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LIFE SCIENCES
GRADE 11
HUMAN NUTRITION
SA 1 Learn about:
• The parts of the alimentary canal, its associated organs and their functions
• The processes of digestion, absorption and transport of nutrients along the
alimentary canal
• Malnutrition
• Disorders of the digestive system and food allergies

SA 2 Learn how to:

• Conduct a practical investigation into the action of salivary amylase

SA 3 Think about and discuss:

• The implications of modern life-style on health
• The role of government and other groups in maintaining health standards

NOTES:
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HUMAN DIGESTION & ALLERGIES

Food contains many nutrients, but in the form in which it is taken in, it cannot be used
immediately. It must be broken down into smaller molecules so that absorption and food
usage can occur.

1. IMPORTANCE OF FOOD

• Food is a source of energy

• It provides material for growth and repair of tissues
• Food contains regulating substances such as minerals, vitamins and water which
assist in controlling various body functions

1.1 What is a balanced diet?

A balanced diet includes all the types of nutrients in the correct proportions according to
the age, gender and activity level of the individual.

Write brief notes about changes in the diet recommendations for different people. _____
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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2. THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
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Humans have a through-gut with sections specialised to perform certain functions. The
following processes occur within the digestive tract of humans.

• Ingestion Intake of food through the mouth

• Mastication Also called chewing – food is physically broken down and mixed
with saliva in the mouth.
• Digestion The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food
• Peristalsis The rhythmic, wavelike contraction of the parts of the gut to
move the food along it
• Absorption Diffusion or movement of simple food molecules into the blood
• Defecation : The removal of undigested, unabsorbed waste from the body
through the anus in the form of faeces. Also called egestion.

2.1 THE MOUTH

The mouth is the first part of the digestive system that the food enters. The lips, cheeks
and tongue keep the food in between the teeth, ensuring uniform chewing. The tongue
forms the food into a _____________ (ball of food) and pushes it towards the back of the
mouth, assisting with swallowing and is responsible for our sense of ______________.
The pH medium of the mouth is approximately _______________________ (about pH7).
Three pairs of salivary glands secrete saliva, consisting of water, mucus and
______________________ (an enzyme). It digests cooked starch to _______________.

2.2 THE PHARYNX or THROAT:

The pharynx is at the back of the mouth cavity, leading to the oesophagus and trachea. It
allows the entry of food into the oesophagus during swallowing. When food is
swallowed, the ________________ closes the entry to the trachea.
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The mouth and throat:

2.3 THE OESOPHAGUS

The oesophagus is a narrow muscular tube that links the pharynx to the stomach. It lies
immediately behind the trachea. It forces the bolus down into the stomach by a muscular
wave-like motion called _________________. Goblet cells in the wall secrete mucus
which serves to lubricate the walls for the smooth passage of the bolus.
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2.4 THE STOMACH
The stomach is a muscular bag-like organ in the upper left abdominal cavity, just below
the diaphragm. It is lined with mucosa, a slippery layer with many goblet cells to reduce
damage to the stomach by gastric juices. The inner surface of the stomach has many
muscular folds which become fewer as the stomach expands. It secretes
_____________________, which contains enzymes and hydrochloric acid (HCl). The HCl
activates the gastric enzymes and creates _____________ conditions for optimal enzyme
action (about pH 2-3). The muscular action of the stomach, called churning, mixes the
food with gastric juice, forming a watery mixture of half-digested food, called
___________. The main enzyme acting in the stomach is pepsin, which digests
___________________ to polypeptides.
The cardiac and pyloric sphincters control the upper and lower openings of the stomach.

Structure of the stomach:

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2.5 SMALL INTESTINE
The small intestine begins at the pyloric sphincter, extends through the abdominal cavity
and opens into the large intestine. Various glands add secretions containing enzymes to
the small intestine. Enzymes are also found on the surface of the columnar epithelial cells
for final digestion. FINAL DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OCCUR IN THE SMALL INTESTINE.
The pH medium here is ________________ (about pH 8) due to bile and pancreatic juice.
Many finger-like extensions of the mucosa called ___________ increase the surface area
for the absorption of nutrients.

The muscles of the small intestine cause peristalsis which move food along towards the
___________ intestine.
The small intestine
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STRUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS OF THE VILLI:
• There are many, elongated villi to _________________________ for food absorption.
• Has a ____________ layer of columnar epithelial cells – allows rapid diffusion.
• Has a _____________ to transport absorbed fats.
• Has many capillaries for the transport of absorbed ____________ and amino acids.
• Columnar epithelial cells have many mitochondria which provide the ______________
for the active absorption of nutrients.
• Goblet cells secrete _____________ which protects the villi and lubricates food.
• Digestive enzymes are found on the surface of columnar epithelial cells for final
digestion of some nutrients.

2.6 THE LIVER

The liver is the largest gland in the body, lying in the upper right abdominal cavity, just
below the diaphragm.

The liver and gall bladder:

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Functions of the liver:
• Makes and secretes bile.
• Converts excess ___________ into glycogen and fat.
• Breaks down excess amino acids by __________________ to form urea.
• Detoxifies harmful substances, e.g. some food colourants, flavourings and alcohol.
• Stores some minerals (e.g. iron)
• Stores some vitamins e.g. A, D, E and K.

2.7 GALL BLADDER

It is a pear-shaped pouch found on the lower surface of the liver. It stores bile, which
breaks fats into smaller droplets by ____________________ and creates an alkaline
medium in the small intestine.

2.6 PANCREAS
The pancreas is a gland below the stomach. It has pancreatic ducts to connect it to the
duodenum. It secretes ______________________ which contains a number of enzymes
to digest proteins, fats and carbohydrates.

Special groups of endocrine cells called islets of Langerhans are found in the pancreas.
They secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon which control blood ______________
level. Insulin lowers blood sugar level by converting glucose to glycogen which is
insoluble and stored in the liver. Glucagon has the opposite effect.
The pancreas:
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2.9 LARGE INTESTINE
The large intestine extends from the small intestine to the anus. It consists of the caecum
with appendix, colon, rectum and anus. The colon contains mutualistic bacteria which
ferment food remains to form faeces. ________________, minerals and vitamins are
absorbed from the undigested remains. NO DIGESTION OCCURS IN THE COLON.

3. DIGESTION OF FOOD

Food is taken in as large molecules, which are often insoluble in water. This food must be
broken down into a form that can be easily absorbed by the body cells The breaking
down of food into smaller molecules so that it can be absorbed, is known as digestion.
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3.1 Mechanical digestion
This involves physically breaking the food down. Food is not changed chemically.

• Mastication – chewing and mixing of food with saliva in the mouth

• Churning - stomach makes strong churning actions to break chyme down
• Peristalsis - muscular contractions which cause the food to move along
the digestive tract.
• Emulsification - bile breaks fat globules into smaller droplets, which creates a
bigger _________________________ for fat-digesting enzymes to act on.

3.2 Chemical Digestion

Chemical digestion involves the breakdown of large food molecules into smaller
molecules with the aid of ________________, using the process hydrolysis. These
enzymes are found in the digestive juices and also bound to columnar epithelium of the
villi in the small intestine. There are 5 digestive juices i.e. saliva (mouth), gastric juice
(stomach), pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice. The latter three are active in the
small intestine, though bile is the only digestive juice without enzymes.

After chemical digestion, all complex food molecules have been hydrolysed to their
monomers and are ready for absorption:
• Proteins have become __________________________________
• Polysaccharides have become ____________________________
• Lipids have become ____________________________________
Vitamins, minerals and water do not need to undergo hydrolysis – they are small enough
to be absorbed directly into the blood stream.
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4 ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED FOOD

• Most foods are absorbed into the villi of the small intestine.
• Sugars and amino acids are absorbed into the blood and are carried to the liver via the
__________________________.
• Fats enter the lymphatic system at the ____________ and later join the blood system.
• Vitamins, minerals and water are absorbed in the large intestine.

What happens to the absorbed nutrients?

Once the nutrients reach the cells, they can be used for:
• __________________ materials like amino acids and calcium.
• Source of ___________________ like most sugars.
• As regulating substances, like many ___________________.
• If there is an excess of certain foodstuffs, they can undergo conversions:
o Excess fats are ______________ under the skin.
o Excess glucose is converted to ____________________ and stored in liver and
muscles.
o Excess amino acids cannot be stored – they undergo __________________ in
the liver and can become either stored fat or are used as fuel for respiration.
o Most excessive minerals are lost in urine, though Ca and P are stored in
bones.
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5 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH NUTRITION

5.1 MALNUTRITION: Under-nutrition

Malnutrition results from not eating a balanced diet. This can include not eating enough
or eating too much.

CONDITION CAUSE SYMPTOMS

Kwashiorkor Children fed on a high Swollen abdomen due to an

carbohydrate and low protein enlarged liver, thin arms and legs,
diet. retarded growth and a swollen face.

Anorexia Psychological – person refuses to Excessive weight loss which could

nervosa eat. lead to death. There is also a
decreased resistance to diseases.

Marasmus Children receiving too little Loss of mass, large staring eyes, thin
carbohydrates, proteins and fats. arms and legs and very little fatty
It’s basically starvation. tissue. Low disease resistance.

Bulimia Exact cause is unknown. May be Guilt associated with eating,

psychological or neurological or frequent weighing, low body
endocrinal. Episodes of binge weight, secretive behaviour, person
eating followed by self-induced induces vomiting after binging.
vomiting.
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5.1. MALNUTRITION: Obesity
Obesity is caused by a person eating too much _________________ and _______,
resulting in an excessive accumulation of adipose tissue. Obese persons are more likely to
suffer from cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, diabetes, certain cancers and gall
bladder diseases. Recently, obesity has been linked to genetic factors related to
metabolic rates. Obesity can also be the result of insufficient exercise.

5.2 FOOD DISEASES, DISORDERS AND ALLERGIES:

(1) IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROME (IBS)
This condition affects 10 – 20% of the general population. It is the most common
condition related to nutrition diagnosed by doctors who specialise in treatment of
disorders of the stomach and intestines. IBS is often difficult to diagnose and is
characterised by abdominal pain or discomfort, associated with a change in bowel
pattern, such as loose or more frequent bowel movements, diarrhoea, or constipation.
The exact causes are not known.

(2) COLON CANCER

As a result of our highly processed diets i.e. insufficient fibre provided by fruit and
vegetable material, there has been an increase in colon cancer recently. The bark of the
Africa bushwillow tree is known to contain a promising anti-cancer molecule. This was
discovered in the 1970’s by researchers working on bark they had collected in the Eastern
Cape. Before the medicine can be released for use by oncologists (cancer specialists)
worldwide, it must successfully pass a series of medical trials. These trials take a number
of years, but it is believed that if all goes well, the drug will become available.
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(3) PEPTIC ULCERS
The pH in the stomach is very low due to __________________________. The gastric
glands produce sticky mucus, which coats the stomach lining and prevents the stomach
being attacked by acid and enzymes. If too much acid is produced, a ‘hole’ can form in
the stomach wall – this is a gastric ulcer or peptic ulcer. Ulcers are painful, due to acids
and enzymes digesting the stomach wall itself.

Stomach ulcers can be caused by a bacterium called Helicobacter pylori that can survive
in gastric acid. Treatment with antibiotics can prevent these ulcers.

Excess acid can lead to ‘heartburn’, due to acid moving up the _____________________
in the chest or the area of the heart. To help neutralise excess stomach acid, people can
take antacid medication.

(4) LACTOSE INTOLERANCE

Lactose intolerance is due to inability to digest _______ sugar (lactose) because of the
absence of the enzyme lactase. This inability results in the accumulation of undigested
lactose in the intestine causing diarrhoea, gas, and cramps.

(5) DIABETES MELLITUS

This condition results from having a defective pancreas that has lost its ability to secrete
the hormone _________________, so it causes the blood glucose level to rise. Symptoms
are frequent thirst and frequent urination, which includes glucose in the urine. Diabetes
mellitus can be controlled with medication. Without treatment a patient could become
blind, lapse into a diabetic coma and die.
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(6) FOOD ALLERGIES
Food allergies are often misunderstood. Many people who think they are allergic to foods
when they are merely sensitive to these foods. Classic food allergies include allergies to
milk, soya, egg white, shellfish and peanuts. A food allergy results in the body forming
antibodies against the offending food. Egg, and to a lesser extent, dairy product allergies
are often outgrown by people who suffer from them.

Food Allergy Reactions

• Itchy mouth
• Fullness in the throat
• An intense itchy rash all over the body
• Difficulty in breathing
• Vomiting

Peanut allergies in school children

The principal of a school received notes from parents who were upset about a peanut
ban at their children’s school, because a few children had nut allergies. Peanut bans in
schools make sense if even one child has a known, potentially deadly allergy. Parents
need to understand that someone can die, even when peanut products are simply being
served from the same kitchen. For these reasons, almost half of the deaths from peanut
allergies occur at school. The amount of peanut protein needed to cause an allergic
reaction can be very low, even a tiny amount can trigger an immediate reaction. When
such a person goes into shock, they need to go to the hospital so they can be treated to
help speed up their breathing and heart rate.

Scientists are working on a vaccine to help people. Until then, warnings on food
packaging about possible contact with peanuts in processing and not allowing peanut
products in schools will need to continue.
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PRACTICAL WORK THE ACTION OF SALIVARY AMYLASE ON STARCH

METHOD AND RESULTS:

1. Work in groups of 5-6 learners. Decide within the group which learner will do which investigation/s.
2. Label test tubes 1 to 6 and treat the content of each as described in the results table below.
- Test tubes 1 and 2 are control tests, to find out what compounds are normally present in cooked rice
- Test tubes 3 and 4 show the effects of saliva on cooked rice.
- Test tubes 5 and 6 show the effect of chewing + saliva on cooked rice.
3. For each block on the results table, fill in “pos” for positive test or “neg” for a negative test for the
compound you tested for. In some cases, “weak pos” or “strong pos” may be more appropriate.

Table to show the results of the investigation into the action of salivary amylase on cooked starch (rice):
TEST TUBE 1 2 3 4 5 6
Starch test
Sugar test
No saliva added – just do Un-chewed rice put into Rice chewed for 2 mins and
the starch test and sugar 1 cm of saliva and held in spat into test tube. Add a
test on cooked rice. the hand to stay warm little water before testing.

CONCLUSIONS:
• Test tubes 1 & 2 show that cooked rice contains ______________, but no ______________.
• Test tubes 3 & 4 show the effect saliva has on the rice: The starch test is still _______________,
because not all the starch has been digested. There is now a positive ____________ test,
showing that some of the starch has changed into a sugar.
• Test tubes 5 & 6 show the effect of chewing: The starch test is still positive (not all starch has
been digested), but the VERY strongly positive _______________ test in no. 5 indicates that
there is more sugar present in this test tube than in test tube no. 3. Chewing has increased the
_______________________ for enzymes to work on, so the enzyme is more effective.

These results show that the enzyme salivary amylase breaks down ____________ _____________ to
______________, a sugar. This happens best in a neutral medium and at body temperature (37°C).
Chewing speeds up the hydrolysis of starch.