C H A P T E R

1.2
Drying

1.2.1 General aspects In addition, the heat transfer is influenced by the sur-
face area, the moisture distribution on the surface and
Drying is the most common process for preservation the shape of the product to be dried.
of agricultural products. Various methods are applied, After the moisture on the surface evaporates, the liq-
depending on the properties and requirements of the uid water and the vapor migrate from the interior of the
product. product to the surface due to temperature, moisture and
Sun drying and in-field drying are still applied in pressure gradients until equilibrium is reached. This in-
developing countries using sun and wind as the only ternal heat and mass transfer is influenced by the prop-
energy sources. In countries with highly mechanized erties of the product such as:
agricultural production, automated high capacity – Morphological structure
high-temperature dryers are applied for drying almost Shape and size of the product
all agricultural products. Fossil fuels are used to heat the Length of the diffusion path
drying air; the fans are driven with electric motors. Only Chemical composition
a few products with low moisture content are dried by – Moisture content and moisture distribution
in-storage low-temperature dryers using mainly the dry- – Density
ing potential of the ambient air as energy source. – Specific heat capacity
The temperature of the drying air and the initial – Thermal conductivity
moisture content of the product are the major parame- – Thermal diffusivity
ters influencing drying time and product quality. During
the drying process, the properties of the product and In the following paragraphs, the drying parameters,
of the drying air show spatial and temporal variations. which mainly influence the drying process of agricul-
Therefore, the heat and mass transfer phenomena occur- tural commodities, are described. The properties of the
ring simultaneously during the drying process are rather drying air can be found in related engineering hand-
complex. In addition, chemical and biochemical reac- books [1, 2].
tions occur during the drying process, which influence
the quality of the dried product.
During the drying process, moisture evaporates on 1.2.2 Drying parameters
the surface and is absorbed and removed by the drying
air due to partial water pressure differences between 1.2.2.1 Morphological characteristics
the surface and the surrounding air. The heat and mass
The morphological characteristics of agricultural com-
transfer processes at the surface mainly depend on the
modities such as structure, dimensions, weight shape
properties of the drying air:
and chemical composition of the different components,
– Temperature have a significant impact on the drying process [3, 4].
– Relative humidity/absolute moisture content Besides fruits and vegetables, which are also consumed
– Air velocity in fresh condition, almost all other agricultural products
– Thermal conductivity have to be processed prior to consumption. This is done
– Specific heat capacity mostly by drying. The drying process is greatly affected
– Density by the plant organ being dried (Table 1.2.1).

Drying Atlas. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818162-1.00003-1 9 © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

10 1.2. Drying

TABLE 1.2.1 Plant organs of different commodities used for The inedible peel of these products has to be re-
drying. moved before cutting and drying. Only products with
Plant organ Commodity edible skin like tomato, paprika or apple can be sliced
or diced and dried without peeling. Grapes, plums, chili
Seed Cereals, grain legumes, oil seeds, cocoa, coffee
or paprika have a waxy skin, which is a barrier for the
Leave Medicinal plants, herbs moisture migration from the interior to the surface. To
Herbage Medicinal plants, fodder plants accelerate the drying process those products are either
blanched or immersed into a chemical solution prior to
Flower Medicinal plants
drying to increase the water permeability of the skin.
Root/tuber Cassava, potato, carrot, valerian Mashing the flesh of fruit like mango, banana or apricot
Fruit Apricot, apple, plum, grape, banana, tomato, and drying the puree in a thin layer to a product called fruit
paprika, chili, coconut etc. leather is an alternative to utilize over-mature fruits, small
fruits and fruits with irregular size as cheap raw material.
In addition to the size, the shape of the product pro-
vides important information of the diffusion path and the
The size of the commodity influences the drying pro- direction of the moisture migration. Both are major crite-
cess considerably. Small-sized products such as cereals, ria for the drying process. The drying rate of commodities
oil seeds or leaves dry much faster than larger commod- with regular shapes such as grapes, litchi, longan, banana
ities like fruits and root crops. Agricultural products like etc. mainly depends on the diameter of the fruit. For prod-
most biological materials are inhomogeneous in size de- ucts with an irregular shape like cereals, knowledge about
pending for instance on cultivar, fertilization or weather the longitudinal and cross section is required to determine
conditions during cultivation. the diffusion path. In the literature, composition and cel-
Cereals, oil seeds, grain legumes, chili and grapes are lular structure are illustrated for almost all products.
dried after pre-cleaning without any other pre-treatment. However, for the analysis of the drying process the cel-
Consequently, small and large kernels have to be dried in lular structure of a commodity is of minor importance. To
the same batch. Drying the product to moisture content ac- analyze and simulate the moisture migration from the in-
cording to the requirements of the quality standards small terior to the surface of a product, shape and structure of
kernels are over-dried while large kernels still have higher the different components are the most important criteria. In
moisture content than required. Due to their hygroscopic contrast to the detailed structure of agricultural products as
characteristics, the moisture content of cereals, oil seeds described in literature, in the specific chapters of this book
and medicinal plants equalizes during storage. simplified cross sections in the three spatial axes are illus-
Fruit like grape, fig, apricot and plum are different in size trated as shown exemplarily for a maize kernel (Fig. 1.2.1).
and are dried without sorting by size. Therefore, the dried
fruits have different moisture contents after drying. To pre-
vent spoilage during storage those products have to be con-
ditioned after drying to equalize the moisture content. Only
a few fruits like litchi or longan are graded by size prior to
drying in order to get the desired uniform drying.
Products with extended size and irregular shape are
cut into slices, stripes or cubes to reduce the drying path
and, hence, to accelerate the drying process. To achieve
the desired uniform moisture content after drying the
crops have to be cut into products of regular shape and
constant size (Table 1.2.2).

TABLE 1.2.2 Required size of slices, stripes or cubes.

Commodity Species Thickness (mm)

Tubers/roots Potato, cassava 5–10

Vegetables Carrot, tomato, paprika 4–6

Spices Onion, garlic 2–4 FIG. 1.2.1 Simplified cross section of front, side and top view of a
maize kernel with direction (arrow) and quantity (length of arrow) of
Fruits Banana, papaya, pineapple, 4–10
the expected moisture migration during drying.
mango

1. Production and processing

 1.2.2 Drying parameters 11
Shape and chemical composition of the different com- Slices, dices 3–5
ponents provide information about the expected quan-
Oil crops 1–5
tity and direction of the moisture migration during the
drying process. Vegetables 2–3
In addition to the shape the different components of Stimulants 2–10
the product such as:
Fruits
– Peel Whole fruit 5–1
– Skin
Halved fruit 2–5
– Cortex
– Seed coat Sliced fruit 2–5
– Endosperm Medicinal plants
– Fruit flesh
Leaves 0.1–0.3
– Embryo
– Cotyledon Stems 1–2.5
– Placenta
– Seed

are also relevant for the drying process. These compo- 1.2.2.3 Moisture content [6,8–10]
nents have a different chemical composition and there- Agricultural commodities contain moisture as liquid
fore also have different hygroscopic properties, which water or water vapor. The water can be located on the
affect the diffusion rate and also the direction of the surface of the product as free moisture and/or in the in-
moisture migration. For example, the embryo of cereals terior in form of osmotic or capillary moisture.
has a higher fat and protein content compared to the en- The moisture content of agricultural commodities can
dosperm and therefore has higher moisture content be- be expressed either on wet basis (w.b.) or on dry basis
fore and after drying. Consequently, part of the moisture (d.b.). The moisture content on wet basis MCwb is de-
migrates during the drying process from the interior to fined as the ratio of the mass of water mW and the total
the surface of the product; the other part migrates from mass of the product and is expressed as % w.b.:
the endosperm to the embryo to protect the germ from
over-drying and damage. mW
MC wb = 100 (1.2.1)
m W + m dm
1.2.2.2 Diffusion path The moisture content on dry basis MCdb is the ratio
During the second phase of the drying process, the of the mass of water mW and the dry matter content mdm
moisture has to migrate from the interior to the surface and is expressed as a dimensionless value:
of the product by osmotic or capillary forces. The diffu-
mW
sion rate mainly depends on: MCdb = (1.2.2)
mdm
– Diffusion path
– Chemical composition The moisture content on wet basis is used by farmers
– Morphological structure and traders, while the moisture content on dry basis is
used for scientific analysis of drying processes since the
The diffusion path is the shortest distance from the in-
relation between the moisture content on dry basis and
terior to the surface. The diffusion path mainly depends
the mass of water is a linear function.
on size and shape of the product as well as on the me-
To convert the moisture content on wet basis into dry
chanical pre-treatment. To reduce the diffusion path root
basis and vice versa, the following equations can be used:
crops, vegetables and some fruits are cut in slices or are
diced. Stone fruits are halved or pitted (Table 1.2.3). MCdb
MC wb = 100 (1.2.3)
1 + MCdb

TABLE 1.2.3 Diffusion path of agricultural products.

MC wb
Commodity Diffusion path (mm) MCdb = (1.2.4)
100 − MC wb
Cereals 0.8–3
During the drying process the initial moisture content
Root crops MC1 after harvest has to be reduced to the final mois-
Pieces 10–15 ture content MC2, where the product is safe for storage.

1. Production and processing

12 1.2. Drying

The mass of water ∆ mW, which has to be removed during The final moisture content MC2 at which the product
the drying process, can be calculated as follows: is safe for storage is influenced by:
– Chemical composition of the commodity
MC1 − MC 2 (1.2.5) – Nutrient distribution
∆m W = m1
100 − MC1 – Hygroscopic properties
– Storage conditions (temperature, humidity)
MC1 − MC 2 – Packaging materials
∆m W = m 2 (1.2.6)
100 − MC 2 According to their hygroscopicity, products with a high
fat and protein content have to be dried to a lower moisture
where m1 is the mass of the wet product and m2 is the content, while products with a high content of carbohy-
mass of the dried product. drates can be stored at higher moisture contents (Table 1.2.5).
The initial moisture content greatly affects the mass
of water, which has to be removed during the drying
process and therefore, also influences drying time and TABLE 1.2.5 Final moisture content MC2 of agricultural
energy consumption significantly. For most agricul- products.
tural products, the moisture content at harvest is iden- Commodity Moisture content MC2 (% w.b.)
tical with the moisture content at the beginning of the
drying process. Only a few products such as some cere- Cereals 12–14
als or some medicinal plants are pre-dried in the field Oil crops 7–9
after harvest. In addition, after osmotic dehydration of Root crops and tubers 12–14
fruits and vegetables the initial moisture content is re-
duced compared to the moisture content after harvest Vegetables 5–10
due to the diffusion of water from the product into the Spices 5–10
osmotic solution. The initial moisture content MC1 is
Stimulants 7–10
mainly influenced by:
Fruits 16–20
– Commodity and cultivar
Medicinal plants 8–12
– Weather condition before and during harvest
– Stage of maturity
– Pre-drying
– Osmotic dehydration The amount of water, which has to be removed during
the drying process, depends on the initial and the final
and therefore shows great variation (Table 1.2.4).
moisture content of the product. Per 100 kg of dried
product the amount of water in kg, which has to be re-
moved during the drying process is listed in Table 1.2.6.
TABLE 1.2.4 Initial moisture content MC1 of agricultural
products.
Commodity Moisture content MC1 (% w.b.)
TABLE 1.2.6 Mass of water ∆ mW to be removed during drying of
Cereals agricultural commodities.
Small grains 12–30 Commodity Water removed ∆ mW (% w.b.)
Maize 20–35 Cereals
Root crops 70–85 Small grains 0–22
Oil crops 8–55 Maize 14–32
Vegetables 85–95 Root crops 8–100
Spices 70–85 Oil crops 200–350
Stimulants 50–60 Vegetables 500–1700
Fruits 65–80 Spices 350–375
Medicinal plants 65–80 Stimulants 86–125

Fruits 128–300

Medicinal plants 157–350

1. Production and processing

 1.2.2 Drying parameters 13
Since the moisture content MCwb is not a linear func- Since the thermal conductivity of water is much
tion of the water content of the product mW, even a higher compared to the other components the thermal
small variation of the initial moisture content MC1 has a conductivity of agricultural products rises with increas-
­significant impact on the mass of water ∆ mW, which has ing moisture content from 0.1 to 0.5 W/m K.
to be removed during drying (Fig. 1.2.2).
1.2.2.5 Specific heat capacity [6, 11–17]
During drying and storage, agricultural products are
either heated or cooled. The energy required to heat or
cool the product mainly depends on the mass mp and the
specific heat capacity cP of the product and the tempera-
ture difference ∆ T:

Q = m P ⋅ c P ⋅ ( TP 2 − TP1 ) (1.2.8)

The specific heat capacity cP measured in kJ/kg K ex-

presses the energy required per unit of mass to increase
the temperature by 1 K. The specific heat capacity cP
mainly depends on the chemical composition and can be
estimated from its components (Table 1.2.8).
FIG. 1.2.2 Mass of water ∆ mW to be removed during the drying
process vs. initial moisture content MC1.

TABLE 1.2.8 Specific heat capacity cP of food ingredients.

1.2.2.4 Thermal conductivity [6, 11–16] Commodity Specific heat capacity cP (kJ/kg K)

During drying, heat is transferred from the drying air to Water 4.18
the surface of the product by natural or by forced convection. Carbohydrates 1.71
Inside the product, the heat is transferred by conduction.
The thermal conductivity k of agricultural commod- Protein 1.71
ities, expressed in W/m K, is a measure of its ability to Fat 1.93
transmit heat during the drying process from the surface Fiber 1.84
to the interior of the product. For a product particle, the
one-dimensional heat flow dQ/dt depends on the ther- Ash 0.84
mal conductivity k, the cross sectional area A and the Air 1.0
temperature gradient dT/dx:

dQ dT (1.2.7)
= − k⋅A The specific heat capacity of agricultural commodities
dt dx
is also greatly influenced by the moisture content and
The thermal conductivity is widely independent of the ranges from 1.5 to 4.0 kJ/kg K and only slightly increases
temperature and is mainly influenced by the structure and with temperature.
the chemical composition of the product (Table 1.2.7).

1.2.2.6 Density [11, 12, 17]

TABLE 1.2.7 Thermal conductivity k of food ingredients.
The density ρ of a product particle influences the
Commodity Thermal conductivity k (W/m K) amount of storable heat as well as the internal heat trans-
Water 0.59 fer. Dehydrated agricultural products can be described
on the basis of solid or true density, i.e. the mass per unit
Carbohydrates 0.15
volume of solid material, excluding internal pores filled
Protein 0.1–0.2 with air [11, 12]. The density mainly depends on the
Fat 0.22 chemical composition of the product [11].
Depending on the moisture content of agricultural
Fiber 0.18
products, the true density ranges from 750 to 1400 kg/m3
Ash 0.14 (Table 1.2.9).
Air 0.02

1. Production and processing

14 1.2. Drying

TABLE 1.2.9 True density ρ of food ingredients. 1.2.3.1 Sun drying

Commodity True density ρ (kg/m3) Exposing agricultural products to wind and sun is still
Water 1000 the most common preservation method practised in de-
veloping countries. After cutting the whole plant some ce-
Carbohydrates 1500
reals, grain legumes, green forages and medicinal plants
Protein 1400 are dried or pre-dried in the field. Fruits, vegetables and
Fat 925 spices as well as threshed grains are spread in thin layers
directly on the ground or on mats or trays, respectively.
Fiber 1310

Ash 2160 In-field drying [18, 19]

Air 1.29 In developing countries, rice plants are pre-dried af-
ter cutting as sheaves in the field. After threshing the
sheaves, drying is finished by spreading the rice kernels
in a thin layer on mats or paved grounds.
1.2.2.7 Thermal diffusivity [11–13, 17] In countries with mechanized agriculture, herbage
The thermal diffusivity α, expressed in mm2/s or in might be spread in the field after cutting. The drying
2
m /h, is a material specific property characterizing the heat process can be accelerated by turning the product either
transfer by conduction as a result of a temperature gradient manually by rakes or by tractor driven windrowers. To
(Table 1.2.10). Transient heat conduction occurs when prod- reduce remoistening due to increasing humidity during
ucts are either heated or cooled. The thermal diffusivity α night the product is swathed to reduce the surface area.
depends on the thermal conductivity k, the density ρ of the After in-field drying in most cases the drying process is
product particles and the specific heat capacity cP as follows: finalized in mechanical dryers.

k Drying curves (Fig. 1.2.3)

α = (1.2.9)
ρ . cP

TABLE 1.2.10 Thermal diffusivity α of food ingredients.

Commodity Thermal diffusivity α (m2/h · 10− 4)

Water 5.1

Carbohydrates 2.1

Protein 2.2

Fat 4.4

Fiber 2.6

Ash 2.7

Air 0.55

The thermal diffusivity of dried agricultural prod-

ucts at 20 °C ranges from 2.1 to 6.7·10− 4 m2/h and
mainly depends on the chemical composition of the
product [16].

1.2.3 Drying methods

FIG. 1.2.3 Characteristic drying curve and typical course of tem-
Besides the drying parameters, the drying method perature T and relative humidity RH of in-field drying.
greatly affects the drying process. For drying of agricul-
tural commodities various drying methods are in use.
The most common drying methods are briefly described – In-field drying depends on fluctuating drying
and evaluated in the following paragraphs. parameters (temperature and relative humidity of

1. Production and processing

 1.2.3 Drying methods 15
the ambient air, solar radiation, wind speed, rainfall, mats, plastic foils or on elevated trays. Thereby, the
precipitation of dew and moisture content of the soil) product does not come in contact with ground materials
– High solar radiation, high temperature and low such as soil, dust or animal excrements, which can cause
humidity of the ambient air as well as turning the serious infestations.
product in intervals accelerate the drying process Products, which are produced in large quantities such
– Remoistening is caused by moisture absorption as rice, maize, cocoa and coffee or chipped cassava, are
during night from the humid air, by rainfall, dew spread in thin layers on asphalt roads, paved grounds or
precipitation and moisture migration from the soil drying floors. To prevent over-drying the product has to
– In-field drying is characterized by periods of drying be turned in intervals either manually with rakes or, on a
and of remoistening phases and therefore is an mechanized level, with tractor drawn rakes.
unsteady drying process To prevent remoistening and theft during night, every
evening the product has to be collected and stored in bags
Utilization
under a shelter. Covering the product with plastic foils re-
– Pre-drying/drying of green forages duces the risk of rewetting and spoilage during rain. To
– Pre-drying of certain medicinal plants reduce the labor input in commercial drying plants, mo-
– Pre-drying of rice plants bile roofs were developed, which can be moved on rails
to cover and protect the product during sudden rainfalls.
Operating conditions
Furthermore, tractor driven rakes and swathing equipment
– Drying of thin layers, bundles or piles are used to reduce labor input for turning and collecting.
– Utilization of wind and sun as energy sources
– Turning in intervals accelerates drying process Drying curves (Fig. 1.2.4)
– Swathing reduces remoistening during night
– Ambient air temperature: 20–35 °C
– Drying time: 1–3 days
Advantages
– In-field drying can be done manually
– Drying process can be mechanized by using tractor
driven rakes, tedders and swathing equipment
– Pre-drying reduces consumption of fossil fuels and
electricity of mechanical dryers
Disadvantages
– Drying process completely depends on weather
conditions
– Product cannot be protected from rain and storm,
dew precipitation and water migration from the soil
– Non-uniform drying and insufficient drying during
periods of adverse weather causes losses during storage
– High labor requirement for manual operation
– High investment for mechanization of tedding and
swathing
– High mass losses due to respiration and spoilage
during adverse weather
– High ash content of the dried product due to
contamination with soil particles
FIG. 1.2.4 Characteristic drying curves and typical course of tem-
– High mass losses of rice kernels caused by
perature T and relative humidity RH of on-farm sun drying.
shattering, rodents and birds
– Yellowing of rice kernels caused by microorganisms
– Low head rice yield due to drying and rewetting – Sun drying depends on fluctuating drying
phases parameters (temperature and relative humidity of
the ambient air, solar radiation, wind speed)
On-farm sun drying [20] – High solar radiation, high temperature and low
Small quantities of spices, grain legumes, fruits and humidity of the ambient air, turning in short
vegetables are sun dried by spreading the product on intervals accelerate the drying process

1. Production and processing

16 1.2. Drying

– Storage during night interrupts the drying pro-cess – Mass losses due to rodents, birds and theft
– Air temperature in the bulk during storage – Non-uniform, insufficient drying and insect
corresponds to the product temperature before infestation causes losses during storage
collecting – Contamination with pathogenic germs and heavy
– Relative humidity in the bulk is in equilibrium with metals increases health risk for the consumers
the moisture content of the product and therefore – Mold growth can cause formation of mycotoxins
is significantly lower than the humidity of the air during storage
during night – High labor input for spreading, mixing and
– Product temperature and moisture content of the collecting the product
product are equalized during storage
Utilization 1.2.3.2 Solar drying [5, 21–29]
– All agricultural products The introduction of solar dryers offers a promising
alternative to reduce the tremendous postharvest losses
Drying conditions
in developing countries. Numerous natural convection
– Spreading in thin layer: 5–10 cm type solar dryers such as cabinet dryers of different de-
– Turning intervals: 2–4 h signs were developed. Due to their low capacity in rela-
– Drying air temperature: 20–35 °C tion to the investment and the high weather dependent
– Drying time: 1–6 days risk of spoilage, the use of solar cabinet dryers is very
limited.
Advantages
To overcome the main disadvantages of the cabinet
– Simple drying method dryers, solar dryers with forced convection were devel-
– Low investment for mats, foils, trays, rakes etc. oped to reduce postharvest losses and to improve prod-
– Protection from rain and dew precipitation when uct quality. Described and evaluated below are the most
storing in a shelter during night common commercially produced types.
– Low operating cost
– Fossil fuels and electricity are not required
Solar tunnel dryer [26, 27]
Disadvantages
Solar tunnel dryers (Fig. 1.2.5) consist of a solar air
– Drying behavior depends on fluctuating weather heater and a tunnel dryer, which are arranged in series.
conditions Air heater and tunnel dryer are covered with either a
– Extended drying periods during rainy season transparent foil, polycarbonate double-skin sheets or
increase risk of losses glass sheets. The transparent cover is tilted to drain
– Prevention of over drying of the top layer requires water. A black metal sheet is used as absorber. On the
turning in short intervals

FIG. 1.2.5 Solar tunnel dryer with photovoltaic driven fans (left), cross section of the dryer (right).

1. Production and processing

 1.2.3 Drying methods 17
­ ackside, any kind of water and heat resistant material
b – The spatial temperature distribution inside the
with insulating properties can be used as insulation. drying tunnel is rather uniform resulting in the
The product to be dried is spread in a thin layer on a wire desired uniform drying of the product.
mesh placed above the floor of the dryer. Alternatively, – The cover foil protects the product and prevents
trays can be used for easy loading and unloading. The remoistening during night and rainfall
drying air is heated in the solar air heater and is forced
Utilization
by small axial flow fans over and underneath the prod-
uct. The motors of the fans are either driven with elec- – Fruits
tricity provided from photovoltaic panels or from the – Vegetables
electric grid. For loading and unloading, the foil cover of – Herbs and spices
the dryer can be rolled up, and the polycarbonate or glass – Cocoa beans
sheets can be lifted, respectively. – Coffee

Drying curves (Fig. 1.2.6) Operating conditions

– Collector length: 8–10 m
– Dryer length: 10 m
– Collector and dryer width: 1–2 m
– Air velocity: 1–2 m/s
– Power requirement: 20–40 W
– Loading capacity: 200–300 kg
– Drying temperature: 40–80 °C
– Drying time: 2–4 days
Advantages
– Simple design
– Multi purpose dryer
– Uniform drying due to suspended air flow mode
– Direct exposure of the product to solar radiation
– Product is protected from rain, dust, insects, birds
and rodents
– Significant reduction of the drying time compared to
sun drying
– Very low power requirement
– Negligible mass losses
– Product quality meets requirements of international
standards
– Use of photovoltaic drive allows use in remote areas
without connection to public grid
Disadvantages
FIG. 1.2.6 Characteristic drying curves and typical course of ambi- – Limited drying capacity
ent temperature Tamb and drying temperature T of a solar tunnel dryer. – Fluctuating drying air temperature
– Dryer cannot be operated during adverse weather or
low solar radiation
– Solar drying in a tunnel dryer is a stepwise process – High labor input for loading, turning and unloading
which mainly depends on fluctuating solar radiation – Electricity is required to operate the fan
– During daytime the product is dried, during the – Requires UV-resistant transparent cover material
night the drying process is interrupted
– The drying process is significantly accelerated by
heating the air in the solar air heater Solar greenhouse dryer [5, 28]
– The drying air temperature depends on the collector Solar greenhouse dryers mounted on a concrete
design, collector materials, solar radiation and air platform consist of a parabolic roof structure covered
flow rate with UV-resistant polycarbonate sheets (Fig. 1.2.7). The
– In the drying tunnel the product is exposed to the solar product is spread in single layers on trays. Drying air
radiation, which is absorbed and converted into heat is forced by axial-flow fans, which are incorporated into

1. Production and processing

18 1.2. Drying

the ­bottom of the front side. The air outlet is installed – A solar greenhouse dryer with parabolic roof is
on the top of the backside. The drying air is guided by operated without additional solar air heater
air ducts, which are installed underneath the tables in – Solar radiation is absorbed and converted into heat
longitudinal direction of the dryer. To enable operation by the product spread on trays and also by the
independent of weather conditions and time of day the concrete platform inside the greenhouse
dryer can be equipped with a gas heater. – The course of the drying air temperature is following
the pattern of solar radiation.
– The lower temperature inside the greenhouse leads
to a flat moisture content curve compared to solar
dryers with air heaters
– The drying process is extended after sun set by the
thermal energy stored in the concrete platform inside
the greenhouse
– The transparent cover protects the product from
remoistening by rain or dew
– During adverse weather the supplementary heater
can be used to continue drying
Utilization
– Fruits
– Vegetables
– Spices
FIG. 1.2.7 Solar greenhouse dryer with parabolic roof, back-up
heating system and photovoltaic driven fans [5].
Operating conditions
– Width: 6–10 m
– Length: 10–30 m
Drying curves (Fig. 1.2.8) – Height: 3–3.5 m
– Air velocity: 0.5 m/s
– Power requirement: 50–250 W
– Loading capacity: 500–1500 kg
– Drying air temperature: 30–60 °C
– Drying time: 2–5 days
Advantages
– High drying capacity
– Multi-purpose dryer
– Low electric energy consumption
– Dryer can be operated during adverse weather by
use of supplementary heater
– Loading, mixing and unloading is weather
independent
– Product is protected from rain, dust, insects, birds
and rodents
– Hygienic production of high quality products
Disadvantages
– High investment
– Non-uniform air distribution
– Requirement of UV-stabilized polycarbonate sheets
as cover material
Especially for drying medicinal and aromatic plants,
a solar dryer was developed, where flat-bed dryers are
FIG. 1.2.8 Characteristic drying curves and typical course of ambi- incorporated into a plastic covered greenhouse with a
ent temperature Tamb, drying temperature T and relative humidity RH
of a solar greenhouse dryer with parabolic roof. span roof and vertical sidewalls (Fig. 1.2.9). The solar air

1. Production and processing

 1.2.3 Drying methods 19
heater incorporated into the roof consists of a transpar- – Drying process in solar greenhouse dryer with roof
ent bubble foil as cover, a black woven fabric as absorber integrated collector is a step wise process mainly
and a second air-bubble foil to reduce backside heat influenced by the fluctuating solar radiation
losses. The drying air is forced through the gap between – In contrast to the solar tunnel dryer and solar
transparent cover and absorber by axial flow fans. The greenhouse dryer with a parabolic roof, the product
modular design allows variable capacity according to is not exposed directly to solar radiation
the number of installed segments. A supplementary gas – The drying air is heated in the solar air heater to a
heater allows weather independent use. level, which is considerably higher compared to the
solar greenhouse dryer with parabolic roof
– During periods with high solar radiation the high air
temperature accelerates the drying process
– Periods of low solar radiation lead to a lower
increase of the ambient temperature and therefore to
a lower drying rate
– During night the drying process is interrupted
– Since the product is protected from the environment
remoistening is prevented
– Characteristic for the use of solar greenhouse dryers
with flat bed batch dryers is the non-uniform drying
with significant moisture differences between air
FIG. 1.2.9 Solar greenhouse dryer with span roof for drying medi- inlet and air outlet side
cal and aromatic plants. – During adverse weather the supplementary heater
can be used to continue drying
Utilization
Drying curves (Fig. 1.2.10)
– Medicinal plants
– Hops
– Green forages
Operating conditions:
Structure
– Width: 15 m
– Gable height: 4.5 m
– Number of modules: 5–10
Dryer
– Length: 5 m
– Width: 2 m
– Bulk depth: 0.3–1.0 m
– Loading capacity: 250–500 kg/module
– Air velocity: 0.1–0.2 m/s
– Power requirement: 500 W/module
– Drying air temperature: 40–60 °C
– Drying time: 3–4 days
Advantages
– Modular design
– High drying capacity
– Supplementary heater enables weather independent
operation
– Partly recirculating the drying air reduces heat
FIG. 1.2.10 Characteristic drying curves at the inlet and outlet of requirement
a flat-bed dryer and typical course of ambient temperature Tamb and – Product is protected from environment
drying temperature T of a solar greenhouse dryer with roof integrated
– Hygienic production of high quality products
collector.

1. Production and processing

20 1.2. Drying

Disadvantages Dryer
– High investment – Width: 4 m
– Non uniform drying when operated without product – Length: 6 m
mixing – Bulk depth: 0.2 m
– Access to public grid to operate the fans – Loading capacity: 4000 kg/module
– UV-resistant bubble foil as cover material is – Air velocity: 0.2–0.3 m/s
required – Power requirement: 3 kW/module
– Drying air temperature: 40–60 °C
– Drying time: 2–6 days
Solar processing center [29]
For cooperative and commercial production of co- Advantages
coa and coffee a solar processing center was developed – Modular design
(Fig. 1.2.11). The center consists of a simple ­substructure, – High drying capacity
which is fixed on an elevated concrete platform. The – Commercial or cooperative application
solar air heater is incorporated into the tilted roof. The – Weather independent operation
drying air is sucked by axial flow fans through the solar – Utilization of fuel wood as supplementary energy
air heater, the horizontal and vertical air ducts and is source
forced through the product, which is dried in flat-bed – Low energy cost
dryers. During periods of adverse weather conditions, – Product is protected from environment
the drying air is heated with a supplementary biomass
furnace, which reduces the drying time from 4 to 6 days Disadvantages
to 2 days. Fermentation, grading, drying and storage – High investment
can be performed simultaneously in the center. – Labor intensive mixing of the product during
drying
– Temperature difficult to adjust and to control

1.2.3.3 Low-temperature drying [6, 8, 30–32]

Low-temperature (LT) in-storage drying is a com-
mon method in industrialized countries to dry cereals,
oil seeds and pre-dried fodder crops with comparatively
low moisture content. For LT-drying compartments in
warehouses, rectangular containers or round bins can be
used, where the product is stored in bulk (Fig. 1.2.12).
For air distribution, the LT-dryers are equipped either
FIG. 1.2.11 Solar processing center for cocoa with roof integrated with perforated false floors or with air ducts, which are
solar air heater. installed above the concrete floor or incorporated as
flush floor.

Drying curves
– Drying curves are similar to those of a
solar greenhouse dryer with roof integrated
collector
Utilization
– Cocoa
– Coffee
Operating conditions
Structure
FIG. 1.2.12 Structure of a low-temperature in-storage system for
– Width: 12 m grain drying [6].
– Length: 10–20 m
– Gable height: 5.5 m

1. Production and processing

 1.2.3 Drying methods 21
LT-drying depends on fluctuating weather conditions – After passing the inlet layer the drying air is almost
e.g. temperature and humidity of the ambient air. During saturated and therefore cannot take up additional
LT drying, ambient air or slightly pre-heated ambient air water on the way through the bulk
is forced by a fan through the bulk. To minimize the en- – Thus the moisture content of the product at the air
ergy requirement the drying potential of the ambient air outlet as well as the temperature of the exhaust air is
is used as energy source. Only during adverse weather almost constant during the whole drying process
conditions, ambient air has to be slightly pre-heated by – A drying zone develops in the direction of the drying
electric heaters or gas burners. air which moves slowly through the bulk
– The height of the drying zone mainly depends on the
Drying curves (Fig. 1.2.13) air velocity
– The product is dried stepwise until the drying zone
reaches the surface of the bulk and the upper layer
starts to dry
– The drying process is finished when the average
moisture content of the product in the bulk is
reduced to a level which is safe for storage
– The moisture difference between the lower and upper
layer in LT-drying systems is comparatively low
– The average moisture content of the bulk is typically
decreasing linearly with increasing drying time
– The fluctuating temperature and humidity of the
drying air has almost no influence on the average
moisture content of the bulk
– Only the moisture content of a comparatively thin
layer of the product at the air inlet is influenced by the
fluctuating temperatures and humidity, which is either
dried or remoistened until ventilation is stopped
Utilization
– Cereals
– Oil seeds
– Pre-dried green forages
Operation conditions
– Bulk depth: 3–5 m
FIG. 1.2.13 Characteristic drying curves at different heights h of – Air velocity: 0.1 m/s
the bulk and typical course of temperature T2 and relative humidity
RH2 of exhaust air of a LT-drying system [6].
– Temperature rise: 3–5 K
– Drying time: 10–20 days
– Initial moisture content: < 25% w.b.
– The LT-drying process is influenced by fluctuating Advantages
temperature and relative humidity of the ambient air
– Low investment since dryer can also be used for
– The extended bulk depth in association with the
storage
extremely low air velocity leads to a slow drying
– Dryer can be integrated into existing structures
process and to an extended drying period
– Minimum thermal energy consumption
– During the LT-drying process ambient or slightly
– Uniform drying
pre-heated ambient air is continuously forced
– Low labor requirement
through the bulk
– High germination rate
– At the beginning of the drying process the moisture
– Continuous ventilation reduces respiration
content of the product at the air inlet is slowly
reduced until the equilibrium moisture content is Disadvantages
reached
– Drying process depends on weather conditions
– The evaporation of the water causes a cooling effect
– Limited bulk depth and restricted initial moisture
preventing a temperature increase of the product
content
above ambient temperature during the whole drying
– Risk of mold growth in the upper layer
process

1. Production and processing

22 1.2. Drying

1.2.3.4 High-temperature drying [6, 8, 33] – Recirculating batch dryers

– Continuous-flow dryers
To adapt the drying capacity to the capacity of the
harvesting machines mechanical dryers are used in Mode of product movement
countries with highly mechanized agricultural systems. – Fixed bed dryer
High capacity high-temperature (HT) dryers allow im- – Moving bed dryers
mediate drying after harvest, which is a great advantage
since intermediate storage of wet products before dry- Mode of air-flow
ing can cause serious deterioration and even spoilage. – Through-flow
To accelerate the drying process in HT-drying systems – Over-flow
the drying air is heated by fuel oil burners, gas heaters – Suspended-flow
or biomass furnaces. The heat required for the drying
process is transferred from the drying air to the product Direction of air-flow and product-flow
by forced convection. The dryers are operated either in – Over-flow
the direct or indirect mode. In the direct mode, the flue – Through-flow
gases are mixed with ambient air and the mixture is used
as drying medium. In the indirect mode, the drying air Bulky products such as cereals, oil crops or medici-
is heated with the flue gases of the burner by a heat ex- nal plants are dried in thick layers forcing the drying air
changer that keeps drying air and flue gases separated. either in a vertical or in a horizontal direction through
Depending on the drying method, product and final use the bulk (Fig. 1.2.14). Fruits, vegetables and spices are
of product, drying air temperatures range from 40 to spread in single or thin layers and the air is forced in
400 °C. a horizontal direction over or over- and underneath the
All HT-temperature dryers are operated at a constant product.
drying air temperature and constant airflow rate. In gen-
eral, the relative humidity of the drying air depends on
the absolute moisture content of the ambient air. Only
when the exhaust air is partly recirculated to reduce the
heat requirement the relative humidity of the drying air
is set by the mixing ratio of the recycled air to a level that
avoids a decrease of the drying rate.
Common drying methods can be categorized accord-
ing to the following schemes:
Orientation of the drying container
– Horizontal
– Tilted
– Vertical
FIG. 1.2.14 Mode of air flow in high-temperature dryers [6].
Cross section of the drying container
– Rectangular
– Circular Relative direction of air and product movement
Mode of operation Continuous-flow dryers can be classified by the
relative direction of air and product movement in
– Batch dryers (Fig. 1.2.15):

FIG. 1.2.15 Schematics of the relative direction of product and air-movement in dryers for agricultural products [6].

1. Production and processing

 1.2.3 Drying methods 23
– Cross-flow Stationary flat-bed or column type batch dryers are
– Counter-flow used for drying small quantities of bulky products. For
– Concurrent-flow drying larger quantities, recirculating type batch dry-
– Mixed-flow ers are used, where the product is continuously mixed
during the drying process.
In cross-flow dryers the air and product moves in per-
pendicular direction, in concurrent-flow dryers parallel
Flat-bed dryer [6, 8]
and in counter-flow dryers in opposite direction through
the bulk. The relative direction of air and product in The most simple design of a batch dryer is the flat-bed
mixed-flow dryers is a combination of counter, concur- dryer. A rectangular container is equipped with a perfo-
rent and cross-flow. rated false floor on which the product is spread in a thick
Cross-flow and mixed flow dryers are the most com- layer (Fig. 1.2.16). The drying air is heated either with a
mon HT-dryers for agricultural commodities. In prin- gas- or oil heater or with a biomass furnace and is forced
ciple, dryers can also be operated in the counter or by a fan through the bulk. To prevent overheating at the
concurrent-flow mode, but currently those types of dry- air inlet, the product is manually mixed in intervals.
ers are not very widespread.

Batch dryers
In batch type dryers, a horizontal or vertical container
is loaded with the wet product. The heated air is forced
through the product until the drying process is finished.
After cooling the batch with ambient air, the dried prod-
uct is discharged and a new batch of wet product is FIG. 1.2.16 Structure of a flat-bed dryer [6].
loaded.

1. Production and processing

24 1.2. Drying

FIG. 1.2.17 Characteristic drying curves of flat-bed dryers at the air inlet and air outlet together with drying air temperature T, product tem-
perature TP and relative humidity RH [6].

Drying curves (Fig. 1.2.17) Utilization

– Fast reduction of the moisture content at the air inlet – Cereals
– Drying process at the air outlet starts when the – Oil seeds
drying zone reaches the surface – Cocoa and coffee
– Big difference of the moisture content between air – Litchi, longan
inlet and outlet at the end of the drying process – Medicinal plants
– The product temperature approaches the drying air
temperature asymptotically at the air inlet already Operating conditions
after a short time causing a high thermal load of the – Bulk depth: 0.3–0.5 m
product at the air inlet – Air velocity: 0.2–0.3 m/s
– To prevent quality losses the drying air temperature – Loading capacity: 5–10 t
of fixed bed dryers is limited – Drying air temperature: 40–80 °C
– Drying time: 4–24 h

1. Production and processing

 1.2.3 Drying methods 25
Advantages evaporative cooling while the relative humidity
increases insignificantly
– Multi purpose dryer
– The product at the air outlet dries much slower than
– Low investment
at the air inlet
– Simple operation
– With increasing drying time the drying air
Disadvantages temperature and the relative humidity converge to
the inlet conditions
– Low drying capacity
– During over-flow drying the exhaust air cannot be
– Limited drying air temperature
saturated and the temperature of the exhaust air is
– Risk of over-heating at air inlet
only slightly lower than the inlet drying air resulting
– High thermal energy consumption
in an almost uniform drying but also in high thermal
– Non-uniform drying
energy consumption
– High labor requirement for loading, mixing and
– Partly recirculation of the exhaust air reduces heat
discharge
requirement significantly

Tray dryer [34, 35]

Tray dryers consist of a heat insulated chamber in
which the trays are stacked in shelves (Fig. 1.2.18). The
trays either consist of wire mesh or perforated sheets,
both made of stainless steel. The product to be dried is
spread uniformly in a single or thin layer on the trays.
The drying air is forced horizontally either over or over-
and underneath the product. To reduce the heat require-
ment the drying air is partly recirculated in the drying
chamber.

FIG. 1.2.19 Characteristic drying curves of over-flow batch dryers

along the way of air flow at different times t together with drying air
temperature T and relative humidity RH.
FIG. 1.2.18 Structure of a tray dryer.

Utilization
Drying curves (Fig. 1.2.19)
– Fruits
– Drying air temperature and air flow rate are constant – Vegetables
during the whole drying process – Spices
– At the air inlet, the moist product is exposed to the high
Operating conditions
temperature. The moisture content is reduced rapidly
until the equilibrium moisture content is reached – Length: 1.0 – 1.5 m
– Due to the comparatively high air velocity the – Width: 1.0 – 2.5 m
temperature of the drying air is only slightly reduced – Height: 2.0 – 2.5 m
on its way through the dryer, which is caused by – Distance between trays: 50 – 100 mm
– Loading capacity: 50 – 1000 kg

1. Production and processing

26 1.2. Drying

– Air velocity: 0.2 – 0.3 m/s container with a rectangular or circular cross section.
– Drying air temperature: 40 – 80 °C During the drying process, the product is continuously
– Drying time: 4 –24 h discharged at the bottom of the container and conveyed
with a vertical auger or a bucket conveyor to the top of
Advantages
the dryer. The conveyors are also used for loading and
– Uniform drying unloading. The drying air is forced horizontally through
– Possibility to dry small batches the bulk. After the drying process is finished heater and
– Easy handling conveying equipment are switched off and ambient air
– Low electric energy consumption is forced through the product until it is cooled down
to almost ambient temperature. Despite the high dust
Disadvantages
emissions, in general, recirculating batch dryers are not
– High investment equipped with dust separation systems.
– Limited drying capacity
Drying curves (Fig. 1.2.21)
– Limited drying air temperature
– High labor requirement for cleaning the trays
– High thermal energy consumption when not
recirculating the exhaust air

Recirculating batch dryer [6, 8]

To overcome the disadvantages of the fixed-bed
batch dryers, recirculating batch dryers were devel-
oped (Fig. 1.2.20). The product is loaded into a vertical

FIG. 1.2.21 Characteristic drying curves and temperature and rel-

ative humidity of recirculating bed batch dryers at the air inlet 1 and
air outlet 2 [6].
FIG. 1.2.20 Structure of a recirculating batch dryer [6].

1. Production and processing