Post-Harvest Tech/Crop Processing & Storage

Introduction

Despite the remarkable progress made in increasing food production at the global level,
approximately half of the population in the third world does not have access to adequate food
supplies. There are many reasons for this, one of which is food losses occurring in the post-
harvest and marketing system. Evidence suggests that these losses tend to be highest in those
countries where the need for food is greatest. Both quantitative and qualitative food losses of
extremely variable magnitude occur at all stages in the post-harvest system from harvesting,
through handling, storage, processing and marketing to final delivery to the consumer. Estimates
of the post-harvest losses of food grains in the developing world from mishandling, spoilage and
pest infestation are put at 25 percent; this means that one-quarter of what is produced never
reaches the consumer for whom it was grown, and the effort and money required to produce it
are lost-forever. Fruit, vegetables and root crops are much less hardy and are most quickly
perishable, and if care is not taken in their harvesting, handling and transport, they will soon
decay and become unfit for human consumption.

Estimates of production losses in developing countries are hard to judge, but some authorities put
losses of sweet potatoes, plantain, tomatoes, bananas and citrus fruit to as high as 50 percent, or
half of what is grown. Reduction in this wastage, particularly if it can economically be avoided,
would be of great significance to growers and consumers alike. To reduce these losses producers
and handlers must first understand the biological and environmental factors involved in
deterioration. And second, use post-harvest techniques that delay senescence and maintain the
best possible quality.

What is Post-Harvest Technology?

Post-harvest technologies constitute an inter-disciplinary science and techniques applied to

agricultural commodities after harvest for the purpose of preservation, conservation, quality
control/enhancement, processing, packaging, storage, distribution, marketing, and utilization to
meet the food and nutritional requirements of consumers in relation to their needs. Postharvest
technology stimulates agricultural production, prevents post-harvest losses, improves nutrition
and adds value to agricultural products thereby opening new marketing opportunities and
generating new jobs while stimulating growth of other related economic sectors.

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The process developing post-harvest technologies requires an interdisciplinary and

multidimensional research approach, which includes scientific creativity, technological
innovation, and commercial entrepreneurship and stakeholder inputs.

Physical characteristics

Physical properties of biomaterials are those properties that describe or characterize the materials
no applied load. Some of the physical properties of bio-materials include: shape, size, sureface
area, density, volume, and moisture content, porosity angle of repose, specific gravity, color and
appearance.

The basic physical properties of grains particularly are influenced by the variety and type of
grain, the location and soil fertility where the crop is grown and the cultural and harvesting
practices used.

Importance of physical properties as it relates to processing, Handling and storage of

Agricultural Products.

1. It is important in problems associated with design of a specific machine or analysis of the

behavior of the materials during production, handling and processing.
2. The mechanical, thermal and other properties of biomaterials depend on the physical
properties.
3. It’s also needed in developing new consumer products using agricultural products as raw
materials.
4. It is also needed in evaluating and retaining the quality of final products.

Mechanical Properties

Mechanical properties of agricultural products refer to those properties when there is applied
force, such properties include: hardness, compressive strength, impact sheer resistance, statistic
and sliding coefficients of friction, expansion modulus of deformability stress indices and so
many others.

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Importance of Mechanical Properties

1. Mechanical damage to seeds and grains occur in harvesting, threshing and handling can
affect viability and germination power, growth rate, insects and fungi attack as well as
quality of the final product.
2. Data on hardness of agricultural material are used to determine relationship between
hardness and certain physical and chemical properties feed value and size reduction.
3. Compressive strength, impact and sheer resistance are important and necessary
engineering data in studying size reduction of grains as well as in handling condition.
4. Coefficient of friction is important in determining the pressure of grain and silage against
storage bin walls and silos.
5. Knowledge of mechanical property is important in mechanical harvesting, bulk, handling,
transporting and storage of fruit and vegetable products.

Other engineering properties of agricultural products are also discussed briefly below.

Thermal Properties

Many of the agricultural products of plant or animal origin are subjected to various types of
thermal processes include heating, cooling, drying and freezing. Any change in temperature is
dependent upon the thermal properties. The thermal properties include: specific heat, thermal
conductivity, thermal diffusivity, surface conductance and emissivity.

Electrical Properties

Some electrical properties of agricultural products which are important in handling and
processing are electrical conductance and capacitance, dielectric properties and reaction.
Electrostatic separation is used for separation and cleaning of agricultural seeds.

Optical Properties

Light transmittance and reflectance properties of agricultural products are considered their
optical properties this is an indication of the amount of light a bio- material can transmit or
reflect or absorb. From an optical point of view intact agricultural products are dense, light

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scattering materials which are required a highly sensitive and specially designed
spectrophotometer for measuring their spectral transmittance characteristics.

Importance of Optical Properties

1. They are useful in electronic sorting and grading of fruits.

2. Maturity and surface color evaluation of bio-materials.

3. Separation of desirable products from foreign materials.

4. Study of the interior characteristic of fruits and vegetables.

Moisture Content

This refers to the amount of moisture contained in a product, it can be expressed on a wet or dry
basis.

On Wet basis:

Mwb= Ww x 100%

Ww+Wd

On Dry basis:

Mdb= Ww x 100%

Wd

Where;

Ww= weight of water in the material (Kg)

Wd= weight of dry matter (Kg)

Most engineering properties are influenced by moisture content of the material. It also influences
harvesting and post harvesting operations of most crops.

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Example

Determine the grain moisture content of a sorghum grain on wet and dry basis using the
following data

Weight of CAN +29g Sample before heating = 56.53g

Weight of CAN + Sample after heating = 46.8g

Solution

Weight of sample before heating = 29g

Weight of water lost (w)=(56.53-46.8)=9.73g

Weight of sample after drying (wa)=(46.8-27.53) 19.27g

On wet basis;

Mwb= Ww x100

Ww + Wd

9.73×100

9.73+ 19.27 = 33.5%

On Dry basis;

Mdb = Ww x 100

Wd

9.73x100
19.73 = 49.3%

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Moisture Content Adjustment

Sometimes it becomes necessary in research involving bio materials to adjust moisture content.
This is done to simulate or create some desired levels of grain moisture from harvesting to post
harvesting periods.

Various expressions used for moisture content adjustment include the following:

METHOD 1

Dry WET(100-Pw)

100-Pd

Where;

Dry=Dry weight of grain (g)

WET=Wet grain weight (g)

Pw= Percentage moisture content (wb) (at purchase)

Pd=Percentage moisture content (db) (required)

METHOD 2

Q= (100−¿
100−¿ mr )
mf
Ws

Where;

Q=Amount of water to be added (g or kg)

Mf= Present moisture content

Mr= Required moisture content

Ws = Weight of the sample (g or kg)

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METHOD 3

Q=A[b-a]

100-b

Where:

Q=Mass of water to be added in (g or kg)

A = Initial mass of the sample in (g or kg)

a = Initial moisture content of the sample in %

b= Final (Desired) moisture content of sample in % db or wb

EXAMPLE

In a laboratory experiment involving maize grain, five levels of moisture viz: 14%, 17%, 20%,
23% and 26% (wb) will be required to determine angle of repose at properties. If the grain
moisture content purchase is 20%, determine the amount of water to be added or removed in
hygroscopic adjustment of moisture content for the lab work. A sample weight 50kg is to be
measured each time from a stored bulk of grain.

Solutions

Using Method

Dry=WET(100-Pw)

100-Pd

For 14% wb

50(100-20)

100-14

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50(80)

86

46.512-50 = -3.48kg

The negative sign implies the removal of moisture

For 17% (wb)

50(100-80)

100-17

50(80)

83

48.19 - 50

=-1.81kg

The negative sign implies the removal of moisture

Moisture content Removal

Example

Calculate the amount of water removed and the quantity of grain that would be left if 80kg of
maize at 48% moisture content was dried to 35.5% moisture content

Solution

Given 80kg of maize grain at 48% moisture content (MI)

Dried to 35.5% moisture content (M2)

Using the formular

Dry weight weight (100-M1)

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100-M2 kg

Dry weight=80 (100-48)

100-35.5 kg

Dry weight-80(52)

64.5 kg

-64.49kg

Water removed (80-64.49) kg

Size and shape of Biomaterials

Shape and size are inseparable in a physical object and both are generally necessary if the object
is to be satisfactorily described. Seeds, grains, fruits and vegetables are irregular in shape and a
complete specification of their form theoretically requires an infinite number of measurement
from practical point of view, measurement of several mutually perpendicular is however
sufficient. The number of these measurement increases with increase in irregularity of shape.

The size and shape of agricultural material or of a processed product do not only affects the
degree of consumer acceptance, but in many cases it also influenced packaging destitution of
stress when force are applied and process ability. The shape of fruits and vegetables have been
described and classified into different categories such as:

Round- approaching spheroid.

Oblate- flattened at the stem apex.

Oblong- vertical diameter greater than horizontal diameter

Conic- tapered toward the apex.

Ovate- egg-shaped and broad at the stem end.

Truncated- having both end squared or flattened.

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Unequal- one help large than the other

Ribbed- in cross-section sides are more or less angular.

Regular- horizontal section approached a circle.

Irregular- horizontal cross-section departs materially from circle'

Size is usually characterized in practice by determining the opening as in a sieve or screen,

through which the products will or will not pass, this method is most appropriate for products
that are approximately spherical.

Size and shape of any agricultural material or processed product are important for the
following reasons:

1. They affect the degree of consumer acceptance.

2. They influence the distribution stresses when force is applied.

3. They also influence packaging process ability.

4. They important in development of sizing and grading machinery.

Cleaning, Sorting and Separations of Biological Materials.

Separation: This is the preliminary preparative operations of cleaning together with the

operations of sorting and grading are of convenience regarded as separation.

Cleaning: this refers to the removal of foreign or dissimilar material. This may be done by

washing, screening, or hand picking Sorting: refers to the separation of cleaned product into

various quality fractions that may be defined on the basis of size, shape, density and colour.

Grading: this is the classification of the material on the basis of commercial value and usage and

is dependent upon more factor than are recognized when physical sorting is considered, for

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example: small grain and certain fruit and vegetable may be passed through a mechanical grader

which sorts the material on the basis of size, shape or density.

The unity operation used in cleaning and sorting cannot be listed exclusively under either of

those heads since some operations apply both, for example an air blast can be used for cleaning

chaff, from grain or for removing light weight seeds for seed stock. A sieve can be used for

cleaning stick and leave from grain or for sorting out small, immature grain.

Certain crop characteristics could be combined in various separation operations and are referred

to as grade factors: such characteristics are:

1. Physical characteristics: moisture content, unit size, unit weight, texture, colour, foreign

matter and shape.

2. Chemical characteristics: compositional analysis, rancidity, free fatty acid indices for

fat containing materials.

3. Biological factors: Germination, type and amount of insert damage type and amount of

would damage and bacteria content.

Wet Cleaning; Washing

Fruits, vegetable and nuts are sometimes washed to remove dirt, spray residues and other foreign

materials. A preliminary cleaning operation by rough screening may be used in certain instances,

but the product maybe bruised, and therefore usual practice is to place the product as delivered

directly into the washer.

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Washer may be continuous or batch type, the batch type of a washer is recommended only for

small plants, institutional or community installations where use is intermittent and operation

costs are not critical.

Washing is performed by one or combination of the following:

 Soaking in still water or moving water sprays.

 Water sprays.

 Rotary drums.

 Rotating brushes.

 Shuffle or shaker washers.

Dry Cleaning: sieve cleaners which achieve separation without using an air blast are

uncommon, but were formerly installed as pre-cleaners in conjunction with tower-type grain

dryers. Their biggest disadvantage is a tendency to blocking of the sieve or sieves - a fault which

necessary in inspection and attention where dirty samples of grains are being dealt with, a steep

sieve trouble.

Cleaning is achieved by screening product over a sieve with holes the size of the holes depends

on the material being sieved.

Winnowers: in a sample winnowing machine the blast of air is from a fan which rotates rapidly

inside a suitable casing. The air is directed on the grain as the latter falls in a thin stream from a

hopper at the top of the machine on to a reciprocating sieves. The blast below chaff and light

material through the open of the machine while small grains (corn), weed seeds and dirt pass

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through the lower sieve. The dressing may be controlled by choice of sieves, the strength of the

air blast and the rate at which the grain passes through the machine.

The main disadvantage of the winnower apart from its limitations, is the fact that unless special

arrangement is made for dealing with it, the dust blown out may be an intolerable nuisance This

disadvantage applies to any complex machines that employs the winnowing process.

Angle of Repose

When a granular product is poured through a small hole onto a plane horizontal level, the
product will accumulate in the shape of an inverted conc.

The angle between the horizontal and the natural slope of the heap is called the natural angle of
repose.

The angle of repose is the angle with the horizontal at which the material will stand when piled.
It is influenced by the following moisture content, size, shape and orientation of the particle.

Mathematically expressed as;

Q-tan-'(Hc - Hp)

Dp

Where:

He= Height of the cone

Hp =Height of the platform

Dp=Diameter of the platform

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Maturity, ripening and senescence

Maturation is indicative of the fruit being ready for harvest. At this point, the edible part of the
fruit or vegetable is fully developed in size, although it may not be ready for immediate
consumption.

Types of maturity

Physiological and commercial maturity

i. Physiological maturity – refers to a particular stage in the development of a plant or plant

organ. A fruit is physiologically mature when its development is over. A physiologically mature
fruit may not necessarily be commercially mature. For example, papayas are harvested for
domestic markets at physiological maturity, i.e. when three-quarters of the fruit assumes a
yellow-to-green color.

ii. Commercial maturity – pertains to the timing of harvest to meet specific market and
consumer requirements. A fruit is commercially mature when it reaches a developmental stage at
which it can be marketed for a specific purpose, e.g. for consumption in the fresh state, or for
processing. Papayas, for example, are harvested for export at the mature stage, i.e. when the fruit
is firm and easy to handle. On arrival at the destination, the fruit is ripened in ripening rooms.
Commercial maturity has little impact on physiological maturity.

Ripening

Ripening follows or overlaps maturation, rendering the produce edible, as indicated by taste.

Ripening: The sequence of changes in texture, colour and flavour as a result of physiological and
biochemical change that makes the fruit ready for consumption.

Artificial ripening climacteric fruits are picked relatively green and subsequently ripened by
introducing ethylene or acetylene gas (calcium carbide) e.g. Banana, Mango, Pear and Avocado.

On the basis of the respiratory pattern and ripening behavior fruits are carried into two classes
viz., climacteric fruits and non-climacteric fruits.

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Climacteric fruit: harvested at full maturity stage and ripen after harvest. Maximum respiration
starts immediately after harvest. Long shelf life (6-8 days) no need of sophisticated packing
material as fruits are hard. e.g. Apple, Avocado, Banana, Mango, Papaya, Peas, Watermelon and
tomato.

Non-climacteric fruits: Harvested at full ripening (90-95%) complete colour development. Rate
of respiration is less than climacteric fruit. Difficult to transport need sophisticated packing
material as fruits are soft and ripened are difficult to transport. E.g. cucumber, grapes, lemon,
pineapple etc.

Chemicals used for hastening and delay of ripening of fruit and vegetables

i. Chemicals that hasten ripening

1) Ethylene: Ethylene is used for pre and postharvest treatments of fruits.

2) Acetylene and calcium chloride: Calcium carbide treatment to generate acetylene to hasten
fruit ripening in banana.

3) Smoke treatment: Burning and releasing smoke from leaves, twigs or straw will also hasten
ripening in mango.

4) 2,4-D: 2, 4 dichlorophenoxy acetic acid is used in ripening of Guava.

ii. Chemicals used to delay ripening of fruit and vegetables

1) Cytokinins and Kinetins: Delays chlorophyll degradation and senescence of leafy vegetable.

2) Gibberellins: Post harvest treatments with GA3 retard ripening of tomato and bananas

GA3 lowers respiratory rate, retards in climacteric fruits and delays the process of colour
changes.

Factors affecting ripening of fruits and vegetables

- Respiration

- Transpiration / water loss

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- Ripening Ethylene production

- Pathological stresses

- Mechanical stress

- Temperature stresses.

Respiration: It is the oxidative break down of more complex substrates normally present in cells
such as sugars, starch and organic acids to simpler molecules CO2 and H2O.

Transpiration / water loss: Fruit and vegetables contain more than 87-95% water and the
presence of moisture inside the tissue is responsible for maintenance of turgidity and succulence.
Loss of moisture is direct loss to the traders. Hence, the fruit and vegetable are sold by weight.

Ripening: Ripening is associated with physical and biochemical irreversible process which leads
to senescence and finally leads to death.

Ethylene: Ethylene is naturally produced gaseous plant growth regulator that has numerous
effect on growth, development… and storage life of many fruits, vegetable and ornamentals.

Pathological stresses: Disease play major role. Fruit and vegetable affected with disease spoil
early and minimize keeping quality/ shelf life.

Mechanical stress: Mechanical damage also affects fruit and vegetables.

Temperature: Temperature like chilling or freezing maximum temperature also affects the fruit
and vegetables quality.

Senescence

Senescence is the last stage, characterized by natural degradation of the fruit or vegetable, as in
loss of texture, flavor, etc. (senescence ends at the death of the tissue of the fruit).

The deteriorative processes which ultimately lead to complete loss of organization and
functioning of the plant or its parts are known as Senescence. Senescence occurs due to the
deposition of waste material. In some plants the whole plant dies after flowering and producing
seeds. This is called whole plant senescence. Example-annual plants like rice, wheat, beans,

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tomato, etc. In many other plants, parts above soil die each year and root system stays alive. This
is called organ senescence.

Determination of maturity

If the stage of maturity at which a fruit or vegetable should be harvested is important for its
subsequent quality, storage and marketable life. Determination of maturity can be grouped into
physical, chemical, physiological, computation, electronic etc. based on the principles used for
measuring the various parameters.

Physical method

Skin colour: change of skin colour of many fruits at maturity (Tomato, Papaya, mango) colour
charts are used for apple, tomato, peach etc. Instruments are also available for measuring colour
of fruits and this is mostly used in harvested fruits.

Shape: the shape of fruit and vegetable can change during maturation. E.g. Banana becomes less
angular

Size: Size is frequently used to determine at harvest. It is related to market requirement.

Firmness: As fruits mature and ripen the tissues become soften. The softening can be estimated
by the finger feel of commodity (Firmness can be measured by penetrometer).

Specific gravity: It is measured through weight of solids or liquids. As fruits mature their specific
gravity increases. This method is rarely practiced.

Aroma: Most fruits synthesis volatile chemicals as they ripen. Based on this we can determine
whether fruit is ripe.

Chemical method: a) Sugars, b) starch, c) acidity

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a) Sugar: As the fruit ripens starch is broken down to sugars. Measurement of sugars indicate the
stage of maturity or ripeness, sugar constitute the major portion of soluble solid of the fruit juice.
Measurement of TSS is done on refractometer.

b) Starch: Starch content in developing fruit of pear and apple provides harvest maturity.

c) Acidity: The acidity of much type of fruit changes during maturing and ripening. In citrus,
mango, pineapple and many stage other fruits acidity progressively decrease as the fruit matures
on the tree.

Physiological methods

Climacteric fruits, in which there is a distinct rise in respiration during ripening, can be sampled
and kept at high temperature and respiration rate is measured. By this way we can predict the
number of days will take for ripening stage if left on the tree.

Climacteric fruit: harvested at full maturity stage and ripen after harvest. Maximum respiration
starts immediately after harvest. Long shelf life (6-8 days) no need of sophisticated packing
material as fruits are hard. eg: Apple, Apricot, Avocado, Banana, Mango, Papaya, Watermelon
and tomato.

Non-climacteric fruits: Harvested at full ripening (90-95%) complete color development. Rate of
respiration is less than climacteric fruit. Difficult to transport need sophisticated packing material
as fruits are soft and ripened. e.g. Cucumber, grapes, lemon, Pineapple etc.

Other methods of determining maturity

i. Computation method

The time required between flowering and fruit being ready for harvesting may be measured by
‘heat units’ or degree days in a particular environment.

ii. Electronic and other methods

Electronic colour sorter: used in packing houses to sort-out fruits on the basis of colour. eg:
Apple, orange etc.

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iii. Accosting and vibration test: The sound of fruit when tapped with knuckle of the finger, the
sound heard changes during maturation and ripening- e.g. Watermelon and jack fruit.

Delayed Ripening of Fruits

Fruits can be kept from ripening until when the need arises by the use of vermiculite preparation
of potassium manganite in the proportion of 4:1. The vermiculite mixture is allowed to set and
form a cube which is placed in perforated polythene with the green mature fruits. The cubes
absorb ethylene produced by the green fruits and so delays ripening thereby extending the shelf
life of the fruits.

Storage and Preservation

Farmers produce crop products some of which require some processing before becoming suitable
as food for human consumption. Crop products become available during different short periods
of the year but people wish to consume food steadily throughout the year at stable price, some
form of storage is therefore required The storage requirement of crops shows wide variation for
non-perishable crops such as cereals grains the requirement is comparatively simple. While for
perishable the cost of providing long term storage is very high such difficulties may be overcome
either by lengthening the production season of the perishables or by partially or completely
processing them into a more concentrated form.

Importance of Storage

 The quality does not deteriorate during the storage period.

 The quality in storage is not reduced.

 It is secured against pests, diseases and physical loss.

 It is accessible at the time and the quantity required.

 Handling equipment for crop produce

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Storage of Fresh Leafy Vegetables

Fresh leafy vegetables can be kept fresh in storage for 6-7days when sprinkled with water and
covered with polythene sheet.

In cool weather, the root of the fresh leafy vegetables can be cut off and washed off with clean
water. The vegetable then bunched together and stem tied, the bunched stem should be dipped
into a suitable container of water.

Operations prior to packaging

Fruits, vegetables, root, tubers and bulbs are subjected to preliminary treatments designed to
improve appearance and maintain quality. These preparatory treatments include cleaning,
disinfection, waxing, and adding of colour (some includes brand name stamping on individual
fruits).

i. Cleaning:

Most produce receives various chemical treatments such as spraying of insecticides and
pesticides in the field. Most of these chemicals are poisonous to humans, even in small
concentrations. Therefore, all traces of chemicals must be removed from produce before packing

ii. Disinfection:

After washing fruits and vegetables, disinfectant agents are added to the soaking tank to avoid
propagation of diseases among consecutive batches of produce. In a soaking tank, a typical
solution for citrus fruit includes a mixture of various chemicals at specific concentration, pH, and
temperature, as well as detergents and water softeners.

iii. Artificial waxing:

Artificial wax is applied to produce to replace the natural wax lost during washing of fruits or
vegetables. This adds a bright sheen to the product. The function of artificial waxing of produce
is summarized below:

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• Provides a protective coating over entire surface.

• Seals small cracks and dents in the rind or skin.

• Seals off stem scars or base of petiole.

• Reduces moisture loss.

• Permits natural respiration.

• Extends shelf life.

• Enhances sales appeal.

Grain Storage

Rice storage facilities take many forms depending on the quality of grain to be stored, the
purpose of storage, and the location of the store. In general, it’s recommended that rice for food
purposes be stored in paddy form rather than milled rice as husk provide some protection against
insects and helps prevent quality deterioration. However, when rice can be stored as brown rice,
20% less storage capacity will be needed.

Requirements for Good Storage System

 Prevention of moisture re-entering the grain after drying

 Protection from insect, rodent and birds
 Ease of loading and unloading
 Ease of maintenance and management

Rice grain is hygroscopic and in open storage system the grain moisture content will eventually
equilibrate with the surrounding air. High relative humidity and high temperature contribute to
high equilibrium or final moisture content.

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Safe Storage Condition for Grain

 Grain is maintained at moisture level of 14% or less and seed is stored at 12% or less
 Grain is protected from insects, rodents and birds
 Grain is protected from re-wetting by rain or imbibing moisture from the surrounding air

The longer the grain needs to be stored, the lower the required moisture content will need to be.
Grain and seed stored at moisture content above 14% may experience the growth of molds, rapid
loss of viability and a reduction in eating quality.

The following table shows the safe moisture content required for different storage periods.

Storage period Required moisture content Potential problems

for safe storage
2 to 3 weeks 14 – 18% Mold,discoloration,respiration
loss
8 to 12 months 12 – 13% Insect damage
More than 1 year 9% or less Loss of viability

A rule of thumb for seed is that the life of the seed will be halved for every 1% increase in
moisture content or a 5oc increase in storage temperature.

Storage Hygiene

Good hygiene in the grain store or storage depot is important in maintaining grain and seed
quality. Guidelines for hygiene in grain store include;

 Keep storage area clean. This means sweeping the floor, removing cobwebs and dust, and
collecting and removing any grain spills.
 Clean storage rooms after they are emptied and this may include spraying walls, crevices
and wooden pallets with an insecticide before using them again.
 Placing rat-traps and barriers in drying and storage areas. Cats deter and help control rats
and mice.
 Inspect storage room regularly to keep it vermin proof

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 Inspect the store seeds once a week for sign of insect infestation. When necessary and
only under the direction of train pest control technician, the storage room or the seed
stock may be sealed with tarpaulin and treated with fumigants.

Definition and Difference between produce and products

Stored produce is the harvested crop from the field which the farmer brings home and store
without processing it into any form while stored product(s) is when the harvested produce has
been processed into any finished product. Examples of stored produce are maize grains,
sorghum, millet, cowpea, yams, cassava, groundnut, etc. Examples of stored products are
biscuits, maize flour, yam flour, cassava flour, bread, beer, malt, etc.

Significance of Storing Agricultural Produce

The preservation and protection of excess agricultural commodities is an age-long practice. The
overall goal of storage is food security which is a deliberate policy to guarantee the population of
a country freedom from hunger and malnutrition. It is also to make food available and at
affordable prices to all levels of mankind. Agricultural commodities are preserved in storage for
the following reasons:

1. Price stabilization: Agricultural commodities are usually available in surplus during the
harvest. This forces prices down but become scarce as time progresses with concomitant price
increase. In order to regulate prices, agricultural commodities are stored so that they are
affordable by the majority of people and at the same time to ensure that farmers receive
rewarding financial returns for their effort and investment in farming.

2. National and domestic food security: It is not always possible for families or countries to
consume all the agricultural produce of a particular season. Thus, steps must be taken to preserve
the excess in a safe place for the future. By this, farming families and citizens of a country are
assured of regular food supply throughout the year.

3. Provision of industrial raw materials and international trade: agricultural commodities serve as
the raw materials for agro-based industries. They also serve as merchandize for international
trade. The continuous availability of these raw materials and merchandize throughout the year
guarantees the survival of these industries and trade. The Nigerian breweries now depend on the

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all-year-round availability of different sorghum grains for the production of alcoholic and non-
alcoholic beverages. Commodities like palm kernels, cocoa and coffee beans, kolanut, maize,
etc. are very important in international trade. The importers expect that these commodities
should be made available in good condition on demand at any time of the year.

4. Provision for country‘s strategic stock or Reserve: The strategic stock/reserve of any country
is of great importance to the survival of its citizens. The strategic reserve is a stock of food
grains, and may be other agricultural commodities, which serve as an insurance against famine
which may arise as a result of natural disasters, bad harvests due to pest infestation or unusually
bad weather, leading to drought/flood, war or localized communal clashes accompanied by large-
scale destructions. When any of these calamities happens, grains or other commodities are
released systematically to meet urgent food needs. The strategic stock/reserve is often
replenished regularly as the quantity of commodities diminishes.

5. Enhancement of a nation‘s international status: It is very common for nations to assist

neighboring nations in our global village facing natural and man-made disasters that threaten the
citizens‘ access to adequate food supplies. Many developed countries capitalize on these
occasions to enhance their importance and to earn goodwill of the affected countries. Ethiopia
and Eritrea, because of their geographical location, are especially prone to drought and this has
caused untold suffering at various times in their history. Thus, they have been frequent
beneficiaries of food donations in recent times.

6. Provision of seed: Farmers have always been selecting seeds from the previous year‘s harvest
which are carefully preserved and stored for use as seeds the following season.

Storage of Grains and Pulses

The structures for storage generally possess many features that are fairly conducive to good
preservation. The storage structures are broadly classified into two: ventilated and unventilated
(hermetic) structures. Two main ventilated structures commonly used for the storage of durable
crop products in tropical Africa are the Cribs and Bags. They are referred to as ventilated
structures because of the presence of vents or small holes which provide varying levels of
ventilation to stored commodity and any pest it may be harboring. At small farming scale, grains
are stored traditionally in different styles of containers. Structures used traditionally are often not

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expensive and environmentally motivated. Subsistence stores may be made out of clay, thatch,
mud, wood or stones. Larger granaries meant for storing large quantities for longer periods of
time, may be built with more permanent structures e.g. metal silos or wooden granaries with iron
sheets roofs.

Open storage structure can simply be wooden platforms on stakes or posts, on top of which the
crop rests either in heaps or regular layers. The harvest crop may be hung on frames in the house
or sheaves to tree branches outside. A more protected storage system is the use of Crib. Cribs are
wooden four-cornered structures with ventilated sides. The sides are covered with woven straws,
grass stalks or wire netting materials.

Concrete or metal silos which can carry 5-10 tons of grains are now used among medium and
large scale farmers. The use of plastic sacks, bags, prefabricated iron halls and flexible plastic
silos are becoming popular. Large warehouses and metal silos are common among cooperatives
and traders which can contain more than 3000 tons of produce. Plastic bags provide a good mean
of preserving legumes and cereals because they can easily be transported. Grains are put into
polyethylene sacks and sealed hermetically.

Storage of Roots and Tuber Crops

Roots and tubers are classified as semi-durables which can only be stored for a short time.
Cassava tubers cannot be stored for more than 3-4 days after harvesting because it will begin to
deteriorate rapidly. They develop bluish discolorations around the vascular bundles of the tuber.
This is called vascular streaking. Streaking is caused by enzymatic processes. Streaking will fail
to occur if the tubers are dipped in warm water (53 0C for 45 minutes), stored under anaerobic
conditions, submerged in water, or kept under refrigeration. The quality of starch in the tuber
also deteriorates during storage. Cassava roots could be stored in boxes containing moist sawdust
for a period of eight (8) weeks. This long term storage is preceded by curing the tubers at 30-
350C and 80-85% relative humidity. The high cyanide or prussic acid content of most Cassava
cultivars implies that they can only be consumed after elaborate processing.

Yam is commonly stored in yam barns made up of a framework of vertically arranged wooden
poles of about 3-4 metres high. The yam tubers are tied to the poles of the barn using twine, and
the tubers being placed longitudinally. The barn is shaded and should be located in a well-

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ventilated area. The ventilation prevents the build-up of high humidity which favours rotting and
prevents the tubers from heating up due to respiratory activities.

The yam farmer should inspect the barn always, looking out for tubers which are beginning to
rot. These should be removed from the barn so that the rot does not spread and infect other
tubers. With each rain that falls, inoculum (disease pathogens) is spread from the rotted tuber to
neighboring ones especially those below it. Tubers which have started to sprout can be detected
and the sprout be removed or broken. Shading, ventilation and constant inspection are three (3)
essentials for good yam storage in a barn.

After harvesting Sweet and Irish potatoes, the tubers are subjected to curing to promote rapid
healing of wounds inflicted during harvesting and increase the toughness of the skin (periderm)
of the tuber. Curing minimizes infection by microorganisms during storage and to make the tuber
more resistant to wounding during subsequent handling. After curing the tubers are stored at a
temperature of 13-160C and a relative humidity of 85-90%. Tubers should be cured for 4-5 days
under ambient conditions before they are stored away. Most farmers store sweet potato in
underground pits lined and covered with dry grass. Tubers may also be kept in platforms or
stored in baskets. The tubers may be left in the ground and harvested only when needed but this
will make them prone to weevil attacks. The ascorbic acid decreases as the tubers stay in storage.

Storage of Fruits and Vegetables

Fruits and vegetable are considered as perishables because they cannot be stored for a long time
naturally. They are best stored at low temperatures or in ventilated containers. Fruits like mango,
oranges, pawpaw, and guava should be harvested when they have reached physiological maturity
or when they are half-ripe. They can then be kept to complete the ripening in the store or in
transit. They should be transported in ventilated structures like perforated cartons, jute woven
bags, open vans, etc. Vegetables like tomato should be harvested when half-ripe and be
transported in ventilated containers like woven baskets or under refrigerated condition. Onion
can be stored for 3-4 months when spread thinly on a floor lined with dry sand or dry grass. Prior
to storage, the onion bulbs should be cured by sun or shade-drying for 3-4 days before storing.
The stored onions should be in a ventilated place and be inspected from time to time for rotting
and sprouting bulbs which should be removed.

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Organisms inimical to stored produce

Pest organisms which attack commodities in storage include microorganisms or microflora such
as bacteria and fungi; mites, insects, rodents and birds. The fungi are probably second to the
insects as agents of deterioration and loss in all kinds of stored products throughout the world.
Fungi, especially moulds are the major factor restricting the storability of intermediate moisture
grains. The fungi associated with stored foods and agricultural commodities include Aspergillus
species, Curvularia species, Fusarium species, Penicillium species etc.

Fungi and Bacteria

Fungi growing on or in stored grains cause a variety of losses. These include decrease in
germinability; discolouration of parts (usually the germ or embryo) or all the seed; heating and
mustiness; various biochemical changes such as in fatty acids, reducing sugar and respiration;
production of mycotoxins which if consumed may be harmful to man and animals; and loss in
weight. The fungi decrease the quality of the products for through discolouration or change in
taste (bad flavor or smell) and also decrease the nutritive value. The fungi invade the embryo and
have effect on germinability leading to rapid death of the germ.

Insects and other vertebrate pests of stored produce

Storage insect pests are classified on the basis of their feeding into primary, secondary, fungus
feeders and scavengers. The primary pests are able to penetrate the intact outer coats of grains,
seeds and other undamaged produce. They include the Cowpea bruchid Callosobruchus
maculatus, Ephestia spp., Trogoderma spp., Rhizopertha dominica, Prostephanus truncatus,
Sitophilus spp., Kola beetle, etc. Secondary pests are only able to feed on grains already
damaged by primary pests or physically damaged during harvest such as beetles like
Cryptolestes spp., Tribolium spp., and Oryzaephilus spp. Some pests are more specific in the
kind of host they attack. Members of the Bruchidae (Callosobruchus spp) attack only legumes
seeds, Sitophilus spp. attack only cereal grains.

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The major storage pests in the tropics are beetles in the order Coleoptera belonging to so many
families; a few months in the order Lepidoptera in the family Pyralidae, a few mites, rats and
mice, and birds which feed on the produce during drying. The produce is usually cereal grains of
many types and flour made from them, dried pulses (usually shelled), nuts, oilseeds and other
seeds and cakes, some dried fruits and berries, dried leaves, dried roots and tubers, animal feeds
and feed ingredients, etc. Postharvest pest problems may begin once the crop has attained
physiological maturity and is undergoing natural dehydration in the field e.g Sitophilus zeamais.

Losses and damage to stored produce by insects and mites may be manifested directly through
consumption of the commodity (e.g. consumption of the endosperm in cereal grains or cotyledon
in pulse seeds), death of the embryo of seeds or grains, and contamination with live insects,
insect fragments, exuviae, excreta and chemical secretions. Indirect damage ranges from dry
grain heating to moisture migration, to sprouting. Dry grain heating is caused by insects respiring
within the grain mass. It may be localized as ‗hot spots‘ or general, where temperature gradient
and convection currents are established.

Rodents directly consume food commodities stored by man. A single average-sized rat may
consume at least 500g of grain per month. Rodents may be more economically important in bulk
grain largely because of the contamination of the commodity with their carcasses, hair, faeces
and urine. Rodents may cause very serious damage storage structures. Birds also damage stored
produce especially cereals by direct consumption. Their economic importance perhaps largely
related to contamination of the grain with their droppings, feathers or various materials carried
by them when building their nests. Additionally, their nests and faeces may provide harbourage
and breeding sites for insects and mites.

Milling, Shelling and Decortication

Milling-This is studied under the general subject of size reduction. Size reduction generally
includes cutting, crushing and milling. The reduction is brought about by mechanical means
without change in chemical properties of the materials.

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Examples of size reduction operations are

1. Cutting fruits or vegetables for canning

2. Grinding limestone for fertilizer

3. Grinding grain for livestock feed.

4. Milling grains for flour.

Milling is a term used in the reduction of grains into flour, milling as an overall process includes:
size reduction, hulling, polishing, sorting and mixing.

Methods of Milling

1. Shearing or cutting

2. Compression/crushing

3. Impact

Shearing or Cutting Method

Shearing is a reduction process which is produced by forcing a thin, sharp knife through the
material to be reduced. Minimum deformation and rupture of the reduced particles results. The
new surface produced by a sharp edge of the knife are relatively undamaged, shearing is well
adapted for reduction of fruits and vegetables. The best shearing device is a knife of extreme
sharpness and as thin as structurally possible.

Compression/Crushing Method

This reduction by applying a force to the unit to be redsuced in excess of its strength failure
results by rupture of the material in many directions. The resulting particles are irregular in shape
and size. The characteristics of the new surfaces and particles are dependent upon the type of
material and the method of force application. Example: roller mills.

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Impact Method

In this case an impact force is exerted on the material, this force cause reduction in size of the
material to be reduced. Example: hammer mill.

Milling Equipment

The main equipment used for milling operation are hammer mills, attrition mills (burr or plate
mills and roller mills).

Hammer Mills: the hammer mill is used for a variety of size reduction or milling operation such
as feed preparation, pulverization of limestone and other industrial application.

Working Principle of Hammer Mill

A hammer mill consists of a number of steel hammers on a shaft rotating at high speed in a
strong housing and a heavy perforated screen. The material is pulverized until it is small enough
to pass through the perforated screen at the bottom. The fitness of the product is dependent
mainly on the size of holes in the screen, although the rotor speed and the rate of feed are
additional control factors.

Size reduction by hammer mill is by impact. The kinetic energy produced by the speed of the
hammer (usually about 1200-4000rpm) is disintegrated. Size reduction is also achieved by the
shearing action between the other part of the mill and the particles.

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Hammer Mill Diagram

Hammer Crusher Diagram

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Advantage of Hammer Mill

1. It is simple.

2. It is versatile and wide range of fineness.

3. Freedom from significant damage due to foreign objects.

4. Hammer wear does not reduce its efficiency.

Disadvantage of Hammer Mill

1. Inability to produce uniform grind.

2. High power requirement.

Attrition Mills (Burr or Plate Mills): this consists essentially of two rough plates, one usually
stationary the other rotating. The material is fed between the plates and is reduced by crushing
and shear with material fed slowly so the flutes are not choked, reduction is probably mainly by
shear with faster feed and flutes filled both shear and crushing takes place.

Over feeding reduces the effectiveness of the mill and excessive heating results.

Operating speeds are usually less than 1200rpm. Fineness of reduction depends on the type of
plate surface and the spacing.

Product

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Diagram of An Attrition Mill (Burr Plate)

Advantage of Burr Mill

1. Low initial cost.

2. Power requirement is relatively low.

3. Product may be relatively uniform.

Disadvantage of Burr Mill

1. Foreign objects may cause breakage.

2. Operating empty may cause excessive burr wear.

3. Worn burrs yield poor results.

Crusher / Roller Mill: rollers reduce the material by compressing (squeezing) it until the
material breaks. Roller mills are used in agricultural processing though not extensively

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Performance Characteristics of a Size Reduction Machine

A size reduction machine operation ideally would have the following characteristics:

1. Uniformity of product.

2. Minimum temperature risen during operation.

3. Minimum power requirement

4. Trouble free operation.

Shelling

Shelling is an aspect of processing which requires the task of removing grains or seeds from their
shell, pods or outer casing. Shelling is usually carried out on the farm just before the farmer sells
his produce.

On small scale, shelling is done manually by hand. The problems with this kind of shelling are
drudgery, time consumption tedious and labour intensive.

On the other hands there is no breakage due to damage. Example: rice from the straw, and maize
cobs from the stalk.

Types of Sheller's

Although most Sheller's come in different design and construction, they operate on the same
principle. There has been development in mechanization of shelling, from manual to shelling
machines. The choice of Sheller's by farmers usually depends on investment cost, energy
requirement, labor cost, production output and maintenance of Sheller's.

Some available types of Sheller's are:

 Rotary Sheller.

 Hand operated Sheller.

 Motorized or diesel powered sellers.

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Some Sheller's use the roller mill theory as a principle of operation.

Decortication

Decorticating or shelling is the process of freeing grains or kernels from the shells or pods by
cracking the shell, pod or cob. Decorticating helps to reduce the volume and hence the
transportation costs, but has the disadvantage that nuts, grains freed from the pods, shell are more
susceptible to attack by insects and moulds than in the shelled nuts.

Decortication is achieved by either hand or by other means varying in degree of sophistication.

Method of Decortication

1. Hand operated decorticator.

2. Motorized decorticator.

Hand Operated Decorticator: there are several types of hand-operated decorticators of the
concave or semi-rotary design.

The basic design for this equipment is common to all manufactures with some minor variations.
A simple hand operated groundnut decorticating machine has a semi- cylindrical screen closed
on both sides. Across its center and towards the top is fixed, a shaft carrying a level on the lever
swings a pair of plates with shows or beater bars, which have blunt spikes on their underside.
The rotary action of the shoes is effected by swinging them backwards and forward, using the
lever against the screen. The mixture of the shells and kernels may be subjected to air suction for
separation.

Motorized Decorticator: power operated groundnut decorticators consists essentially of a hopper,

a beater chamber where the shelling takes place, a chute, a fan or blower and electric motor or
diesel engine. The fan, usually mounted below the chute, blows the shells upwards and the
kernels or grains are collected through a spout at the bottom of the machine same as that in hand-
operated decorticators.

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Measurement of Volume, Density, Bulk Density and Specific Gravity

Density in heat transfer calculation, usually appear in form of specific weight or weight density

with units kg/m³. Three types of density are distinguished in dealing with biological materials.

These are;

 Bulk Density: This refers to the weight of a mass of intact individual units of the

material packed in a given volume by a specified method. The pore space within the pack

is inclusive.

 Unit Density: It's also called apparent density this refers to the weight of each intact unit

of the material divided by the volume of the unit.

 True Density: This refers to the weight per unit volume of solids within each unit of the

materials. It's also called solid density.

Importance of Density and Specific Gravity

The importance of density and specific gravity of food materials and agricultural products

include the following:

 Design of silos and storage bins

 Mechanical compressing of ensilage

 Stability of feed pellets and wafers

 Separation from undesirable materials

 Determination of purity of seeds

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 Separation and grading of products

 Maturity and evaluation

 Texture and softness of fruits

 Estimation of air space in plant tissues

To determine the Volume, Density, Bulk Density and Specific Gravity using a platform

scale

The following expressions are used to calculate the volume, density, and specific gravity of a

specimen

Volume of Specimen (cm³)= Weight of displaced water(e)

Density of water kg/m

Density of Specimen (g/cm³) Weight of specimen in air

Volume of specimen

Specific Gravity of specimen = Weight in air x Specific gravity of Water

Weight of displaced water

Illustration;

Determine the volume, density, and specific gravity of an apple if the following result were

obtained in a study using the platform scale.

Weight of apple in air =132.45g

Weight of container + water = 1016.06g

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Weight of container + water + apple submerged = 1183.90g

Take the sp. Gravity of water as 1.0 and the weight density of water as 1g/cm³

(1000kg/m³)

Solution

Weight of displaced water = 1183.9 - 1016.06 = 167.84g

Volume of apple = weight of displaced water

Weight density of water

=167.84g
1g/m'3 = 168cm

Density of apple weight of apple in air

Volume of apple

132.45g
168cm3 =0.788g/cm³

Specific gravity of apple = weight of apple in air

Weight of displaced water

132.45
168 x 1 ≈ 0.78

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Crop drying

Drying is the removal of moisture from a product or can also be referred to as dehydration.
Although these terms are used interchangeably, drying is the removal of moisture to a moisture
content in equilibrium with normal atmospheric air or such a moisture content that decrease in
quality from molds, enzymic actions and insects will be negligible i.e. 12-14% wet basis for most
materials.

Importance of Drying of Agricultural Produce

Drying permits the farmer to secure greater economic return as below:

1. Long period storage without product deterioration is possible.

2. Viability of seeds is maintained over long periods.

3. Production operations are facilitated for such products as cotton and com.

4. Waste products can be converted to useful products e.g. livestock feed from fruit palp.

Definition of some terms used in drying

1. Equilibrium Moisture Content: the equilibrium M.C of a material is the moisture content
attained by that material after being exposed to a given environment for a period of time

2. Free Moisture: is that moisture that is present in excess of the equilibrium moisture content.

3. Critical Moisture Content: is the point at which drying mechanism changes from a constant
rate to a failing rate. 4. Dew-Point Temperature: is the temperature at which condensation first
occurs when a sample of air is cooled at constant pressure (atmospheric pressure) 5. Enthalpy:
the enthalpy of a sample of air is the heat contact of the dry, air and water vapor mixture per unit
weight of dry air above a certain reference temperature kj/kg.

6. Relative Humidity: this is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor to the
saturation pressure corresponding to the dry bulb temperature of the mixture. Relative humidity
has a maximum value of unity or 100% at saturation.

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7. Humidity Ratio: also referred to as specific humidity, it is defined as the ratio of mass of
water vapour to the mass of dry air present in an air moist mixture and is denoted by symbol.

Humidity ratio is zero for dry and increases as the relative amount of water vapor in the mixture
increases.

8. Absolute Humidity: is the moisture content of the air (mass of water per unit mass of air)
whereas relative humidity is the ratio expressed as a percentage of the M.C. of the air at a
specified temperature

Drying Principle or Mechanism

In the drying process, heat is necessary to evaporate moisture from the grain and a flow of air
needed to carry evaporated moisture away.

There are two basic mechanism involved in the drying process the migration of moisture from
the interior of an individual grain to the surface and the evaporation of moisture from the surface
to the surrounding air. The rate of drying is determined by the moisture content and temperature
of air in contact with the grain.

Grains are hygroscopic and loss or gain moisture until equilibrium is reached with the
surrounding air The EMC is dependent on the relative humidity and the temperature of the air

The drying conditions for specific grains and situation are many and varied. Drying will take
place under any conditions where grains is exposed to a flow of unsaturated air very fast drying
can be accomplished using huge volume of high temperature air but, if carried through to
completion is likely to be inefficient in energy used and liable to damage the grain by over
hasting and over drying

High temperature drying can cause chemical changes in stored crop materials. The germination
potential of seeds can be destroyed, the processing characteristics of grain can be impaired, and
the nutritive value of feedstuffs may be altered.

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Air Properties: Psychometrics

Psychometric is the study of air and water vapor relationship of a mixture. The properties of the
air flowing around the drying grain are a major factor in determining the rate of removal of
moisture. The capacity of air to moisture is principally dependent upon its greater the
temperature and lower the humidity the greater the moisture removal capacity of the air.

The relationship between temperature, humidity and other thermodynamic properties is

represented by a psychometric chart. Importance of psychometric in drying, during drying air of
different temperature and humilities can be used.

Also it is useful in predicting the thermo-interactions of air at different states. It is important to

note that the thermos of air has two part: Dry air and Water vapour.

Drying Efficiency

The efficiency of drying operation is an important factor in the dryer for a particular operation.

There are three factors that affect drying efficiency

1. Those factors specific to the crop.

2. Those factors related to the environment, in particular ambient air conditions.

3. Those specific to the design and operation of the dryer

There are several ways of expressing the efficiency of drying of which the sensible heat
utilization efficiency (SHUE) the fuel efficiency and the drying efficiency are most useful.

SHUE takes into consideration the hidden heat attributable to the condition of the ambient air
and any heat added to the air by the fan as well as the heat supplied by combustion of the fuel.

Heat utilized for moisture removal

SHUE-= Total sensible heat in the drying

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The fuel efficiency is based only on the heat available from the fuel.

Heat utilized for moisture removal

Fuel efficiency= Heat supplies from fuel

The drying efficiency = Heat utilize for moisture removal

Heat available for moist. Removal

Effect of Drying on Grain Quality

The drying operation must not be considered as merely the removal of moisture since there are
many quality factors that can be adversely affected by incorrect selection of drying condition and
equipment.

The desirable properties of high-quality grain include:

1. Low and uniform moisture content.

2. Minimal proportion of broken and damaged grain.

3. Low susceptibility to subsequent breakage.

4. High viability

5. Low mould count

6. High nutritive value.

7. Consumer acceptability of appearance and other properties.

Effect of temperature drying high temperature can cause chemical changes in stored crop
materials. The germination potential of seeds can be destroyed the processing characteristics of
grain can be impaired and the nutritive value of feedstuffs may be altered.

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Agricultural Material Handling

Material handling as recognized in general, implies the movement of materials over short
distances in any direction in a single plane or combination of planes. Consequently, it includes
elevation as well as movement in a horizontal plane in a processing plant.

Handling devices may be classified as follows;

 Belt conveyor

 Chain conveyor

 Screw conveyor

 Bucket conveyor

 Pneumatic conveyor

 Wagons:

 Carts and trucks

Belt conveyor; This is an endless belt operating between two or more pulleys the belt and its
load are usually supported on idlers, the instillation may be a simple one such as a light canvas
belt sliding over a long table that carries fruit or a heavy belt supported by anti-friction bearings
that carries grains.

Advantages

 Quiet

 Fast

 Mechanically efficient

Disadvantage

 Expensive

 Must be carefully engineered for satisfactory performance

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Chain conveyor; these are suitable for the transport of agricultural produce. They are
inexpensive simple, easily constructed and operate at steep inclines.

The conveyor capacity can be calculated as follows

Q = vwh (Rhc)

Where,

Q-capacity of conveyor m³/s

V = conveyor speed m/s

W = conveyor width m

H=flight height m

Rhe=Relative holding capacity %

EXAMPLE

Determine the width of a conveyor needed to remove 10m³/hr of an agricultural product at 30°
incline. The flight height is 8.5cm and the conveyor operates at a speed of /m/s

Solution

Using Q=vwh (Rhe)

W-Q

Vh (Rhc) 10m3/3600s

1
/3 /M/s (0.085) 0.55

=0.17m

Capacity of conveyors at various inclines

Incline degree R.h.c

0 11.5

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10 100

20 77

30 55

40 33

Screw conveyors; they are used to handle materials ranging from powders to sticky viscous
materials. They are simple and easy to dissemble and are versatile (Ability to move solids and
slurries) they are relatively inexpensive. There are two types of screw conveyors, holicoid flight
and ribbon flight screw conveyor.

The capacity of a screw conveyor can be estimated from the equation below,

Q=[D²-d³] [P] [n]

Where:

Q-capacity m³/s

D= Screw diameter (m)

d=Shaft diameter (m)

p= Screw pitch (m)

n= revolution per minute of shaft

Pneumatic conveyor,

This refers to when solids are move by being suspended in a stream of air. Pneumatic conveyor
can move fine, dry material using pressure differentials and a flow of gas, typically compressed
air or nitrogen. The material is totally enclosed within tubes or pipe, where differences in
pressure on either side cause a flow of product

Advantages of Pneumatic conveyor

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1. They are completely enclosed and dustless

2. They occupy less space

3. They may pick up materials from several points and deliver to several points

4. They can carry material long distances through awkward locations

The main disadvantage of this conveyor is that they use considerably more power than
mechanical conveyors.

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