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Detection techniques of biological and chemical

Hall sensors
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Cite this: RSC Adv., 2021, 11, 7257

Hua Fan,a Jiangming Wang,a Quanyuan Feng,b Qiang Hu,c Siming Zuo,d
Vahid Nabaeid and Hadi Heidari d

Integrated magnetic Hall effect sensors have been widely used in people's daily life over the past decades,
and still are gaining enormous attention from researchers to establish novel applications, especially in
biochemistry and biomedical healthcare. This paper reviews, classifies, compares and concludes state-
of-the-art integrated Hall magnetic sensors in terms of cost, power, area, performance and application.
Current applications of the Hall sensors such as detecting magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) labeled on
biomolecule, monitoring blood pulse wave velocity, characterizing soft biological materials, controlling
syringe injection rate and eye surgery by training systems, and assisting magnetic resonance imaging
Received 27th November 2020
Accepted 3rd February 2021
(MRI) will be discussed comprehensively and future applications and trends will be highlighted. This
review paper will introduce Hall sensor's advantages such as simple design and technology of
DOI: 10.1039/d0ra10027g
manufacturing, low cost, low power consumption, possibility of the miniaturizing, noninvasive and room
rsc.li/rsc-advances temperature measurement, with respect to the other magnetic sensing systems and methods.

where G is the geometric factor; t is the thickness of the Hall

1 Introduction device; N is the impurity concentration of the device; rn is the
Sensor technology is one of the three pillar industries of Hall factor; q is the amount of charge per unit charge; Ibias and B
modern information technology. Hall sensors are widely used are the bias current and the applied magnetic eld strength,
in industrial control, consumer electronics, biodefense, respectively.
medical diagnostics, food safety, environmental monitoring The magnetoresistance effect was discovered by Thomson in
and other elds due to their simple structure and low cost. The 1856. It refers to the phenomenon that when a magnetic eld is
principle of realizing magnetic sensors includes Hall effect,1,2 applied to an energized object under certain circumstances
and magnetoresistance effect.3 The Hall effect can be described where the applied magnetic eld is inconsistent with the
as when the current in a conductor or semiconductor passes internal magnetization direction of the object, the magnetic
through an external magnetic eld, the movement of carriers is eld will change the direction of the current, thereby changing
affected by the Lorentz force and shis. Since the accumulation the resistance value of the material. Magnetoresistive sensors
of electrons generates an additional electric eld in the direc- show superior performance in sensitivity and signal-to-noise
tion perpendicular to the magnetic eld and the current plane, ratio, but they are expensive with CMOS manufacturing
a potential difference is generated across the semiconductor or processes.
conductor. This potential difference is called the Hall voltage. Today, magnetic sensors are the key elements in several
The development of complementary metal-oxide semi- fundamental studies as well as industrial applications. The
conductor (CMOS) technology has made Hall sensors more demand of biomedicine expands the application scenarios of
miniaturized and application scenarios more diverse.4 The Hall Hall sensors, beneting from their low price. Various magnetic
voltage VHall is calculated: sensing devices such as superconducting quantum interfer-
ence devices (SQUIDs),5–8 magnetic resonance imaging
G rn
VHall ¼ Ibias B (1) (MRI),9–11 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)12,13 have been
t qN
utilized in these areas. These devices exhibit high sensitivity,
however, their large physical size and expensive price limit
a
their popularity.14,15 If required a momentary and enormous
State Key Laboratory of Electronic Thin Films and Integrated Devices, University of
Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China. E-mail: fanhua7531@ screening tests for diseases like Ebola and SARS, traditional
163.com bulky devices are not suitable.16 Considering advantages of
b
Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China. E-mail: [email protected] magnetic sensing technologies, the miniaturized systems
c
Jihua Laboratory, Foshan, China. E-mail: [email protected] bring down the size and cost because of benets from inte-
d
James Watt School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK. grated thin-lm magnetic sensors like Hall sensors17–22 giant
E-mail: [email protected]

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magnetoresistance (GMR)23,24,24–29 and tunneling magneto-

resistive (TMR)30–32 and uxgate sensors,33,34 etc. Although the
GMR and uxgate sensors can be integrated with sensor
readout circuitry to signicantly reduce system size35–37 and
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they are more sensitive than Hall sensors to detect the weak
magnetic eld, the used materials for fabrication are rela-
tively not common in the foundry, which causes high cost for
the GMR, TMR and uxgate sensors.14,15,38–40 In addition,
some biomedical applications do not need such a high
sensitivity sensor.16 At present, the Hall sensors are the most
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widely used magnetic sensor in the market, which exhibit

small physical size, low-cost and is compatible with standard
CMOS technology.41–47
Fig. 1(a) demonstrates the basic concept and application
scenarios of Hall sensor, while Fig. 1(b) shows the number of
publications in magnetic sensors and the Hall sensors used in
biomedical applications during the last 20 years (from 2000 to
2020). It is obviously noted that the researches of Hall sensors
are signicantly increased by years, similarly with trend of the
total magnetic sensors.
We collected, classied, compared and concluded the inte- Fig. 2 Classified applications of Hall-effect sensor used for
grated Hall sensors used in biomedical applications in recent biomedicine.
years (from 2014 to 2020), including detection of DNA, protein
and blood using MNPs as the bio-labels, monitor of blood pulse
wave velocity, characterization of so biological materials,
control of syringe injection rate and eye surgery by training 2 Hall sensor for bio-chemical
systems, and MRI assistance. The overview of Hall applications detection
is demonstrated in Fig. 2. The Hall sensor is an innovative tool
The MNP based bio-labels have attracted many researchers'
for detecting MNPs as an applicable and challenging task.48–54
attention over the past decade.40,56,60–63 The Hall sensor size can
This paper reviews the Hall sensor applications and introduces
be several micrometres, which lays the foundation for portable
them specically. Since the available commercial Hall sensors
biochemical detection. Magnetic substances are suitable as
are not commonly suitable from sensitivity, size, shape and
labels because their signals are relatively stable in biological
compatibility points of view for the MNP detection,16,49,55–59 we
focus on the homemade Hall sensors developed by different systems and buffers. When a substance needs to be detected,
research groups. magnetic particles are commonly mixed into it, and then
a magnetic sensor is used to measure the magnetic eld of the

Fig. 1 (a) The concept of Hall-effect sensor used for biomedical applications; (b) developing tendency for magnetic sensor and Hall-effect
sensor used for biomedicine.

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substance to be measured. It is noted that there is no consid- Recently, Kuo et al. implemented the Hall sensor to detect
erable magnetic eld from the human body compared with the concentration of Tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-a, related to
uorescent based methods.14,15,61,64 The typical detection struc- anti-tumor) and N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-
ture of MNPs for immunoassay includes four steps, as shown in proBNP, related to heart failure) by using a label based on 1.5
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Fig. 3(a): (1) bound detection antibody with MNPs and x mm MNPs.16 By referring to Fig. 4(a and b), in vitro tumor
capture antibody on the sensing surface;65–67 (2) add antigen to necrosis factor-a (TNF-a) and NT-proBNP tests were performed.
sensing area where the antigen is captured by the capture The concentrations of TNF-a and NT-proBNP solutions range
antibody; (3) add the detection antibody bounding with MNPs from 0.8 pg mL1 to 800 ng mL1. These can be detected by the
to sensing area and then captured by the antigen; (4) wash Hall sensor from the change of Hall voltages. The warning
uncaptured detection antibody bound with MNPs by using threshold can be preset so that when the concentration exceeds
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magnetic eld inducing in an inner coil or an external the preset value, the user will be warned for further inspection.
magnet.68,69 The number of MNPs bounded on the sensing area An 8  8 Hall device array is adopted and fabricated using the
is related to the antigen's number, which will lead to different 0.35 mm CMOS technology with die size of 8.89 mm2. It has
output signals from Hall sensors.70–73 The typical detecting achieved 0.039 V/V/T sensitivity. The chip is based on a system
system adopt technique so-called ac–dc.56,62,64,74,75 As shown in on chip structure in which a microcontroller unit can control
Fig. 3(b), DC magnetic eld is utilized to magnetize the MNPs the detection process automatically. Generally, the detection
while AC magnetic eld is employed to induce the detection signal process can be divided into four steps, as shown in Fig. 4(c): (1)
and remove the background noise. The detection effect of MNPs ltering target (TNF-a or NT-proBNP) into a chip reservoir to
mainly depends on the performance of the Hall sensor and the divide targets and blood cells through an anodic aluminium
magnetization system. The sensor characteristics include Hall- oxide; (2) pumping bubbles induced by electrolytic water to
device array,16,57,58 processing technology,16,55,57,58 die size16,57,58 and move the target into a sensing area; (3) ushing unbound MNPs
sensor sensitivity.16,57,58 The Hall-device array is a unique approach in the sensor area by inducing a magnetic eld from a chip
to enhance the detection efficiency compared with a single Hall inner coil; (4) starting a detection action. An alarm LED will
element.57 The processing technology and die size are related to illuminate when the concentration of bound MNPs exceeds the
prime cost and volume of the sensor. Additionally, the sensitivity is static setpoint. There is a log relationship between the number
a major feature of detection systems and the others include of MNPs and the output voltage generated by an analog front-
different detection methods, target antigens and immunoassay end of a single Hall device.
platforms. The magnetization systems are used to magnetize and In addition, Gambini has implemented the Hall sensor to
adsorb the MNPs. detect the concentration of Human Serum Albumin (HSA).57

Fig. 3 (a) Step 1. Introduce a magnetically labeled antibody, bind the detection antibody to MNP and fix the capture antibody on the sensing
surface; step 2. Add antigen to the sensing area where the captured antibody captures the antigen; step 3. The detection antibody that binds to
MNPs is added to the sensing area and then captured by the antigen; step 4. Wash the uncaptured detection antibody bound to MNP by using the
magnetic field in the internal coil or external magnet. (b) Typical system used to detect MNP: using AC–DC Hall magnetic method, this method
can clearly and reliably separate the real and parasitic magnetic signals of very small amplitude.

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Fig. 4 (a) The relationship between the total output voltage changes of 64 Hall sensors and different TNF-alpha concentrations, the cordon
concentration is set at 8 pg mL1, and the corresponding Hall voltage is 1 V; (b) relative to different NT-proBNP concentrations, the total output
voltage of 64 Hall sensors changes, the cordon concentration is set to 70 pg mL1, and the corresponding Hall voltage is 1.8 V; (c) a system on
chip for rapid blood detection. A microcontroller unit with the 4 steps detection process of filter, pump, flush and detection automatically. If the
bound MNPs exceed the static set value, the Alarm LED will light up.16

The normalized chip output is changed with the concentration Bhalla et al. have used the Hall sensor to detect the
of HAS, as shown in Fig. 5(a). A 64  160 Hall-device arrays is concentration of Adiponectin (related to fat) using 10 nm MNPs
adopted and fabricated using the 0.18 mm CMOS technology as a label.55 The sensor is fabricated by using the 0.35 mm
with a die size of 17.85 mm2. Its sensitivity could reach 0.029 V/
V/T. However, conventional methods have a low 1% signal-to-
baseline ratio, which means 1% uctuation of the baseline
can lead to a considerable signal error. To resolve this problem,
they considered the dynamic property of MNPs to measure the
magnetic eld of magnetized MNPs in their relaxation time, as
shown in Fig. 5(b and c). In theory, the baseline of the magnetic
eld should be zero in the relaxation measurement. Therefore,
the signal-to-baseline ratio is innite and their sensor achieves
a ratio larger than 1. In particular, compared with their previous
design, adopting a single channel with the readout time 64 s in
2012,76 the group implements a parallel readout channel where
the readout time is only 8 s. Finally, since the MNPs have small
physical size and magnetic eld signal, it is vulnerable to
environmental noise, earth's magnetic eld and unsteady
Fig. 5 (a) That the normalized chip output changes with the
baseline etc. Therefore, this group also introduced a specic concentration of HAS; (b) M450, M280 and My1 are used for experi-
circuit design scheme to obtain the accuracy signal of the ments, and sensor outputs is proportional to the number of MNPs,
MNPs. M450 (4.5 mm), M280 (2.8 mm), M1 (1 mm) are utilized as respectively;57 (c) conventional measurement method has small
a verication of the sensor function, as shown in Fig. 5(d). There signal-to-baseline ratio; (d) considering the dynamic property of
is approximately a linear relationship between the number of MNPs, the magnetic field generated by MNPs do not vanished
immediately upon external magnetic field vanished. In theory, signal-
beads and the sensor output. to-baseline ratio is infinite in the moment.57

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which are used for loading reagents and the others for
washing reagents, reaction and waste chambers. A system
structure of the microuidic platform experiment is
demonstrated in Fig. 6(c). The immunoassays process takes 2
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hours and 15 minutes, including incubation bounding MNPs

with the antibody, washing and detection etc.
Kim et al. have built a microuidic platform where a planar
Hall magnetoresistive (PHR) sensor is implemented to investi-
gate the property of MNPs, as show in Fig. 7(a).77 Schematic
drawing of on chip magnetometer, in which the channels (F1–
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F4) represented in purple color are ow channels for the

generation of ferrouid droplets, and the channels (C1–C4) rep-
Fig. 6 (a) Phase shift versus concentration of MNPs; (b) microfluidic resented in red color are control channels (valves) for the operation
platform totally has eight chambers, five of which are used for reagent of ferrouid droplet oscillation. A linear relationship is obtained
loading and the rest three of which is used for washing reagent, between the concentration of MNPs and magnetization measured
reaction chamber and waste chamber; (c) the system structure of indirectly by the PHR sensor in ferrouid, as shown in Fig. 7(b).
microfluidic platform experiment.55
The sensor is fabricated on a silicon wafer using a NiFe/Cu/IrMn
trilayer structure with an absolute sensitivity of 0.085 V/V/T. A
BioMEMS technology and has the sensitivity of 26 V/A/T. The Maxwell soware has been carried out to simulate the magnetic
phase shi of the sensor output signals between inductor 1 eld in a droplet sensing area and optimize the length of the
(without MNPs) and inductor 2 (with MNPs) indicated droplet in the microuidic platform, as shown in Fig. 7(c). It is
a linear relationship with MNPs concentration on the noted that the critical length to have apparent signals is 70 mm.
microuid platform, as shown in Fig. 6(a and b). The The output signal of the PHR sensor is in corresponds to different
microuidic platform has eight chambers in total, ve of positions of droplets and also different magnetic elds.78,79

Fig. 7 (a) Microfluidic platform with PHR sensor in the middle; (b) magnetization measured indirectly by PHR sensor is proportional to the
concentration in the ferro-fluid droplets containing MNPs; (c) a simulation using Maxwell software, 70 mm is the critical length of droplet, above
which the droplet signals are apparent.77

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Østerberg have applied the Hall sensor to detect the exis- and sheet resistance of Hall device are related to the concentration
tence of DNA using 40 nm MNPs as a label, shown in Fig. 8(a of DNAs. Their relationships are shown in Fig. 9(a–d).
and b).80 A new structure Hall device, planar Hall bridge Except for the detections of DNA, protein and blood outside
proposed by Henriksen and Persson et al. was adopted.81,82 The the human body, the Hall sensor and MNPs are also a versatile
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sensor is fabricated on a standard silicon wafer with a deposited device for disease detections inside of the human body. For
structure of Ta/Ni80Fe20/Mn80Ir20/Ta. It is worth mentioning instance, Ookubo et al. and Kuwahata et al. have implemented
that the sensor sensitivity is 6 times larger than the cross- a Hall sensor (NHE520) to detect magnetic uid containing
shaped planar Hall sensor. The basic detection principle is MNPs for sentinel lymph node biopsy.84,85
that the MNPs with different sizes have different Brownian
relaxation frequencies where the AC susceptibility reaches 3 Performance development
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maximum. The reverse proportional relationship between MNP

volume, Vh and Brownian relaxation frequency, fB is expressed The Hall effect was rst discovered in 1897, but the rst appli-
as eqn (2) cation did not appear until aer 1950, and the device cost was
kB T very high. Since 1965, Hall sensors have become the rst choice
fB ¼ (2) for solid-state magneto-sensitive devices due to their advan-
6phVh
tages of being fully integrated into silicon chips. Most of the
where kB is Boltzmann's constant, T is the absolute tempera- magnetic sensors produced to use the Hall effect. Hall sensi-
ture, h is the dynamic viscosity of the liquid). It is noted that this tivity is greatly inuenced by semiconductor materials, and the
method is suitable for rapid detection due to no washing steps characteristics of various materials are shown in Table 1. In
required to isolate bound MNPs from unbound ones.60 order to achieve the highest possible sensitivity, the electron
In more recent works, Loan et al. have investigated the pro- mobility of the material needs to be as high as possible. InSb
cessing technology for ultraclean graphene lm without the and InAs telluride have extremely high mobility, but the
photoresist polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) residue.83 A new bandgap is extremely narrow. For narrow bandgap semi-
method for detecting DNA is employed without using MNPs. conductors to obtain excellent temperature performance, the
The Hall devices were designed based on the ultraclean gra- semiconductor must be heavily doped. Heavy doping is bound to
phene and the PMMA residue-based graphene respectively. The offset its original advantage of high mobility. The Hall sensitivity of
sensor sensitivity based on the ultraclean graphene is about 5 a silicon sensor is usually 1 mV mT1 at a current of 1 mA. The
times larger than the one based on the PMMA residue. A DNA sensitivity of the Hall sensor made of InSb material is typically
experiment was carried out on the ultraclean graphene-based 5 mV mT1, and the typical value of InAs is 2 mV mT1.86
sensor surface. Finally, the carrier concentration, carrier mobility As the low-cost characteristic and CMOS compatibility, Hall-
effect sensors were commonly used in the automation eld.
Researchers have considered magnetic sensor for novel appli-
cations in the detection of MNPs. The diameter of MNPs is very
small, usually, only a micrometer or nanometer leading to few
molecule electric current and weak magnetic. III–V semi-
conductor Hall devices are frequently utilized in the early
exploration due to their superior characteristic for the weak
magnetic eld.14,56,61–63,65,66,78,87,88 For example, InSb Hall device
can detect the weak magnetic eld as low as picoTesla,89,90 and
GaAs sensor can detect nanotesla easily. InAs is considered
mostly in the early period because of its ultra-high mobility up
to 2.5  104 cm2 V1 s1 (silicon is 1450 cm2 V1 s1) which lead
to high sensitivity of Hall-effect device. InSb and InGaAs are also
common materials used in the early exploration. However,
comparing to silicon Hall-device, all of them hardly have the
processing technology to integrate Hall-devices with complex
circuits. Mature CMOS bio-Hall integrated sensors have
emerged in recent years. The performance and the character-
istics of Hall sensor are presented in Table 2.
Besse et al. implemented a high-sensitivity silicon CMOS
Hall sensor to detect magnetic microbeads with a diameter of
2.8 mm. Two detection methods using the superparamagnetic
properties of magnetic beads were tested experimentally, and
their performances were compared. Their work is based on the
Fig. 8 (a) Left sensor is planar Hall-effect bridge device sensor and
use of silicon Hall sensors and dense arrays of CMOS elec-
right sensor is a cross-shaped planar Hall-effect device; (b) planar Hall- tronics, opening the way for low-cost microsystems for
effect bridge device detects 0 pM and 200 pM DNA, respectively.80 biochemical applications. Liu et al. designed a CMOS Hall

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Fig. 9(a) DNA sample on Hall-effect device; (b) carrier concentration, (c) carrier mobility, and (d) sheet resistance of Hall effect device versus to
DNAs concentrations, respectively.83

sensor chip specically for characterizing and detecting the magnetic beads is improved by more than 50 times. Another
magnetic nanoparticles. Its time resolution is three orders of advantage is that the combination of multiple Hall devices can
magnitude higher than existing solutions based on super- minimize the misalignment caused by process factors.
conducting quantum interference devices and uxgate sensors. With the development of microelectronic technology, the
Bhalla et al. used TSMC's 0.35 mm process to design and sensitivity, size, and power consumption of Hall sensors are
manufacture Hall sensors that can be used to detect specic constantly optimized. The preliminary results in the eld of
proteins contained in 10 nm magnetic beads. It can achieve biochemistry have attracted some people's attention to Hall
a rapid detection in 2 hours and 15 minutes while ensuring magnetic sensors. There will be more scientic researchers to
accuracy, which provides convenience for handling emergen- explore the potential of Hall magnetic sensors. Low price, high
cies. Kuo et al. utilized MCU(Micro control unit) to complete accuracy, multi-function, and easy to carry testing equipment
a fully automated immunoassay laboratory, and the main are the mainstream research directions.
sensor used is a Hall magnetic sensor made of 0.35 mm CMOS
process. The Hall sensor designed by Gambini et al. under the 0.18 4 Biochemistry applications and
mm CMOS process contains 8  8 Hall devices. Compared with
a single Hall device, this method's measurement sensitivity of to future directions
4.1 Application I: blood pulse wave velocity detection
The pulse signal of the artery contains much pathophysiological
Table 1 Common materials for Hall elements information about the cardiovascular system. The speed and
strength of these pulse waves propagating through arteries are
Band gap (eV) Electron mobility Dielectric
Material 300 K (cm2 V1 s1) constant powerful indicators for judging cardiovascular diseases. At
present, the measurement of local PWV (Pulse Wave Velocity) is
Si 1.1242 1450 11.9 achieved by a variety of signal acquisition techniques, such as
Ge 0.6643 3800 16.2 Doppler ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging, etc.
InSb 0.18 5.25  105 17.3
However, these systems are costly and require professional
InAs 0.354 2.50  104 15.15
GaAs 1.424 8000 12.9 operation to obtain accurate and reliable measurements.
Recently, Nabeel et al. have developed a PWV rapid detection

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Table 2 The development of silicon bio-Hall devices and sensors

Reference Sensitivity/noise Power dissipation Size & processing technology

Besse et al.49 (Hall sensor) 175 V/A/T 2.55 mW 2.4 mm  2.4 mm, 0.8 CMOS
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0.02 V/V/T
0.2 mT/rt (Hz)
Aytur et al.91 (Hall sensor) — 500 mW 2.2 mm2 chip, 0.25 RF CMOS
Ishikawa et al.58 (Hall sensor) — 500 mW 2.3 mm2 chip, 0.25 RF CMOS
Liu et al.76 (Hall sensor) 0.029 V/V/T 10.4 mW chip 0.18 CMOS
120 nT/rt (Hz) 138 mW system
Gambini et al.57 (Hall sensor) 0.029 V/V/T 300 mW system 0.18 CMOS
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270 nT/rt (Hz)

Bhalla et al.55 (Hall device) — — 0.35 BioMEMS
Kuo et al.16 (Hall sensor) 0.039 V/V/T 2.65 mW chip 0.35 CMOS
214 nT/rt (Hz)
Kim et al.77 (Hall device) 85 V/A/T NiFe/Cu/IrMn
Ishikawa58 (Hall sensor) — — 2.2 mm2 chip, 0.35 CMOS

system composed of Hall sensors and permanent magnets with magnetic eld uctuations. In addition, Nabeel et al. have imple-
a simple, reliable and cheap structure. The non-invasive mented a magnet and a Hall sensor (SS49E T3, SEC Electronics
measurement of DT was achieved by placing the same pulse Inc.) to build prototype equipment for the PWV detection.92
detection sensor on the two arterial parts. As shown in Subsequently, they optimized the design with a dual Hall sensor
Fig. 10(a), there is a signicant pulse propagation delay between (SS49E T3, SEC Electronics Inc.) structure in 2014.93 The earlier
the pulse waveforms recorded at two different measurement PWV detections devices of Nam et al. (A1395, Allegro),94 Kim et al.
points simultaneously. PWV is proportional to the average pulse and Lee et al. were designed similarly called clip-type devices but
propagation speed. The MPG (Magnetic Plethysmograph) with different structures,95,96 as shown in Fig. 10(c).
sensor for arterial pulse detection is utilized for supercial
artery pulse detection. The MPG sensor structure is shown in
Fig. 10(b), using a disk-shaped permanent magnet to generate 4.2 Application II: training system for syringe and eye
the necessary environmental magnetic eld. A linear through- surgery
hole SIP type Hall-effect integrated circuit is placed near the The medical training system is an essential means to train
permanent magnet as the required magnetic sensor to capture doctors to master surgical skills. Using a syringe to inject uids

Fig. 10 (a) System architecture of Hall-effect sensor and magnet for detecting blood PWV;93 (b) the probe structure by using Hall-effect sensor
parallels to magnet;93 (c) the probe structure by using Hall-effect sensor above the magnet.96

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into the body is a common clinical practice. The injection speed a certain position on a needle to build an ophthalmic anes-
can have various pathological effects on the body, such as the thesia training system,98 as shown in Fig. 11(c). Regional anes-
perceived pain, or the exercise capacity achieved under anes- thesia for eye surgery is to insert the syringe needle into the eye
thesia. Mukherjee et al. have built a new generation syringe socket in the proper position and direction, which can not only
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training system based on a commercial Hall sensor (SS49E, ensure that the ocular structure is not damaged, but also avoid
Honeywell) as a displacement sensor.97 To help students adverse systemic reactions. The needle proximity to the muscle
observe and practice the injection rate before injecting the structure is detected by a capacitive sensor integrated with the
human body. The design of the injection is shown in Fig. 11(a). human body model. The syringe connects the needle to a 1 kHz
The main body of the syringe includes a standard ready-made sine wave source as the excitation signal. The system sounds an
syringe. The ring-shaped permanent magnet is attached to the alarm when the needle approaches the tendon simulated by the
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syringe body in the magnet holder. Two Hall sensors are located capacitive sensor. More recently, Borvorntanajanya et al. built
on the top and bottom of the needle tube. As shown in a similar ophthalmic anesthesia training system where a Hall
Fig. 11(b), the magnetic eld generated by the ring magnet is sensor (A1324, Allegro) is employed, and a magnet is xed
perpendicular to the two Hall sensors. When the piston moves a certain position on a needle.99
relative to the syringe body, one Hall-effect sensor approaches
the magnet and the other moves away from the magnet,
creating a differential operating mode. By comparing the 4.3 Application III: characterizing so biological material
difference of the magnetic elds received by the two Hall Nowadays, more and more researchers are paying attention to
sensors, the position of the permanent magnet is judged, and minimally invasive surgery (MIS). The MIS helps surgeons
the injection rate is obtained. In 2013, researchers have perform delicate interventions, and provides patients with more
implemented at a modied syringe where capacitances are xed comfort by reducing pain, blood loss and hospitalization. The

Fig. 11 (a) Syringe assembly with dual Hall effect sensor;97 (b) Hall effect sensor assembly and ring magnet;97 (c) the schematic diagram of
ophthalmic anesthesia training.98

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experience of MIS is so strict that only few people can perform platform can help patients carry out targeted rehabilitation
MIS. In order to reduce the difficulty of minimally invasive training.
surgery, researchers have developed many auxiliary methods. A
new generation of force detection systems has been formed 4.4 Application IV: assisting MRI
This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported Licence.

through combining state-of-the-art Hall sensors, magnets and

Exposure to high electrostatic, magnetic elds during MRI
exible membranes, as shown in Fig. 12(a). The distance
examinations has a signicant impact on the human. However,
between the magnet and the sensor is changed with the applied
it is very necessary to use MRI to detect the cause of the disease.
force on the exible membrane due to distortion. When an
To reduce the impact of MRI on people as much as possible,
external force acts on the force sensor, the lm deects, causing
more and more people are paying attention. In an MRI-guided
the permanent magnet to change its position. This causes the
Open Access Article. Published on 11 February 2021. Downloaded on 5/31/2021 11:58:12 AM.

surgery, Schell et al. utilized a 3-axis Hall sensor for the posi-
distance between the Hall sensor and the permanent magnet to
tion detection of surgical tools.105–107 The use of hall sensors
change, and the magnetic eld intensity read by the sensor
provides a new approach for the development of MRI-
increases. The increase of the magnetic eld causes the Hall
compatible real-time magnetic tracking systems that can be
sensor to produce voltage changes. Once the sensor is cali-
integrated into MR-guided minimally invasive surgical tools.
brated, these voltages can be converted into perceived force.
Subsequently, Yamaguchi et al. installed a Hall sensor
The system could then be utilized to detect forces on the tissue
(THM1176-HF, Metrolab) in the cap for the magnetic eld
and distinguish different so biological materials. As a good
detection to avoid a strong magnetic eld in the laboratory as
example, Chatzipirpiridis et al. have adopted a Hall sensor
long-term use.108,109 The hall voltage measured during the
(A1389, Allegro) to build a new system to verify functions on the
measurement is positively correlated with the local magnetic
tissues.100 Subsequently, they miniaturized the system,104 as
eld, and since the gradients of all switches during the imaging
shown in Fig. 12(b). The internal temperature compensation
sequence are predetermined, the spatial position of the sensor
circuit of the system reduces intrinsic sensitivity dri. In addi-
can be calculated from the hall voltage measured. Occupational
tion, a small signal high gain amplier and a low impedance
exposure to high static magnetic elds (SMF) during magnetic
output are integrated into the sensor integrated circuit. More-
resonance imaging (MRI) has been shown to be hazardous to
over, Chathuranga et al. have implemented 3 Hall sensors
health. As a similar purpose, Delmas et al. used a 3-aixs Hall
(SS495A, Honeywell) to build a 3-axis force system,101 as shown
sensor (CY-SJ362A) to build a new system to monitor static
in Fig. 12(c). In the same year, 3 Hall sensors (AS5510, Allegro)
magnetic elds in the MRI.109 Data collection begins each time
were performed by Singal et al. to detect various so biological
an object enters the scanner room, and ends when the object
materials,102 as shown in Fig. 12(d). The detection system they
leaves the room.
designed can simultaneously measure the strength of the x, y,
and z dimensions. Overcoming the limitations of ergonomics, it
can reach organs and tissues that are difficult to reach by 4.5 Other applications
traditional surgery. More recently, Backman et al. built In addition to the above applications, Hasenkamp et al.
a uniaxial tensile tester platform by using a Hall sensor (EQ- designed a smart system to assist degenerative diseases treat-
730L, AKM) as a force sensor,103 as shown in Fig. 12(e). This ments. A Hall sensor (HW-322B, AKM) is adopted as
a displacement sensor to measure displacements of the

Fig. 12 (a) Four different points in tissue are detected by using a force detection instrument consisting of Hall-effect sensor, magnet and flexible
membrane;100 (b) miniaturized force detection instrument;100 (c) 3 Hall-effect sensors build 3-axis force detection instrument used for char-
acterized different tissue;101 (d) using 3 Hall-effect sensor build force sensor for distinguishing biological tissue;102 (e) A uniaxial tensile tester by
using Hall-effect sensor system as force sensor.103

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distractor. Moreover, Ruiz et al. built a microdrive.110 It could work of Quanyuan Feng was supported by the Major Project of
study neural activities of small animals such as birds and rates the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) uner
and rats. Similarly, a Hall sensor (A1324, Allegro) with the ultra- grant 62090012, supported by the National Natural Science
high resolution (few nanometers) was implemented to deter- Foundation of China (NSFC) under Grant 61531016, supported
This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported Licence.

mine the positions of electrodes within the rat brain, avoiding by Sichuan Provincial Science and Technology Important
a neutral signal loss. Besides Mayer et al. employed a handheld Projects under Grant 2018GZ0139, 2018ZDZX0148 and
medical drilling system by using a Hall sensor to detect the 2018GZDZX0001.
breakthrough signals.111 Furthermore, Kreutzer et al. utilized
a Hall sensor (SS411A, Honeywell) as a ow meter to monitor Notes and references
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