ARCHITECTURE IN THE ANCIENT
NEAR EAST
Circa 5,000 BC-AD 641
THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
INFLUENCES
GEOGRAPHICAL
Three broad zones comprise the greater part of the Near East to the South lies the Arabian
peninsula, with its desert extending northwards into Syria; in a great arc extending from the
Mediterranean Coastal plain of Palestine, through North Syria to the head of the Persian
Guff Stretches the zone of grasslands, Steppes, piedmont country and alluvial river plains
termed the Fertile Crescent; and for 2,400 km~ (1,500 milest from West to East extends a
chain of mountains and Plateaux.
The fertile plains of twin river, Tigris and Euphrates were given the name of Mesopotomla
(Greek - Mesos = middle + potamos = river). Unlike Egypt, Mesopotamia lacks natural
defensive boundaries.
34
GEOLOGICAL
The Mesopotamian plain is mostly afluviat, and befont.ayst8mltic control of the flood waters
contained much marshland. Reeds and rushes could etwaya be had in profusion, but nmbef
is imported. Stone too was lacking, timestone of alabuter il transported from 1he uplands,
llso of minerals like Copper, Tin, Lead, Goad, Silver. The one building material universalty
available was the clay from the soil hself, for making bricks. Chopped straW was mixed with
the sun-dried bricks.
Beyond Mesopotamia, on the pla188ux of Anatolia and t·ran, the Geology is completely dif
ferent. Stone was available throughout the highland .zone for bufkJing purpoees; and
Anatofia Timber is available conaequentty oJSdnctJve architeC'tural traditions appeared,. with
the timber frame structure being the protOtype of ~ in mud brick. ... ·
CLIMATIC
Except for the humid Black sea and Caspian Littorals, most of the Near East is subject to ex-
tremes of temperature between winter and summer, the prevalence of heat or cold being
detennined principally by altitude. In much of the highland zone,winter is longer than sum-
mer. The ..MEGARON" with its entrance at the end rather than in the long sldee, was thus
suited to the dimate r1 the Anatotian plateau; and perhaps too the dry, exhillrating air of the
Iranian plateau- Persepolis stands at an altitude of 1,8)0 M (6,000 ft.). May account for the
frequency of light. columned halls and portlcoee in the persian royal buildings.
Portico - a colonnaded space forming an entrance or vestibule, with a roof aupported
_ on at least one side by columns
MegiJfDn - principal room of an anatolian house
~ ...............
L _I
HISTORICAL, SOCIAL AND RELIGIQUS
a. M•opotemla- Sumerians, an "Asianic" people had been occupying the land from the
first settlement of Erldu, by historical tradition and material evidence the oldest city of
Sumer before Sargon.· The cities of Mesopotamia had been ruled by individual gover-
nors.
The mainspring of growth of cities in Meaopatamia was the temple, the source of that
communal organiza1ion and authority which each community required to achieve the
status and premanence at a city.
b. Anatolia. the Levant and Iran -The archives of the Hittite Capital Hattusas are the
main source of knowledge of the history and civilization of the Hittite State in the second
millennium B.C. A major disruption occured with the invasion of the sea peoples, bring:
ing the philistines to occupy part of the land which has ever since retained. their name
·<. Palestine. The most important result of the event was the development of iron - working.
c. The Persian empire - from a relatively small state in south-west Iran, Cyrus the gteat
founder of the Acheamenian empire, established the basis of his power by the defeat of
his grandfather, Astyages the Mede.
The rule of the persians waa not harsh; customs and religious of the conquered people
were respected.
35
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
1.. In the aUuvial plains of the Tigris and EuphrateS Stone and Timber suitable for building
were rare or unobtainable except by importation. There was however an abundance of
clay which compressed in moulds and either dried in the sun or kilnfired, provided bricks
for every kind of structure. Besides massive, towered fortifications. ·
2. The outstanding constructions were Temple complexes or palaces, Temples being
typical of Bab·,lonian architecture and palaces of Assyrian, buildings were raised on
~ud brick platforms dnd the chief temples has sacred "ZIGGURATS" artificial moun-
tains made up of tiered, rectangular stages which rose in number from one to seven in
the course of Meso~otamian history (a high pyramidal stages tower, Q.f wt:ich the angles
were oriented to the cardinal points).
The Ziggurat of URNAMMU. UR
3. Apart from the fu~ifications and the Ziggurats buildings of all types were arranged round
large and small courtS, the rooms are narrow and thick walled carrying brick barrel vaults
and sometimes cones.
4. The roof were usually flat outside except where domes protruded, palm logs supported
rushes and packed clay served for coverings.
5. Burnt brick was used sparingly for facings or· where special stress was expected.
6. Walls were white washed or as with the developed Ziggurat, painted in colour.
1. Essentially, architecture was arcuated. The table arch with radiating voussoirs having
been known by the third millenaum B.C.
8. For want of stone, columns were not used, except for a few instances.
9. Towers of flat buttressa strips were commonly vertically panelled and finished in stepped
. battlements above ·and stone plinths below with colossal winged bulls guarding the chief
portals, facing with polychrome glazed bricks, introduced by the Assyrians, was another
mode of decoration.
1. The architecture of the Persians was columnary and thus vastly different from the
massive arcuated architecture of
the Mesopotamian peoples they conquered.
2. Flat Timber roofs rather than vaults served for covefings, which allowed columns to be
· Slender and graceful. while with their help rooms could be large where necessary. and
of square proportions rather than elongated.
3. For ceilings, wooden brackets and beams carried by the columns supported a covering
of clay on a bedding of reeds on logs or planks.
36
4. The use of double mud brick walls for stability as at persepolis~ may have allowed small
windows just below ceiling level without their appearing on the severe external tacades.
5. Stone was plentiful on the upland sites, but used sparingly for sUCh purposes as
fire-Temples and palace platforms; door and window surrounds. and for richly ornate
columns and relief sculptUre~ and for richly ornate .columns and relief. sculpture, or with
figures on a modest scate. ·
It would ~accurate to claim ttiat the architectural character of the major building erect-
ed during many centuries in Mesopotamia, and during the archaemenian period in Iran,
exemplify the two main traditions of the Near East as whole that .of the alluvial river
plains and that of the whole highland Zone respectivety. These were the traditions of
clay and wood.
EXAMPLES
The architecture of the ancient Near East is considered under the following headfngs:
Early Mesopotamian - 5th to 2nd millennia B~C.
Assyrian and Neo- Babytonian- 1859-539 B.C.
Early Anatolian and Hittite - 325()..1170 B.C.
Canaanite, Phoenician and Israelite - 325()..587 B.C.
Syro-Hittite- 1170-745 B.C.
Utaitian - 850-600 B. c.
. Phrygian - 750-650 B.C.
Median and Persian- 750-350 B;C.
Seleucid,- Panhian and Sassanian--312 BC.-641 A.D.
37
Each of the buildings was raised upon a Terrace, that of the patace of Sar9C?"' reaching
to the level of the town walls, which the palace site bestrode and was approved by
broad ramps. The main entrance to the palace grand court was flanked by great towers
arid guarded by man-headed winged balls, nearly 3.8 m {12ft. 6 ins.) high supporting a
bold, semi circular arch decorated with brilliandy- coloured glazed bricks. The palace
had three (3) main parts, each abutting the grand court. On the left on entering was a
group of three large and three small temples; on the right, service. qua~rs and ad·
ministrative office; and opposite the private and residential apartments, wittl the state
chambers behind.
3. Peraian and Median (Iranian) Architecture
The Palace of Persepolfs-was executed by xerxes I and finished by artoxerxes I ~t
460 B.C. The various buildings stood on a platform, partly built up and partly excavated,
faced in well-laid local stone bound with iron cramps, about 460 m x 275 m (1,500 ft. by
900ft.) in extent and rising 15m {50 ft.) above the plain at the base of a rocky spur.
The approach on the North-.West was by a magnificent flight of steps, 6.7 m (22ft.)
wide, shallow enough for horses to ascend. A gatehouse by xerxes had mud-brick
walls, faced with polychrome bricks, and front and rear portals guarded by stone bulls.
A third doorway on the south led towards the " APADANA'', a grand audience hall, 76.2
m (250ft. ) square and with thirty..s;x columns within its 6 m (20ft.) thick walls, begun by
Darius but completed by his two successors. It stood on its own Terrace 3m (10 'ft.)
high hact three porticoes each with double colonnades; stairways on the North and east
side, and minor rooms across the south side and in the tour angie towers.
A· APAMMA E.- TR.IPVL.CN
B- PALACe OF XSJ\XE,S F - f>AL.ACI:: 0~ PAR.l~S
c:;· HAReM (5 - TREA'GU R Y
D - THR.ONIE" tt""'L1- OF XERXES PLAN ore 'PA~E
PLatfQm
38
39
1. Early Mesopotamian Architecture
a. Z/ggu,.ts
Corner served by a long flight of lazy steps from which a circuitous ramp ·ted off from
an intermediate landing•.The Temple, originally white washed·, ·had and end to end
hall of a span of 4.6 m (15ft.), flanked on both sides by a &eries of smaller rooms,
three of which contajned stairway leading to the roof.
b. Ziggufllt •nd Precinct of UR
Remodelled by Umammu and his successors. The comptex comprised the Ziggurat
and its court a seconda.rv court attached to it, and three great Temples. All these
stood on a great rectangular platform at the heart of an oval-shaptd walled city, itself
about 6. 1 m (20ft. l above the ~rrouoding plain. The Ziggurat, 62 m x 43 m (.205ft. x
141ft.} on b8Se, and about 21.m (70ft.) high, carried the usual temple on its summit
and had the nonnal orientation.
The Ziggurat at UR had a solid core of mud brick, covered with a skin of burnt brick
work 2.4 m (8ft.) thick, laid in Bitumen and with layers of matting at intervals to im-
prove cohesion.
The Ziggurat of UR was built in about 2100 B.C. for Su'en, the moon-god. It
measured 700 ft. round the base, and a triple staircase climbed ~ ft .·to the summit.
The core of the Ziggurat, most of which still stand today, was a solid mound of
mud -bricks.
2. A•yrian Architecture
In the second millenium B.C., the Assyrian state had to struggle for its existence.
Polychrome omarnenta) brickwork, introduced by the Assyrian, had its origin$ in these
early· centuries. Temples both with and without Ziggurats were built In Assyrian. In the
reign of Ashumasirpal 11, the use of high plinths or dadoes of great stone slabs placecl
on edge and usually carved with low relief sculpture appeared.
The city of Khorsabad was built by Saigon 11 (n2-105 B.C.I and abandoned at his
death. It was square-planned with a defensive perimeter, and covered nearly one
square mile, but this area was never entirely occupied by buildings. There were two
gateways in eaoh tower-serrated wall except where the place of one of them on the
40
North-west wall was taken by an extensive citadel.enclosure containing all but one of
the Town's chief buil<fmgs. ·
These comprise a paa&ce for the king's brother, who was his vizier; a temple to Nabu
several office buildings, and dominating them all, the PALACE of SARGON a complex of
large and srRaN courts, corridofs and rooms, covering 23 acres.
41
WALL SLAB : KINE:. ON THRONE & ATTtiiNDA.N-rS
