Chapter Magnetic Sensors —eeana 4.1 INTRODUCTION Magnetization serves a strong impact in changing the Properties of ‘certain Matera, Magnetization changes or produces effects which are mechanical or electrical in nature and are measurable. Also, optical energy may produce changes in magnetization characteristics Of te materials. Not all such changes are easily transducible, perhaps, not at this Stage of the statexg, the-art. Nevertheless quite a few are being conveniently used in de veloping sensors. Some of th, are discussed here, 1. Magnetic field sensors—developed following the change in Young's modulus with magn Acoustic Delay Line Components (ADLC). 2. Magneto-elastic sensors—based on the fact that in a lon; 4 ferromagnetic rod changes its magnetization, This is 3. Magnetic elastic sensors—produced using ‘Villar Compressive stress changes magnetization or a “Wiedemann effect’ Such sensors, torsion is produced in a Subjected to a longitudinal field, 5. Magnetoresistive Sensors—becoming increasingly Popular, are developed on the basis of ‘Thomson effect’ which is basically a change in resistance of specified materials with magnetic field impressed. 6. Hall effect sensors or mag used type magnetic sens ‘AY effect’ which, in effect, is observed as ietization. The sensors are often termed as gitudinal field, torsion given in known as ‘Matteucci effect’. effect’ in which a tensile or ffects magnetization in some way. is used to develop the torque/force sensors. In ferromagnetic rod carrying a current when eiogalvanic sensors—perhaps, the most common and widely ‘ors. These operate on the fact that a crystal carrying a current when subjected to a magnetic field Perpendicular to the direction of the current, produces a transverse voltage, 7. Distance ot proximity sensors. forces the current flowing thi 8. Wiegand and pulse wire sensors—a specitie type of material when subjected voltages under stress shows ‘hich occurs due to Barkhauser 136 © scanned with OKEN Scannerom Ia, ate effect. © Aled ‘Sixtus-To) exp" onducting Qui lucting Quantum Ing, superco” erference Dey: are based on the supercondueg ne (SQUIDs)—used for v zg a 7 es effect. Th epson erect. These types of State specifica sTesla (fT). Sensors have resoluing nks effect’ after the for varying application flux quantization and of the order of a few Jos femto triction—a phi netostriction—a phenomenon, | 10 sed i combination with Biezoeleotie lem also known as Joule effect’ in which a material body. My @ century and a half now, hi , has also been ‘ments for field measurements. This effect is netization changes the shape of a ferromagnetic , SENSORS AND THE PRINCIPLES BEHIND the AY effect is af con in a material we o,f Magnetostrction. Change in dimension due to nerized ferromagnetic material, Cnn caused by rotation of the magnetization. A in in it, namely (i) the plain mechs 4 mechanical stress, develops two.(ypesicf, nical elastic stra " ae jah is the result of reorientation of ma strain ¢, and (i) the magnetoelastic stain éy ignetic domai i . ivi i modulus ofthe demagnetoad oe domains by the applied stress S,; thus, giving the og § Yim = ——* (4.1 n= OG, 41a) pwever, for a saturated sample no magnetoelastic strain is produced because no further orientation is possible, and hence, the Young's modulus becomes here Yun is the Young's modulus of the saturated material. o that, | pas =o (4.1b) i Yan € i a function of applied stress and the amount of anisotropy in fagnetoelastic strain is obviously te material. : i hous alloys such ec in NicFe based crystalline alloys and in some amorp! s naa Roe) ‘tot BO). Such an alloy can be used for making magnetic field sensors. One i ypical construction is shown in Fig. 4.1. Signal OUT Magnetic field Substrate & of a magnetic field sensor using AY-effect. Ms © scanned with OKEN Scanneryr Magnetic Sensors 157. 150 ares eee fe Hall effect is observed both in metals and inductors ployed though the Jatt is vein os yelping these. fer material is more popular and used . The Hall Effect en 2 current is a through a very long strip of extrinsic homogeneous semiconductor in the (one) direction and across the plane xy perpendicular to it, a magnetic field is applied to flux density B,, then an clectric field E, in the direction of y is produced which is yoduce & : np te Hal fed. With electrodes across the stip inthe y direction, @ voltage Vyp called the ull voltage, ca” be collected which approximately is given by Vi Bely (4.33) ion of the Lorentz force on the Galvanomagnetic effects, in general, arise because of the acti sed as charge carrier transport phenomena in condensed medium. The Lorentz force is expres: F = eK + elv xB] (434) where is the charge of the carrier, E is the electrical field, v is cartier velocity, and B is the magnetic induction. If J is the total current density, then the carrier transport equation is (435) T= Jo+ Huldo x B] the Hall mobility and Jp is the current density due to the electric field E Vn. A magnetic field also affects the electrical field hence, it is not justified to write J = Jp for B = 0, as is ‘and D, the diffusion coefficient, Joy in general, where fly is known as tl and the carrier concentration gradient potential and carrier concentration and apparent from Eq. (4.35). If o is the conductivity, can be written as (436) Jg= E - eDVn which takes account of the drift (fist term) and diffusion (second term) and the transverse transport caused by the magnetic field is taken care of by the sevond term in Ea. (4.35). "Therefore, the transport coefficients 1, 0, and D are dependent on the electric and magnetic fields nt are determined by the carrier scattering process. The galvanomagnetic effects such as mnagretoresistive and Hall effects can be derived from the solutions of Eq, (4.35) with appropriate boundary conditions. ; Te cbe mentioned that Hall mobility py isthe product of the drift mobility of the carrier factor r, which is given by the appropriate ratio of relaxation time and the Hall scattering their energy distribution. Thus, averages of the carriers over G () (4372) and (4.37b) @ scanned with OKEN Scanner158__ Sensors and Transducers = | for degenerate semiconductors or metals, a = 1,93 for scattering with ionized impurities, r= 1.18 for acoustic phonons i trinsic and homogeneous semiconductor material with ee oa plete where length 1 is in the *ireton, at in the yd B in the ziection, so that B = (0, 0, B,) as shown in Fig. 4.28, and, : - external een inthe x-direction E = (E,, 0, 0) is imposed, a current J with density bs hy O, 0) wit So that a transverse electric field E, builds up for countering the secon given by Eq, (4.34). As J, = 0, from Eq, (4.35), we may obtain ‘Hy B, Ey 4 Ni Part of the Lorn ty Fig. 428 Basic scheme of a Hall device, E, is the Hall field often represent ited as Ey, and this field wor Of the strip. This transverse volt uld produce a voltage across the wit tage called the Hall voltage, » Vin is given by described is called the Hall effect, Another parameter that sometimes acquires importance in the discussion of Hall sensors is the Hall angle and is given by Fig. 4.28) For Fig, 4.28, this becomes & hen TXB, For a special ease of zero carer concentration gradient for homogeneous ma conductivity is given by ein), the Hall coefficient is hye en a @ scanned with OKEN Scanner‘Sefficient h., using Eqs, (4.39) and (4.42) ; Va=~he Jeo ail sensor 48 based on the aya : lability of th; (4.44) nue this voltage wi ie field for a given current passing Age With the el ’ | aaneit determined by the magnitudes yt Hence, tivity of the ee eutleeted to a me anty i " : de of Vy, and i bs the sensor as well as it iti ers in a material, the Coefficient he ae Stability. If electrons and holes are eisai | gf the Hall scattering fact luced. If n, and i | are t B factors, and yw and '» 20¢ My are the concentrations, [ord ely, then the coefficient is piven by” Mn fe the mobilities for holes and electro, Magnetic 5, can'bs : netic Sensors 159 se Hall voltage can SRPFESSed in terms of Hat g . | | Lin, ~ Tal (Uf, 2 | & (y+ nu, 1M, (4.45) | such situations arise in case o} | nttions. In the former case, the i ° lable from standard equation f intrinsic semi mtdlaic oe Semiconductors and those under high injection rier density n; equals ny and n, which is easily 3. (-&, m= ATZ —t ool ze] 4.46) ere 7 Ais a coefficient, T is absolute temperature, k is Boltzmann constant, and E,, is the band-gap energy. Often Hall ser ied nSOrs are made of drift-mobilit fils whi are intrinsic in nature. Irift-mobility materials which 44.2 The Hall Effect Sensor 6+ The long strip of material with negligible thickness assumed in Fig. 4.28 has to be made a Pectically feasible structure which is a rectangular plate of semiconductor material with four Ghetrdes two covering the width-thickness faces (the supply electrodes (SUE)) and two covering anal pats of length-thickness faces (the sensor electrodes (SEE)), as shown in Fig. 429. A volage V. across the supply electrodes produces a current J, which flows along the length and for 4 magnetic induction B, across ! x w face as shown ’ (4.47a) Fig. 4.29 A practical hall sensor. © scanned with OKEN Scanner