morphological Mapping,” Geog- Great Britain). See also Report No. 2 ( l 9 6 0 ) , Report
ruphy, Vol. 43 (1958), pp. 10-17. No. 3 (1960), and Report No. 4 (1961).
516 R. A. G. SAVICEAR September

B R E A K S O F SLOPE C H A N G E S O F SLOPE

CONVEX CONCAVE CONVEX CONCAVE

f i
I
kk >

+
Initial Symbols lnitiol Symbols
i
?
I

Modified Symbols
L 1
M o d i f i e d Symbols I
!c >
I

Symbol forcliff- --. ' . *

Symbol for Micro-slope Symbol f o r Micro-slope

( D Q f i n i t Qo r angulor 1 m r (IndQflnitQ o r c u r v e d T T T T T
boundories) boundaries)

FIG.1. Diagram illustrating the clevelopinent of the initial and modified symbols.

a slope steepens or a surface area shortens, the were no criteria available by which such low-
horizontal equivalents of the distances be- angled surfaces could be distinguished, five
tween their boundaries are reduced as they degrees was selected as a reasonable boundary
come together. The effects of slope-steepening figure and a surface of five degrees, or less,
and of slope-shortening are illustrated in the was classified as a flat.
lower half of Figure 1 where a slope becomes The symbols are defined and their applica-
either a cliff or a micro-slope. To distinguish tion to a typical area of country is illustrated
between a cliff and a slope it was assumed in Figure 2. Three further symbols appear
that a cliff is a surface too steep to possess which are not illustrated in Figure 1 and that
a waste cover. Since few scree slopes occur assist in the interpretation of the finished
at angles greater than forty degrees, this map. If all slopes are lightly shaded with a
angle provided an approximate boundary be- soft pencil, and if the boundaries between
tween the two forms. major concave-convex associations ( identified
If it is reasonable to postulate that surfaces by the surveyor as he makes the map) are
may be too steeply inclined to be called slopes, emphasized by thickening the lines which
so it was argued that others may be too low represent them, the map is made much easier
in angle to be in this category. As there to read.
1965 MAPPING
MORPHOLOGICAL 517

In Britain a network of shallow depressions 1) the definition of the forms of the ground
of the kind appearing above the cliff in Figure surface that were to be recorded;
2 characterizes most of the cultivated and un- 2) the definition of the nature and sizes
cultivated areas. Their boundaries are rep- of the lines and symbols that were to
resented by pecked, continuous, or discon- be used to represent these forms on a
tinuous lines according to clarity on the map;
ground. Although some of them are zones of
permanent water seepage, normally most are 3 ) the effects and use of the plotting error
dry; however, after heavy rain or snowmelt of the map.
the soil or waste cover of their floors becomes The Definition of the Ground Surface
saturated and there is surface flow or sub-
surface seepage. So characteristic is the The following definitions make it possible
saturation of these areas in the autumn and to be more precise in defining the character
winter months that its occurrence was in- of the components of the ground surface:
evitably represented by blue shading on the A Flat is a surface area which is horizontal
field maps as they were compiled. It then or is inclined at an angle of less than two
became clear that if this shading were used degrees.
on all field maps to identify valley floors,
A Cliff is a surface area which is vertical, or
whether or not they contained permanent or
impermanent seeps, or streams of water, the is inclined at an angle of forty degrees or
more.
symbol served the important function of indi-
cating the patterns of the thalwegs so that A Slope is a surface area which is inclined
an immediate visual subdivision of the area at two or more and less than forty degrees.
could be made into easily recognizable units. A Facet is a plane, horizontal, inclined, or
For this reason the shading is preserved as vertical surface area.
part of the technique although it is not strictly
a morphological symbol. A Segment is a smoothly curved concave
The presence of selected contours in red (negative) or convex (positive) upwards
on the map also make it easier to read as surface area.
they provide a statement of absolute height An Irregular Facet or An Irregular Segment
which the technique does not do. Red con- is a facet or a segment which possesses
tours along with the gray shading of slopes, distinct surface irregularities that are too
the blue shading of areas of permanent and small to be represented at the scale of the
intermittent water flow and seepage, and the field map.
thickening of lines representing the bound- A Micro-Facet is a facet whose bounding dis-
aries between major concave-convex asso- continuities are too close together to be
ciations, greatly facilitate an immediate ap- represented separately at the scale of the
praisal of the forms represented. An example field map.
of a map compiled with certain of these A Micro-Segment is a segment whose bound-
additional features appears in Figure 3, al- ing discontinuities are too close together to
though unfortunately, color cannot be used be represented separately at the scale of
to make the map as attractive and readable the field map.
as it could be.? A Morphological Unit is either a facet, a
micro-facet, a segment, or a micro-segment.
THE. TECHNIQUE
A Break of Slope is a discontinuity of the
In composing the more precise technique ground surface.
three major problems had to be considered:
An Inflection is the point, line, or zone, of
7To obtain an impression of Figure 3 as it should maximum slope between two adjacent con-
appear, since publishing costs prohibit the use of cave and convex segments.
color, it is suggested that interested readers them- The geological concepts of true and ap-
selves color in the areas of permanent or intermittent
water flow and seepage in blue, color the slopes in parent dip may also be usefully applied to
gray, and line the contours in red. the definition of surface forms.
518 R. A. c.SAVICEAR September

MOR P HOLOCICAL MAPPING SYMBOLS

~-
AAhAh

- -,,- -*- -,,--

A n g u l o r c o n v e x break of slope

Angular

Smoothly
C O ~ C O V O brook of slope

c o n v e x chongo of 5 1 0 ~ ~
-n

.,-
CItff5 ( 4 0 . m
~ orel

A n g u l a r convex a n d C O ~ C O V Dbreaks of
5 1 0 ~ 0t o o c l o s o t o g e t h o r t o ollow the
U 5 Q O f Separate s y m b o l s

M i n o r i n d O f i n i t o 6 m m t h l y C o n v e x iind
C O ~ C Q Y Ochanges of slow t o o close togethor
MICRO-
SLOPES

t o (lllow the use s e p o r o t e symbols

--"--"--"-- Smoothly C O ~ C O Y D change of slop0
Of

s l o p e s more t h a n 5 ' a n d lass t h a n 40' Areas o f pormonent a , n t e r m ( t t a n t

W O t P r t l 0 W o r 5oPPoge
.BLUE;:;
...,.

l R E A K S OR CHANGES OF SLOPE BETWEEN MAJOR CONCAVE-CONVEX ASSOCIATIONS SHOULD BE EHPHASISED BY THICKENED LINES

A
' M ICRO-SLOPES

B r e a k s of slope botwoon c o n c o ~ ~ - c o n ~oss0cIotions

ox
Should be emphoS8sed b y thickened l i n e s

changes ot 5 1 0 ~too close

t o g e t h e r to allow the use
Of Separate s y m b o l s
*
Cliff*
I40.m : J . : *
morel , Angular : Smooth
4 CO"CO"@
b r m k S of
CO"C~V0
chongeof
Smoothly 51opo 51opo
C0""PX
change of
.1 Angular
CO""OX

slop0 Minor ongular c o n v e x b r a t of

a n d Concave b r e a k 5 510po
01 s l o p 0 t o o C l 0 5 0
t o g e t h e r t o o l l o w th=
u s e of S ~ ~ a r o Symbols
te

FIG.2. An illustration of the application of the early symbols to some land form patterns typical of a part
of the Southcrn Pennines, England.
1965 ~~ORPIIOLOGICALh4 4PPING 519

1' 500 FEET

I .............. 100' CONTOURS I
100 METRES

FIG.3. A morphological map of an area in West Cornwall, England, compiled with the early symbols.

True Slope is the direction and amount of The direction of the true slope of a segment
maximum surface slope of a facet or a is also indicated by an arrow; but a positive
segment. or negative sign is drawn on the stem to in-
Apparent Slope is the direction and amount dicate whether the curvature is positive or
of surface slope of a facet or a segment negative.
measured in any direction other than that Experiments have shown that although it
of the true slope. may be possible to draw lines in the laboratory
one hundredth of an inch or less in thickness,
The Definition of the Symbols taking into account the variable conditions
that may be met in the field, it is unrealistic
The symbols are continuous and discon- to assume that a line may be drawn on a field
tinuous plain and ornamented lines. A break map that is much thinner than one-fiftieth
of slope is represented by a continuous line of an inch or half a millimeter. Similarly,
and pecks are added to it to distinguish be- the minimum breadth of an ornamented line
tween positive and negative angularity. The that can be drawn on a map in the field, which
direction and amount of the true slope of a will he clearly readable on a subsequent
facet is indicated by an arrow and a figure. occasion, is one-sixteenth of an inch, or one-
520 R. A. G. SAVIGEAR September

and-a-half millimeters. If figures, or arrows T h e Effects and Use of the Plotting Error
with ornamented stems, are to be readable The exact thickness of a line drawn on a
must be aPProximatelY one-eighth Of ‘In map to represent the boundary of an area is of
inch, or three millimeters, in height.s little significance when the area is large in
These conclusions, concerning the nature relation to the map scale. such circum-
and sizes Of the symbols, have been used to stances, the ground distance, which the width
formulate six assumptions which constitute of the line represents, is very short compared
the basis of the technique. to the distance across the area it bounds.
On the other hand, the representation and
1) A break of slope on the ground is repre-
sented by a continuous line on a map classification of different types of boundary on
and an inflection and a micro-unit are a map is a problem of some complexity when
each represented by a discontinuous the boundaries are of different widths and
line on a map. the distances between them are not much,
if a t all, greater than the breadths of the
The pecks, which are added to con- boundaries themselves.
tinuous or to discontinuous lines, and On the left of the diagram in Figure 4 there
which indicate positive or negative are a group of profiles of the ground surface
breaks of slope or the character of representing the elevation views of two types of
micro-units, are placed on the side of morphological discontinuity and two types of
the line on which the steepest slope morphological unit. Traced through these
occurs and are aligned to indicate ap- sections are two lines of parallel dots which
proximate true slope direction. converge towards the top and bottom of the
3 ) The direction and angle of the true diagram and are drawn through the discon-
slope of a facet and the direction of tinuities. Although the sections are elevation
the true slope of a segment, as well as views of the forms they represent, the dots
the positive or negative quality of its which mark on them the positions of the dis-
curvature, are observed and recorded. continuities should also be regarded as rep-
resenting, in plan, the pattern of the projection
4 ) The breadth of the thinnest line that of the discontinuities onto the ground.
can be drawn distinctly on a map in The profile at the top of the diagram shows
the field is approximately one-fiftieth a sectional view of a break of slope formed
of an inch ( 0.5 mm. ) . by the juxtaposition of two facets. This is a
5 ) The breadth of the narrowest linear point without magnitude and is represented
symbol, comprising a line with pecks on in plan by the line of dots which should be
one side only, that can be drawn dis- regarded in the mathematical sense as a line
tinctly on a map in the field, is approx- without breadth. The discontinuity of the
imately one-sixteenth of an inch (1.5 ground which it portrays has the same prop-
mm.). erty so that any line drawn to represent it on
a map, though the scale were 1/1, would
6 ) The height of the smallest figure and the occupy a greater width.
length of the shortest arrow, with a plus
An attempt has been made to the right
or a minus sign on its stem to indicate
of the sections to show how the symbols are
the positive or negative curvature of used to represent both discontinuities and
segments, that can be drawn distinctly
units and the scale relationships between
on a map in the field are each approx-
them. The double line with which the symbols
imately one-eighth of an inch (3.0
are outlined represents the exact width of
mm.). the pencil line drawing the symbols on the
In most cases throughout the article rneasuremcnts
map. The dotted lines, which are supposed
of symbol breadth are given in the British, rather to be without breadth, repeat the pattern of
than thc metric system. The standard symbol measnre- those already drawn on the left. They indicate
ments of 1/50th, 1/16th, and 1/8th inch correspond the exact positions on the ground of the dis-
to 0.508, 1.59, and 3.17 millimeters but, for practical
piirposes, these are approximated to 0.5, 1.5, and 3.0 continuities which are to be characterized bj7
millimeters. the symbols.
1965 MORPHOLOGICAL
MAPPING 521

The symbol portraying the break of slope

is one-sixteenth of an inch in breadth. It con-
sists of a line representing the angular dis-
continuity which is ornamented with arrow-
heads on the side of the steeper slope to indi-
cate the concavity of the break and the
approximate true slope direction. A convex
break of slope is also represented by a line , MICRO-IlGMENl

with arrowheads on the side of the steeper

slope; but as they are on the other side of the
line, they point towards the steeper slope in- * f
4 M I CRO-SEGMENT

stead of away from it. SEGMENT

A break of slope of the kind illustrated ' 5

\---
cannot occur in nature, except perhaps at the
junctions of recently fractured rock faces,
or perhaps at the edge of a cliff. Examples
could be found in the field which could be
arranged to show a continuous gradation from
the angular break, illustrated in section one, 'ACE1

to the smoothly concave segment, illustrated --4- FACET

in section four. The problem of identifying
the break of slope for the purpose of mapping
+ *
is twofold. First, there is the consideration of
whether a break of slope must have the MICRO F A C l T

-
quality of being without breadth. If, as is MICRO-FACET

the case here, this is not considered an essen-

tial attribute and is rejected on the grounds
that it is a theoretical rather than a practical
concept, there is secondly the decision that - r c M t I L O
INFLEXION

must be taken regarding the amount of bev-

eling that is acceptable before the discon-
tinuity loses its distinctive character as a
boundary and becomes a unit.
For the purpose of this technique a break
of slope has been defined as either an angular
discontinuity of the ground surface, or a plane, FIG.4. Diagram illustrating the relations of the
sizes of the symbols to the true minimum dimensions
curved, or irregular surface area, whose of discontinuities, micro-units, and units.
true slope ground-horizontal equivalent is no
greater than the distance represented by the
width of a line drawn on a field map, that represented separately, the boundaries of a
is one-fiftieth of an inch.g Any discontinuity micro-segment are so close together that the
which has a greater map-horizontal equivalent form can only be represented by a single
is placed, according to its form, in another symbol.
category. A curved, or an approximately A micro-segment is a smoothly curved, or
curved, unit becomes a micro-segment or a approximately smoothly curved, surface area
segment. These have the same general form whose ground-horizontal equivalent is greater
but, whereas a segment has a horizontal equiv- than the distance represented by the width of
alent large enough for its boundaries to be a line drawn on the field map, that is one-
fiftieth of an inch, but is not great enough to
The horizontal distance measured in the field allow the separate representation of its bound-
between any two points on an inclined surface is aries at the field map scale, that is more than
the ground horizontal equivalent, or G.H.E. The one-eighth of an inch.
distance which corresponds to this, at the scale of
the field map, is the map horizontal equivalent, or A segment is a smoothly curved, or approx-
M.H.E. imately smoothly curved, surface area whose
522 R. A. G. SAVICEAR September

map-horizontal equivalent is greater than one- which may lie above or below it, and which
eighth of an inch, which is the minimum dis- has a map-horizontal equivalent greater than
tance required to draw an arrow to indicate one-eighth of an inch, so that its boundaries
the direction of true slope, with a plus or may be defined by individual symbols and the
minus sign on its stem to classify positive or amount and direction of its true slope may be
negative curvature. indicated by a figure and an arrow.
A break of slope may arise from the A micro-facet has the same properties as
abutment of two adjoining facets and create a facet but its map-horizontal equivalent is
an approximately angular discontinuity. How- one-eighth of an inch or less so that it is
ever, this is a theoretical concept and is not impossible to represent its boundaries sepa-
typical of actual occurrences. Beveling be- rately. If the map-horizontal equivalent of the
tween morphological units is acceptable u p micro-facet is one-eighth of an inch the symbol
to the distance represented by the thickness representing it occupies a smaller area than
of the line that can be drawn on the field it should were correct scale relations main-
map to represent it, namely one-fiftieth of an tained. On the other hand, when the map-
inch. Since the line must be ornamented to horizontal equivalent of the micro-facet is
indicate whether the angularity is concave only slightly larger than one-fiftieth of an
or convex, and with its ornamentation is one- inch, the symbol occupies a greater width
sixteenth of an inch wide, the total breadth of than it should, were the boundaries correctly
the jymbol is always greater than the map- located.
horizontal equivalent of the discontinuity. Facets, micro-facets, segments, and micro-
The symbol portraying the micro-unit is segments may be further classified, according
an ornamented, discontinuous line also with a to their true slope angles, as cliffs, slopes, or
width of one-sixteenth of an inch. When the flats.
map-horizontal equivalent of this micro-unit The inflection is a point or line of discon-
is only just larger than one-fiftieth of an inch, tinuity and theoretically should be without
the symbol representing it occupies a greater magnitude like the break of slope. In practice
breadth than it should occupy if it were it may occupy a zone of the ground surface
possible to maintain correct scale relations of considerable width. It is represented by
between the size of the symbol and the a discontinuous line without ornamentation
ground-horizontal equivalent of the micro- since it is always a point, line, or zone of
unit. On the other hand the breadth of the maximum slope and does not need a symbol
symbol is less than the map-horizontal equiv- to indicate positive or negative angularity or
alent of the micro-segment when this is one- curvature. The inflection is defined as the
eighth of an inch. point, line, or zone of maximum slope between
As the distinction between the micro- two adjacent concave and convex segments,
segment and the segment is based on the and may occupy a ground-horizontal equiv-
possibility of the separate representation of alent as great as that represented by the
segment boundaries, so is the distinction be- breadth of a line drawn to represent it on
tween the facet and the micro-facet similarly the field map, that is one-fiftieth of an inch.
defined. No morphological unit (either a If the zone between two adjacent segments
segment or a facet) can be identified by the has a map-horizontal equivalent greater than
separate representation of its boundaries if this, the form becomes a micro-facet, micro-
the map-horizontd equivalent between them segment, facet, or segment, according to its
is one-eighth of an inch or less. When a form and horizontal equivalent.
single symbol has to be used to portray d Breaks of slope and inflections may have
unit of the ground surface which is too small map-horizontal equivalents as large as one-
to have its boundaries defined separately at fiftieth of an inch. The map-horizontal equiv-
the scale of the field map, the segment is alents of micro-segments and micro-facets can
classified as a micro-segment and the facet is be greater than one-fiftieth of an inch, but
classified as a micro-facet. no greater than one-eighth of an inch. The
A facet is a plane, or approximately plane, map-horizontal equivalents of facets and seg-
vertical, inclined, or horizontal surface area ments must be greater than one-eighth of an
which differs in inclination from those units inch. The scale of the field map is used to
1965 MAPPING
MORPHOLOGICAL 523

TABLE
1.-GROUND-HORIZONTAL
EQUIVALENTS
____ - _ _ __ __
Discontinuity, G.H.E.’s for medium and large-scale maps and plans of the Ordnance Survey
micro-unit, or M.H.E.
unit 1/1,250 1/2,500 1/10,560 1/25,000 1/63,360
~ _ _ _ _
Break of slope
Inflection } in.
0.5 inm. 1 or less
2.08 ft.
0.625 mts.
4.17 ft.
1.25 ints.
17.58 ft.
5.28 mts.
41.67ft.
12.5 mts.
105.6 ft.
31.68 mts.

2.08 to 4.17 to 17.58 to 41.67 to 105.6 to

hlicro-segmcnt 1 >1/50 to 1/8 in. 13.02 ft. 26.04ft. 110.0 ft. 260.42 ft. 660.0 ft.
I
Micro-facet 1 >0.5 to 3.0 mm. 1 0.625 to
3.75 mts.
1.25to
7.5 mts.
5.28 to
31.68mts.
12.5 to
75.0 mts.
31.68 to
190.08mts.

Facet 13.02 ft. 26.04ft. 110.0 ft. 260.42ft. 660.0 ft.

Segment >3.0 mm. 3.75 mts. 7.5 mts. 31.68mts. 75.0 mts. 190.08mts.
Source: Compiled and computed by author.

determine the categories into which the forms is placed on the stem of the arrow indicating
of the ground surface are to be placed. To true slope direction.
illustrate the significance of this on the appli- The boundary between the juxtaposed
cation and utility of the technique, the positive and negative segments is an inflection
ground-horizontal equivalents of disconti- and is represented by a discontinuous line. On
nuities, micro-units, and units are tabulated the left side of the block diagram the change
for the medium and large-scale maps and from the positive to the negative segment
plans of the British Ordnance Survey, in takes place about a point. On the right side
Table 1. of the block diagram the positive and negative
segments are separated by an inclined plane
THE APPLICATION OF THE TECHNIQUE into which the inflection expands. Neverthe-
Theoretical Considerations less, it is still mapped as an inflection since
the ground-horizontal equivalent of the in-
The Representation of Morphological Units. clined plane is here considered to be no
The block diagrams in Figure 5 illustrate greater than the width of the line drawn to
the forms of morphological units, micro-units, represent it on the map, that is one-fiftieth
and discontinuities and the use of the symbols of an inch.
in representing them. At the base of Figure In block B) the segments are shown con-
5 part of the diagram in Figure 4 is re- tracting in area and as the map-horizontal
produced again since it has not proved equivalent of the inclined plane separating
practical to show, on the block diagrams, the them is greater than one-fiftieth of an inch,
true scale relations of the symbols to the it is classified as micro-facet. As shown at
forms of the ground surface they represent. the base of Figure 5, the map-horizontal
In block A) the ground profile on the left equivalent of the micro-facet may be greater,
side of the diagram is smoothly concave-con- or less, than the breadth of the symbol which
vex. Such concave and convex forms are represents it. If the map-horizontal equiv-
segments. The direction of the true slope of alent of the micro-unit is less than the width
each segment is shown by an arrow one-eighth of the symbol, it is not possible to represent
of an inch long. This must always be indicated it and maintain correct scale relations, as the
since it is not necessarily at right angles to breadth of the ornamented line, one-sixteenth
the segment boundaries which are represented of an inch, is the minimum possible for clarity
by a continuous line one-fiftieth of an inch of representation. On the other hand, the
in breadth with appropriate arrowhead orna- lengths of the pecks could be extended to
mentation to indicate positive or negative the correct boundary positions when the map-
curvature and the side of the maximum slope. horizontal equivalent of the micro-facet is
The nature of segment curvature is shown greater than one-sixteenth of an inch; but it
by the use of the plus or minus sign, which seems logical to maintain a standard symbol
524 R. A. G. SAVICEAR September
1965 MAPPING
MORPHOLOGICAL 525

size since it is impossible to represent the In block H ) the margins of the slope shown
correct boundary positions in all cases. are supposed to be so close together that
In block C ) the map-horizontal equivalent they would lie within the thickness of a line
of the unit between the segments is now drawn on the field map, that is one-fiftieth
greater than one-eighth of an inch and is of an inch, and it has a map-horizontal equiv-
large enough for its boundaries to be por- alent corresponding to that of a break of
trayed individually on the map and for the slope or an inflection. Whereas forms of this
direction and amount of its true slope to breadth must be represented if they are in
be noted. The segments above and below the nature of boundaries, because of the
are smaller but still large enough for their limitations of scale, they should not have any
boundaries to be represented separately. significance in their own right. Slopes and
If the surface of the facet were very irreg- flats of this relative magnitude are not re-
ular, and the forms making these irregularities corded.
were too small to be shown at the scale of The representation of cliffs is illustrated
the map, their presence could be indicated in blocks I, J, and K. Whereas no slope unit
by drawing the true slope arrow with an is to be represented when its map-horizontal
irregular stem. Such facets may only be equivalent is less than one-fiftieth of an inch,
indicated where the map-horizontal equivalent it does not seem appropriate that cliff units
of the unit is 3/16th of an inch (4.75 mm.) should be similarly treated. A slope is by
or more, in length. definition less than forty degrees so that
In block D ) the boundaries of the curved the maximum inclined true slope distance on
surface areas have approached so close to- any map just too small to represent, will be
gether that neither they, nor the directions about 1/39th of an inch, or 0.65 mm., this
of true slope, nor the nature of their curva- being the approximate extent of the true
tures, may be represented at the map scale. slope distance represented by 1/50th of an
The unit above the facet is a positive micro- inch, or 0.5 mm., at an angle of forty degrees.
segment whereas the unit below it is a nega- In relation to the true slope map-widths of fac-
tive micro-segment. ets, micro-facets, segments, and micro-seg-
In block E ) there is a further contraction ments, such a unit will be an unimportant fea-
of the boundaries of the forms above and ture. A cliff may, however, possess appreciable
below the facet. The map-horizontal equiv- true slope extent, although occupying only a
alent of each one is now no greater than will small ground-horizontal equivalent. If the
lie within the breadth of a line drawn on the ground-horizontal equivalent of the cliff is
field map; therefore each one is a break of large enough its boundaries, true slope angle
slope and is represented by a continuous and direction, or nature of its curvature, may
ornamented line. The ground surface within be shown. If the map-horizontal equivalent of
the distance represented by the map-hori- the cliff is one-eighth of an inch or less its
zontal equivalent of the line, could be irreg- presence should be recorded by the castellated
ular, or composed of distinct facets or seg- symbol. In contrast to the slope micro-facet,
ments which might be represented were the it is always represented even if the map-
map scale much larger; but it is the char- horizontal equivalent is less than one-fiftieth
acter of the area as a linear zone of change of an inch; as well it may be if a cliff is
which is being classified and the map scale nearly, or wholly, vertical.
prevents them from being shown.
In block F) the discontinuities above and The Problem of Micro-Units and Cliffs.
below the facet are angular and without The problem of the representation of units,
breadth, Each one is a break of slope and that are very small in relation to the map
is represented by a continuous line orna- scale, is most easily solved by the decision
mented with the arrowhead symbol to indicate that no unit shall be mapped if its boundaries
positive or negative angularity. are too close together to be represented by
In block G ) the boundaries of the facet separate symbols. If the features omitted are
have contracted further and are too close regarded as important the mapping must be
together to be represented separately. The carried out at a larger scale. At the largest
form is a micro-facet. Ordnance Survey scale of 1/1,250 this means
526 R. A. G. SAI'IGEAR September

SYMBOLS

CONVEX VVVV
rlnlrrr

i1 FLATS
AND
MICRO-FACETS SLOPES MICRO- CONCAVE Y Y Y Y
SEGMENTS
CONVEXIIII
AND
C LI FFS-

(CONCAV E XIz I

CONVENTION FOR THE REPRESENTATION OF

M I C RO-U N IT RE LATl ON S H IPS
......... '..
. . . . . . ... .. . . .. ...... . . .
...... ......... ..
. .

FIG.6. Diagram illustrating the symbols for the representation of micro-units.

that no unit with a ground-horizontal equiv- horizontal equivalents just greater than one-
alent of approximately less than 13.02 feet, fiftieth of an inch) may occur within a map-
or 3.75 meters, would be mapped. At 1/10,560 horizontal equivalent of one-eighth of an
the smallest unit is approximately 110 feet, inch. The symbols, one-sixteenth of an inch
or 31.68 meters. A t 1/63,360 the comparable in breadth, must be capable of representing
ground-horizontal equivalent is 660 feet, or them, their mutual relationships, and the
190.08 meters (Table 1 ) . If units are to be character of their associations with the units
recorded that are very small in relation to the above and below. Where micro-units adjoin,
scale of mapping, the following considerations each with a map-horizontal equivalent of one-
are relevant. sixteenth of an inch, it would be possible to
Cli#, Slope and Flut Micro-Units. The defi- represent them in their correct scale rela-
nition of the technique is based on the tionships. But such an occurrence is most
decision that micro-units have map-horizontal unlikely and is only one of many possible
equivalents of between more than one-fiftieth cases. Since it is usually impossible to portray
of an inch and one-eighth of an inch, and their boundary positions correctly, it is best
that slopes and flats with map-horizontal to adopt a single convention for the repre-
equivalents of one-fifth of an inch or less are sentation of all micro-units and their asso-
not represented. Rut the symbols that por- ciations. It is also important to keep the
tray micro-units are one-sixteenth of an inch complexity of symbolization at a minimum.
broad and it was shown, by reference to The symbols for the representation of micro-
Figure 4, that such symbols may occupy units are illustrated in Figure 6. The con-
either a larger or a smaller map-horizontal ventions to be used where two or more micro-
equivalent than the micro-unit represented units adjoin are indicated in the bottom half
were its boundaries capable of simulation in of the diagram. They relate to the grouping
their correct scale relationships. Because of and order of the symbols. The lateral extent
these assumptions as many as six micro-units of the adjoining micro-units at the map scale
of minimum breadth (that is with map- is unlikely to correspond to the exact distance
965 MORPHOLOGICAL
MAPPING 527

TQTQTQTV YTVYTVYTV' YTVYTV'Y Y l Y l Y T Y T

CONCAVE ASSOCIATION

X C O ~ V QM
Xi c r o - S e g m e n t
V Concovo Micro-Sogrnont
F Micro-Facet
DIAGRAM3 Discontinuity of
t h e ground surfoco

FIG.7. The representation of slope micro-units at plane, convex, and concave associations.

required by the symbols to represent them and slope micro-units are likely to be adequate
their relationships. Each group of symbols to represent such occurrences near the scale
which portrays these features is therefore barrier of the field map.
separated by the use of the full stop. To show In Figure 7, Diagram 1, and Figure S,
the height relationships of the micro-units Diagram 1, further examples are given of
in the group the symbols for the lowest are the use of the symbols for the representation
drawn to the west and south (within the of micro-units. In Diagram 1, Figure 8, in
magnetic bearing of 180 to less than 360 blocks V ) , W ) , X), and Y ) the micro-seg-
degrees) of those for the higher units. ments connect slopes and cliffs and are partly
Since it has been argued that all cliff units in each of these categories. In these circum-
should be represented whatever their map- stances the symbols which represent them
horizontal equivalents may be, the symboliza- are those for flat or slope micro-segments
tion for their portrayal should take account, and not those for cliff micro-segments.
at least in theory, of the possibility of a large P k w , Convex, a d Concave Associations. In
number of them occurring in close association Figure 7, Diagram 1, and Figure 8, Diagram
within a total map-horizontal equivalent of 1, micro-units arc shown breaking the con-
one-eighth of an inch. In practice the con- tinuity of an inclined plane. This relationship
ventions for the representation of flat and is called a plane association.
528 R. A. G. SAWGEAR September

ASSOCIATION

DIAGKAM 1

r' W 8'WT'

C O N V E X ASSOCIATION

DIAGRAM 2

,","=vw w x z = - -- \ C O N C A V E ASSOCIATION

FIG.8. The representation of slope and cliff micro-units at plane, convex, and concave associations.

Of more common occurrence than the plane Micro-units may also occur at the iunctions
association is the development of a micro- of segments and these are also termed plane,
unit, or a group of micro-units, at the convex, or concave associations according to
junctions of units which are inclined at dif- the angles the chords of adjoining segments
ferent angles. Such associations of units and make with each other.
micro-units are called convex or concave mso- An example of a field map compiled using
ciutions according to the angular relations of the technique is illustrated in Figure 9.
the units at whose boundaries the micro-units
are developed. To represent these relation- Pmctical Problems
ships the symbols for the micro-units are The technique was developed where large-
combined with those for the concave or con- scale maps and plans are available and most
vex discontinuities. Such symbol combinations of the countryside is divided into small areas
are illustrated in Diagrams 2 and 3 in Figures by closely spaced field boundaries, which
7 and 8. If, however, the map-horizontal are represented on all maps and plans at scales
equivalent of the flat, or the slope, micro-unit larger than 1/63,360. Air photographs may
is less than one-fiftieth of an inch only the be had, but their scales and quality vary from
symbol for the discontinuity between the area to area. With such a range of maps
larger units is drawn (blocks L l ) , LZ), &), and photographs available, it has been pos-
and S z ) ). sible to test the application of the technique
 O r d e r of 0 4 41 0 880 1320 1760
Discontinuity I 3 yds.
- First ONE MILE
- SQcOnd
FIELD M A P SCALE I/ 10 5 6 0 (Gins t o 1 milo)
Third
FIG.9. An example of a field sheet compiled with the more sophisticated technique. The figures showing true slope angles have been oriented to
make them easier to read. They would not normally be drawn thus on a field sheet. Discontinuous order is here distinguished by lines of different
thickness. In the field (using pencils of varying hardness), and where possible on printed maps, lines of different orders of greyness should be used.
 R. A. G. SAVIGEAR September

on maps, plans, and air photographs at various would be between about 4 and 26 feet. Any
scales. It has also been used in the arid and area with a ground-horizontal equivalent of
humid tropics under very different conditions about four feet or less would appear as a
of map and air photograph quality and avail- boundary or not at all. At this scale it is
ability, and terrain character. unlikely that any forms that should be mapped
in the course of a general survey would be
The Scale of the Field M a p . omitted; but a lot of detail would be recorded
The best scale for the field map depends that would probably be irrelevant. I t seems
on the objectives of the survey, but there are that the best scale for mapping is about
a number of relevant considerations to be 11’7,000 or 1/7,500, or, in the British system,
taken into account in making the selection. 1/7,040, at nine inches to the mile. At this
Whatever the scale of working, the surveyor order of scale the minimum ground-horizontal
will always find units with boundaries just too equivalent of a unit is more than about
close together to be represented separately. seventy-five feet and the ground-horizontal
As these are virtually the same size as those equivalent of the micro-unit is between
just large enough to show, they are certain 12 and 75 feet. Any area with a ground-
to have significant relations with them and the horizontal equivalent of about twelve feet or
surveyor is likely to feel that they should be less is mapped as a boundary or not at all.
recorded. If there are many of them and they At this scale every feature of importance to
are significant the scale of the base map someone working on the characteristics of a
must be changed. I t should be adequate to valley system would be recorded, but time
allow all the features in which the surveyor is would not be spent on mapping irrelevant
interested to be recorded by the portrayal of details. On the other hand, at 1/2,500 it would
their boundaries. If many appear as micro- be possible to record the patterns of terracettes.
units, some will occur too small to be recorded A problem that has to be considered in
at all and, in any case, the detailed char- selecting the scale of field mapping is the
acteristics of those that appear as micro-units effect the scale chosen has on the classifica-
will be omitted. It is necessary to select a tion of surface forms. At 1/63,360 the break
scale that covers the whole range of features of slope and the inflection may each have a
that are to be mapped. Because of this it is ground-horizontal equivalent as large as 105
inevitable that much detail that appears feet. At 1/10,560 the maximum size is about
irrelevant at the time of the survey will be 17.5 feet; at 1/7,000 about twelve feet and at
recorded, but it will not necessarily fall into 1/2,500 about four feet. In all cases the
the same category when the maps are ana- ground-horizontal equivalent of the discon-
lyzed. tinuity is approximately one-sixth of that of the
On the basis of experiments with the various smallest unit that can be represented by the
plans and maps of the Ordnance Survey listed portrayal of its boundaries. It is therefore
in Table 1, it would appear that the char- necessary to consider whether this is an
acteristics of most of what may be called acceptable ratio and, more fundamentally,
standard geomorphological features can be whether the classification of a discontinuity
represented on a base map at a scale of should be tied to the scale of the field map.
l/l0,560. At this scale the smallest units will Unfortunately, the evidence available is in-
have ground-horizontal equivalents of more sufficient to provide the basis for a reasoned
than 110 feet and micro-units will have ground- conclusion on either point. It is the char-
horizontal equivalents of between approx- acters of the linear zones of change between
imately 17.5 feet and 110 feet. No surface larger areas which are being classified. In
area with a ground-horizontal equivalent of most cases the breadths of these zones will
17.5 feet or less is recorded unless it appears be significantly smaller than one-sixth of the
as a boundary zone between larger areas. If widths of the areas and generally there
the next largest scale is used, 1/2,500, the would be no argument in the field regarding
smallest unit would have a ground-horizontal the distinction between a unit and a discon-
equivalent of about twenty-six feet, and the tinuity. Opinion is likely to differ in the
ground-hori~ontal equivalent of micro-units marginal cases where the boundary may not
1965 MORPHOLOGICAL
MsPPING 531

be thought to be significantly larger than the boundaries can be identified on the ground.
area it borders or encloses and, in such circum- On the other hand air photographs should
stances, it becomes questionable whether the always be used for preliminary mapping when
fraction representing the relation between the they are available. They may also serve as
ground-horizontal equivalent of the area and base maps as long as due regard is paid to
the discontinuity should be, say, a sixtieth their scale variations. If they are examined
rather than a sixth. We know of no criteria in the laboratory before the surveyor proceeds
by which a particular distance, say one foot, into the field, they can provide a clear idea
could be established as the maximum ground- of the terrain which otherwise could only be
horizontal equivalent for the discontinuity. obtained by walking, or by viewing from
But were it possible to identify such a figure, selected vantage points. They may also be
the problem of developing a logical mapping used to identify and to locate the discon-
system based upon it would remain. tinuities between the larger morphological
In the present state of our knowledge, a units and unit associations which can be
classification based on relative values seems recorded on the photographs and subsequently
to be the only satisfactory one to use. As long transferred with a suitable plotting instrument
as the mapping scale is not much smaller than to the field base map. Unfortunately they do
1/25,000 and is preferably about 1/7,000 to not normally give information about the
1/7,500, the assumptions made by the defini- patterns and characteristics of any but the
tions appear justifiable. Useful maps may be larger units and, in these circumstances, their
compiled at 1/25,000 but at smaller scales the function is to provide the surveyor with the
strict application of the definitions becomes positions of the dominant lineaments of the
increasingly difficult and the accuracy of the landscape which are then used as the frame-
map compiled with the technique declines. work for mapping.
Nevertheless it is without doubt a useful Where maps are not available, or when
shorthand for reconnaissance survey at scales they record few surface features, air photo-
down to about lj75,OOO. graphs are an essential tool unless a new base
map is to be compiled. In heavily forested
The Location of the Symbols. areas and thick bush, for which if maps exist
at all they are likely to be of the simplest
An accurate map can be compiled without kind, the compilation of the morphological
the use of instrumental survey methods if a map presents the greatest difficulties because
base map is available which shows the loca- of the problems of recognizing and locating
tion of a sufficient number of features easily features. Major topographic forms together
identifiable on the ground. This is possible with vegetation and cultivation patterns should
in much of Britain since all maps and plans first be located on air photographs and these
of the Ordnance Survey at 1/25,00 and provide the framework for more detailed
larger scales, show the positions of field mapping on compass traverses. On these it
boundaries as well as many other man-made is usually possible only to identify and locate
and natural features. These provide an ideal with certainty the position and character of
reference system and, within a field of say breaks of slope between the largest facets and
five acres, it is possible to estimate with segments and to check the air photograph
sufficient accuracy the position of any sur- interpretations. Difficulties arise particularly
face form. In a large field it may be necessary over the identification of forms which lie at
to use the tape and to draw intersecting rays the margins of the several categories of the
on identifiable points on its boundaries; in classification system and, in particular, the
some very large fields or in open country the identification of the different types of micro-
plane table and the alidade may be required units. For this reason it is often better to
to divided the area into smaller units. use the original technique, which distinguishes
In regions without a close network of field only the break of slope and the change of
boundaries, the making of an accurate map slope (as defined in Figure 1) and is not
necessitates instrumental position fixes and concerned with the location of segment mar-
the construction of a grid of small areas whose gins or with the complex differentiation of
532 R. A. G. SAVIGEAR September

micro-units. If the traverses are close together, sheet for locating and numbering the sites at
the major units may be identified on the base which the field notebook has been used to
map with conviction when the day’s work supplement the record of the morphology.
in the field is viewed as a whole; but it is Unless air photographs are available for
frequently very difficult, or impossible, to examination before proceeding into the field,
connect into coherent patterns the smaller it is essential when commencing a survey or
discontinuities and units identified on each when moving from one mapping area to
traverse. Nevertheless, the technique may be another, that the ground should be viewed
used to define the character of an area with a from a suitable vantage point or by making
dense vegetation cover much more quickly one or two swift traverses across it. Apart
than if other geomorphological mapping from obtaining a general idea of the character
systems are employed. of the area to be mapped, the surveyor should
The application of the technique in built-up identify the distribution of the major units
areas is rendered difficult because of the and unit associations whose bounding discon-
modification of the surface by the construc- tinuities should be sketched tentatively onto
tion of roads and houses. Location presents the field map. Unless the interpretation of
no problem, but the certain identification of the patterns of the morphology is to involve
natural forms is frequently impossible. the surveyor in reworking the area, he must
concern himself a t the beginning of the survey
Field Procedure. with the identification of the various orders
It is important to emphasize that an ac- of discontinuity. For example, in a terraced
curate morphological map cannot be com- valley with occasional landslides breaking the
piled without training and practice in the terrace margins, the discontinuities at the
use and application of the symbols. It is easy boundaries of the terraces separating one
enough to apply them in a general way, but incision phase from another and those de-
if accurate maps are to be made, the surveyor marcating the margins of the landslides
must be competently trained. The observa- constitute the dominant or first-order dis-
tions which follow draw attention to the continuities. Those separating the major units
more obvious problems involved in applying ( for example, the crestslope, backslope, and
the technique but they are no substitute for footslopel”) or unit associations on each
field training and practice. terracc, and within each landslide complex,
In regions where existing maps or air photo- form the second-order discontinuities, whereas
graphs provide the outlines of small areas those differentiating the surface of these units
that are easily identified on the ground, the are the third-order discontinuities. It ought
surveyor needs only a tape measure, an Abney to be possible to define an absolute scale of
level or some other suitable clinometer and discontinuities commencing with those divid-
;i compass. It is as well to fix the map ( o r ing the continents into their major relief
the photograph) which is to serve as the features and extending to the discontinuities
base for mapping to the mapping board with in the micro-relief of a slope; but since this
drafting or Selotape and to cover it with has yet to be done, each surveyor must define
Kodatrace, or some other tough tracing paper, his own orders of discontinuity for the area
on which the symbols should be recorded. By of working. Usually two or three may be
this means the features on the base map or distinguished and are classified by using lines
the photograph can be used to locate the of different intensity which are drawn with
symbols but they do not obscure them. The pencils of different hardness (Fig. 9 ) .
tracing also provides a protective covering The successful application of the technique
for tlic map or the photograph. depends on the ability of the surveyor to
Since it is usually necessary to record infor- recognize the several classes of discontinuity,
mation that is not portrayed by the symbols, micro-unit and unit, and the ground-horizon-
another sheet of tracing paper should be -~
fixed to the mapping board by one edge, so loR. A. G. Savigear, “Slopes and Hilly in West
Africa,” Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie, Contributions
that it can be turned back while the symbols Internationales A la Supplementband I; hlorphologie
are being recorded. This forms a reference des Versnnts (1960), p. 158.
1965 MORPHOLOGICAL
MAPPING 533

tal equivalents (determined by the scale of scale of 1/2,500, the ground-horizontal equiv-
the field map) by which they are classified. alents of each of two adjoining facets is five
Until the horizontal distances represented by hundred feet, the angular differences between
one-fiftieth of an inch and one-eighth of an the two facets is of the order of twenty de-
inch can be easily recognized a tape must be grees, and the ground-horizontal equivalent of
used. For making angular measurements the this discontinuity is six inches, then the
inexperienced surveyor should also carry two surveyor has no problem in recognizing a
short poles or ranging rods to sight on, but break of slope. On the other hand, if the
it is possible with practice to obtain measure- difference in inclination between two ad-
ments accurate to a quarter of a degree with joining facets which have ground-horizontal
the Abney level alone. equivalents of the same magnitude is two
Once the general characteristics of an area degrees, and this change in angle also takes
have been identified from air photographs or place over a ground-horizontal equivalent of
from a suitable vantage point, and the bound- six inches, the inexperienced surveyor is
aries of the major units or unit associations likely to mistake the small amount of the
which are to form the reference grid for angular change for an indefinite transition
detailed mapping have been sketched in on between the facets and to map it as a micro-
the map, the surveyor should proceed sys- segment. Until one is accustomed to the tech-
tematically from field to field or from major nique it is difficult to remember that it is the
unit to major unit. Within each one every extent of the zone of change that has to be
discontinuity must be identified at close measured rather than a difference in inclina-
quarters on the ground and every one that can tion, and that it is the extent of the ground-
be represented at the scale of the field map horizontal equivalent which determines the
is placed in its correct order and mapped, difference between the break of slope and the
with the appropriate intensity of line, on the micro-segment. Small differences in inclina-
tracing paper. A piece of stiff card, or pref- tion give the impression of extensive zones of
erably transparent plastic, marked in distances change.
appropriate to the scale of mapping is an 3) The third problem is recognizing that
essential tool for this purpose. discontinuities may run obliquely or even
Although each person using the technique vertically, up or down a valley-side slope, and
for the first time is likely to experience his of accepting and recording the fact that dis-
own particular difficulties in applying it ac- continuities do not necessarily have a constant
curately, there are four problems of very relationship to the true slope of the unit
common occurrence. they bound.
1 ) It is frequently difficult to decide on 4) The fourth problem occurs because of
the exact locations of the boundaries of seg- the difficulty of using the scale barrier, rather
ments and the centers of micro-segments. In- than geomorphological significance, as the
experienced people will make estimations criterion for deciding what shall be mapped.
which vary considerably, although it is found Every surface form, within reason, that can
that experienced surveyors select the same be recorded at the scale of the field map
approximate positions. There is always a should be represented, whether of natural or
margin of error unless a profile is surveyed human origin. Although it does not appear
and the segment margin or the center of the significant at the time of the survey, the
micro-segment is identified from this. A presence of a particular form may, when seen
comparable difficulty is that of deciding in the wider context of the rest of the features
whether a micro-unit is, or is not, too small mapped, lead to a comprehension of the
to be represented at the map scale. The only character and origin of a landform that would
means of resolving such difficulties, until otherwise defy understanding. There is no
judgment is developed, is by measurement. reason, of course, why the technique should
2) The second problem arises because of not be used for the selective mapping of
the possibility of confusing differences in in- forms, but this can only be done in relation
clination with differences in area. For ex- to a particular problem when there are criteria
ample, if mapping is being carried out at a for determining significance.
534 R. A. G. SAVIGEAR September

Accurrrc!j of Representation. alone is not capable of a precise statement

The field scales for geomorphological sur- of the plane character of surfaces and the
vey in which the technique could be used angularity of boundaries. The technique is
fall into three categories: reconnaissance particularly useful for the representation of
survey at scales between approximately 1/ surface forms of archeological interest.
75,000 and 1/2S,OOO when only first-order Whatever the scale of working, the most
discontinuities are mapped; detailed survey at difficult landscapes to map are those of low
scales between approximately 1/25,000 and relief and with gently inclined, continuously
117,000 when first-, second-, third-, and curved, concave-convex slopes. The problems
perhaps fourth-order discontinuities are map- in such areas are to locate segment boundaries
ped; precise stcrcey at scales larger than and to distinguish micro-segments, or to
1/7,00O. obtain a sensible representation of the dis-
During reconnaissance survey, when the tribution of changes of slope. Difficulties
object is to identify the dominant character- also occur in desert areas where the surface
istics of an area, the original and simpler tech- is mantled with blocks, some of which are
nique is possibly the more appropriate to use. just large enough to be represented at the
In this every curved surface is classified as a scale of the field map. The problem in such
boundary and is represented by a single line. areas is to decide whether each block should
Although the identification of segments, rather be mapped or to what extent an attempt
than changes of slope, may be considered should be made to generalize and show the
desirable this is not easily achieved at scales boundaries of the larger units they create
of this order of magnitude and, if attempted, collectively.
the results will be of more variable quality
than if the work is done with the simpler THE ADVANTAGES AND USES OF THE TECHNIQUE
technique. All the information required for 1 ‘ 1 ~Difficulties of Applying Landform
such a survey can be obtained from air photo- Symbols in. the Field
graphs and on these the change of slope is
easier to define than the segment. If the recon- Most geomorphological maps at medium
naissance survey is based on field traverses it and small scales are syntheses of the char-
is also easier and quicker to map changes of acteristics of the shape, magnitude, composi-
slope using a single line than it is to map tion, and origins of surface forms and use any
segments which are identified by two lines one, or all, of these factors as the basis for
and an arrow. The map which is produced is their classifications. As summaries of the
adequate for the purpose of defining the existing geomorphological knowledge of an
general morphological characteristics of a area, such maps are not particularly difficult
region. to compile since the range of characteristics
For detailed surve!j the later more sophis- is already known; however, as anyone who
ticated technique should be used. Preliminary has tried to apply such schemes of representa-
mapping should be carried out on air photo- tion in the field will appreciate, they are
graphs before proceeding into the field where quite unsuited to the task of mapping the
the technique should be applied with the geomorphology of an area de noco.
greatest precision possible using the Abney The successful application of a system of
level, the compass, and the tape. The map this kind of landform mapping in the field
produced by the experienced field worker depends on the ability of the surveyor to rec-
will compare in accuracy with published geo- ognize a form, to place it in a classification,
logical or soil maps at comparable scales (Fig. and then to select and draw the symbol
9). representing it on the base map. This may be
Careful measurement of the inclinations and a task of considerable complexity. For ex-
forms of the ground surface is necessary in ample, the “Table of Geomorghological Forms
the precise survey of a small area. In this and Signs Used in the Geomorphological Map
work the plane table, the alidade, and an of P o la n d which accompanies the article by
accurate level are required. The map pro- M. Klimaszewski on the “Principles of the
duced complements the contour map which Geomorphological Survey of Poland,” lists
1965 MORPHOLOGICAL
M.4PPING 535

hundreds of symbol and color combinations.ll nationally accepted system of symbols and
Any attempt to apply this, or similar schemes the Polish system may well form the basis
of mapping in the field, involves the surveyor of this. We also need a technique that can
in the following kinds of difficulty. be used objectively for field mapping in any
1) The list of symbols is long and un- environment, and the technique described
wieldy and has to be examined re- here can perhaps fulfill this requirement.
peatedly to ensure that the correct
symbol has been selected. The Advantages of the Technique
2 ) Features are always found that the clas- Apart from the fact that the technique has
sification does not recognize and if a none of the drawbacks mentioned above it
classification has been drawn up for has several positive advantages which it is
one type of region it is unlikely to be now appropriate to consider. Unlike other
suitable for another. systems of mapping, this technique does not
beg the question of origins which are still
3 ) Features are always found which can in dispute. It can be applied objectively in
be placed in more than one category of all parts of the world and is flexible enough
the classification. to record whatever forms the surveyor meets.
4) The surveyor is required to solve prob- Since magnitude is the only criterion by which
lems in the course of the field mapping a particular form need be excluded from
that may need months of intensive and representation, and all identifications can be
associated work in the library and made immediately, there are no problems of
laboratory. geomorphological significance or interpreta-
5) Symbol size is not related to the scale tion which have to be solved immediately in
of the map, so there is frequently in- the field. On the other hand, if an inter-
sufficient room to draw the symbols pretive analysis is required as the work pro-
required by the classification. gresses, this may be made by the use of a
6) Colored pencils have to be used and tracing overlay on which appropriate symbols
this means that under field conditions may be recorded. If the interpretation has
it will be impossible to draw a compli- to be changed as the work progresses this does
cated symbol or a thin line. not invalidate the record of the morphology
which is a statement of fact and not an inter-
7) The symbols are devised for the repre- pretation of it.
sentation of type forms and are not Since no geomorphological knowledge is
capable of adaptation to the portrayal required, anyone with an eye for country who
of local variants. can recognize the plane and curved surfaces
Landform symbols may be applied with of the ground, and who can read and locate
reasonable success when the project is limited position on a map, ought to be able to apply
in character; for example, they can be applied the technique for the mapping of surface
in the mapping of river terraces when all forms. Furthermore, the uses of the map
possible types of occurrence may be foreseen will not alter as geomorphological knowledge
and catered for. Apart from their obvious advances since the data recorded will always
uses in field training, it may be argued that be of use to those concerned with the char-
the proper use of very complex schemes of acter of surface forms.
representation is in the sphere of geomor-
phological synthesis rather than in field The Place of the Technique in Field Training
mapping, in the presentation of the surveyor’s It is appropriate at the beginning of a course
concept of the nature and relations of the of field training in geomorphology that stu-
forms he has examined, or in an interpretation dents should learn to recognize the simpler
of the facts rather than in a presentation of types of landform, for example, river terrace,
them. For such purposes we require an inter- cuesta, or pediment, and subsequently to re-
ceive field instruction in the application of a
n hl. Klimaszewski, “The Principles of the Geo-
morphological Survey of Poland,” Przeglad Geo- system of landform mapping of the kind de-
graficzny, Vol. 28 (1956),Supplement, pp. 32-40. fined by Klimaszewski or, more recently, by
536 R. A. G. SAVICEAR September

Le Bourdiec and Ottman.12 But it is hardly have the drawback that its successful applica-
appropriate to introduce these, or comparable tion depends on the artistic ability of the
but simpIer, schemes at an early stage of a student. It also provides an excellent training
fieldwork course. Whereas it is relatively in map reading since every form identified on
easy to recognize and classify a landform the ground has to be located exactly and
when it may be seen as a whole from a single represented on the map.
vantage point, landforms of greater magnitude It is best introduced as a variation of field
are much more difficult to categorize. Bearing sketching by assembling the class at a suitablc
in mind the difficulties described above of vantage point and requiring each student to
applying landform symbols in the field, it is draw a sketch map representing the ob-
nevertheless possible for students to compile servable discontinuities by a series of con-
simple maps by using the symbols when the tinuous and discontinuous lines to be used
whole of each landform may be encompassed according to the clarity of each form. Later
by the eye from one viewpoint. When they the use of the ornamentation can be taught
are larger than this the difficulties of mapping and each student should work methodically
can be formidable. In such circumstances from field to field or from one major unit to the
the surveyor must recognize the form char- next. The original technique is best used for
acteristics of each part of the land surface as such an introduction to the method, whereas the
they are seen. A t each viewpoint a mental more sophisticated technique may be taught
picture must be formed and retained in the subsequently to more advanced students. The
mind‘s eye and this must be fitted onto the identification of landforms on such maps
patterns seen at the next and subsequent view- should be delayed until all the evidence has
points until their association forms a coherent been assembled and recorded on the tracing
or recognizable whole. This task is difficult overlay. This is a most important point as
enough for the experienced field worker. It it encourages the attitude of mind in which
is hardly appropriate to introduce students to the conclusion is delayed until all the evidence
this kind of problem until they have been is assembled. If it is possible to associate the
adequately trained in the recognition of the mapping of geology, soils, vegetation, and
simpler patterns of association of plane and land use with the work, this inevitably leads
curved surfaces and the manner in which to a keen appreciation of the significance of
they combine to produce typical landforms. integrated studies and of the relation of
A training in the use of the technique of morphology to the characteristics and distri-
morphological mapping leads to the devel- butions of other phenomena.
opment of an understanding of these relation-
ships and it is appropriate for it to be used at The Uses of Morphological Mcips
an early stage in the field training course in To those unacquainted with the symbols
conjunction with introductory work on land- the map in Figure 9 is difficult to read. A
form characteristics. When the relations be- more expressive presentation could have been
tween surfaces and surface associations are obtained by the use of color but this cannot
comprehended, more complex mapping sys- be illustrated since the Annals does not pub-
tems may be introduced which require a lish colored maps. Additional information of
wider knowledge of geomorphology and com- the kind added to the map in Figure 3 may
plex problems of landform development. But, make its lineaments easier to appreciate but
by itself, the application of the technique color should really be used here also. Be-
provides an excellent training in disciplined cause these maps appear complex it is perhaps
observation. Having all the advantages of important to state that the technique was
field sketching in this respect it does not devised as a field technique and the problem
~~ - of expressing the data in a suitable form will
Klimayzew&, o p . cit., footnote 11; F. L. be considered in a later article. The symbols
Bourdiec and L. Ottman sous la direction d r J. used for the compilation of the field data
Tricart, “Legendc drs Carte? Geomorphologiques are not necessarily the most appropriate for
IIet~ullCes( 1/20,000 et 1/25,000 ) ,” Duplicated Report.
Centre de Gkographie AppliquBe, 1963 ( Univcrsite
printing and publication, and only those fully
de Strasbourg, Laboratories de Gbographie Physique acquainted with the symbols can expect to
et de Cartogrqhie). be able to read a field map with any facility.
r-
G3
538 R. A. G. SAVIGEAR September

Whatever form the presentation of the use in this respect is illustrated in Figure 10
field data should take, the map compiled where a representation of the surface composi-
with this technique is a useful statement of tion and erosional development of a small
the morphology and of some aspects of the area of the humid tropics near Ibadan in
morphometry of an area. In no sense does Western Nigeria is related to its morphology.
it supersede the contour map but it is com- With the use of color the patterns of soil
plementary to it. The contour map portrays or vegetation distributions in the area could
height relationships which the morphological have been printed on another copy of the
technique is not designed to record and the same base map to show their relations to the
morphological map, representing disconti- morphology.
nuities, defines some aspects of the geometry Wherever morphology is to be mapped, or
of the ground surface which the contour map its relations to the distributions of other sur-
does not show. It provides also some of the face phenomena are to be considered, the
basic data which are necessary for reasoned technique described in this article can be
assessments of potential land use and plan- usefully applied. It is another tool to be used
ning. It is also an essential base map when in the description and quantification of land
an interpretation is to be made of the rela- forms.13
tions of surface forms to the distributions of
other physical and cultural phenomena. Its See footnotc 1.

ANNOUNCEMENT

The Association is pleasecl to announce the establishment of the L. Philip Denoyer Carto-
graphic Research and Publications Memorial Fund. A check in the amount of $10,000 was
presented to the Association at the 1965 Annual Meeting in Columbus, Ohio, by Mr. 0. E.
Geppert, President of the Denoyer-Geppert Company as a contribution by his firm for ini-
tiating the fund. The fund is to be used for the design and publishing of maps, and their
utilization in the teaching of’ geography. Specifically, annual awards will be made to further
such projects as Annals Map Supplements or more general research and publication efforts.
L. Philip Denoyer, who passed away on September 23, 1964 at the age of 89, was one of
America’s pioneers in the globe and map publishing field. He was the inventor of the Denoyer
Semi-elliptical World Map Projection and prepared a variety of map and globe use manuals.
Entering the business field from the academic world in 1913, Mr. Denoyer maintained close
contact with the AAG for more than half a century. Although his passing has left a major void
in the field of cartographic publications, it is hoped that the work stimulated by the L. Philip
Denoyer Fund will he a fitting tribute to his memory.