REGIONAL COOPERATIVE AGREEMENT

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

Distance Assisted Training Programme

for
Nuclear Medicine Technologists
Edited by: Heather E. Patterson, Brian F. Hutton

Basic Physics

Author: Jocelyn Towson

John Cormack

Module 1 Unit 1
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ownership. (version 4.1)
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b
 Basic Physics
CONTENTS

page
Basic Physics – Flowcharts 1

Outline 4

Section 1.
Stable elements and radionuclides 6
Atomic structure
Electrons
The nucleus
Radioactive decay processes 9
Radioactive decay scheme
Beta emission
Positron emission
Electron capture
Alpha emission
Summary diagram
Gamma emission
X-rays

Section 2:
Activity - the Rate of Decay 20
The general decay equation
Units of measurement
Half Life
Effective half-life
Practical application of half-life: Technetium-99m
Counting Statistics

Section 3:
Interaction of Radiation with Matter 38
Charged particles
Photons

Semi log graph paper 53

Glossary 55

c
 Section 1
Radioactive Decay
Atomic structure
nucleus, electron shells

Unstable too many too many

parent too many
neutrons and neutrons protons
nucleus
protons

electron
alpha beta positron
capture
Decays emission emission emission

gammas

Adjustments
sometimes 'Excited' daughter
necessary nucleus loses energy

'delayed'
'prompt' (isomeric)
gamma gamma emission
emission

some gammas vacancies in

are 'internally electron shells
converted' are filled

Daughter IC electrons x-rays

emitted instead Auger
nucleus
of gammas electrons
(usually
stable)

Symbol
What "comes out" when the parent atom disintegrates
Only the gamma rays are useful for imaging.
Everything else just adds to the radiation dose.

1
 Basic Physics

Section 2
Activity – The Rate of Decay

Exponential Decay Equation decay factor

decay constant

Units of Activity Measurement

SI System ‘Old’ System

bequerel curie

Half Life physical

biological

effective

Exercise
Determining
Half Life of 99mTc

Statistics of
counting radioactivity

Exercises
Determining
Counting accuracy
Counting efficiency

2
 Basic Physics

Section 3
Interaction of radiation with matter

Radiation

Photons Charged Particles

Gamma rays Beta rays (positrons)

X-rays IC electrons

Photoelectric Compton ionizing bremsstrahlung

Absorption scatter excitation

energy
spectrum

Exercises
Plotting a
99mTc spectrum

attenuation of
photon beam

Intensity Equation

attenuation half value layer

coefficients tenth value layer

3
 Basic Physics for Nuclear Medicine
Technical Writers: Jocelyn Towson
John Cormack
Production Editor: Heather Patterson

Outline:
Nuclear medicine is a branch of medicine that uses physics a great deal. If you
know some of the basic facts about radioactivity and radiation, you will have
a much better understanding of how nuclear medicine "works" in practice.

Many of the great discoveries in atomic and nuclear physics made over the
last 100 years have been used with great benefit in medicine. Nuclear
medicine started slowly about 50 years ago, but has increased rapidly over the
last 30 years, as more suitable radionuclides became available.

Radioactivity is used in very small amounts for the diagnosis of many

diseases. A lot of energy is released when a radioactive atom disintegrates.
Sometimes energy is released as gamma rays - electromagnetic radiation
which can easily penetrate body tissues. This makes it possible for the
location and movement of minute quantities of radioactive material inside the
body to be detected from outside the body, without any harm to the patient.

Radioactivity is also used in larger amounts to treat a few special diseases,

because the energy released by the disintegrating atoms is enough to kill
diseased cells.

Radioactive substances "decay" by emitting radiation of one sort or another.

By knowing the properties of the radiation emitted, and how the radiation is
absorbed in the surrounding materials, it is possible to get the best results out
of the radiation detector, whether it is a simple Geiger counter or a
sophisticated gamma camera. On the other hand, if you do not fully
understand these basic properties, it is quite possible that wrong nuclear
medicine procedures could be used resulting in misleading results.

There are three sections in this module, which you should work through at
your own pace. The module is not intended to be completed in one short
session before you start the more practical modules in the course. It is not
meant to be a substitute for a textbook. You should use this module to guide
your study of a textbook, and to see how well you have understood your
reading. You should refer back to this module and the textbook at any time if
you are not sure about something.

Technologists come to nuclear medicine from a wide variety of backgrounds.

Some technologists have been taught a lot of physics, but others have not.

4
 This module aims to show you how the properties of radiation which are used every
day in nuclear medicine.
Objectives:
On completion of this module you will:-
 Understand how the properties of radiation are used in everyday nuclear
medicine to diagnose and treat disease.

Materials:
To study this section you should if possible refer to any good textbook on
Nuclear Medicine which includes an introduction to basic nuclear physics.
 for example:
Nuclear Medicine and PET/CT: Technology and Techniques
P.E.Christian, K.M.Waterstram‐Rich, Elsevier – Health Sciences Div. 7th edition ‐ 2011

IAEA - Handbook of Nuclear Medicine Practice in Developing Countries –

If you have difficulties in finding a textbook that you can use you should seek
advice from your supervisor.
Ask your
Supervisor
HELP
In addition it will be helpful if your supervisor can arrange for someone to
provide a tutorial to give you an overview of this subject.

 Take notes and highlight important phrases and passages, as you think
necessary.
Remember

DON'T WORRY TOO MUCH ABOUT THE MATHEMATICS

AT THIS STAGE!

5
 SECTION 1
STABLE ELEMENTS AND RADIONUCLIDES
Introduction:
The objective of this section is to increase your understanding of why some
substances are radioactive, others are not, and how radioactive nuclides
disintegrate (‘decay’)
Time Check: 
Allow 2 hours to read section 1 and the relevant sections in a textbook – any
good nuclear medicine – basic physics section..
for example: Nuclear Medicine and PET/CT: Technology and Techniques
P.E.Christian, K.M.Waterstram‐Rich, Elsevier – Health Sciences Div. 7th edition ‐ 2011
Refer to the flowchart ‘Radioactive Decay’ for an overview.
Also refer to an on-line resource:
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Basic_Physics_of_Nuclear_Medicine

 After reading this section try to answer questions 1 – 12 in your workbook to

help you understand the material you are studying.
Atomic Structure
This section reviews the basic composition of atoms, the small particles of
which all matter is made. Atoms have a small, dense central core or nucleus
containing neutrons and protons. Around this core circulate a cloud of
electrons, which are normally considered to occupy a number of shells around
the nucleus (see Figure 1). Neutrons and protons are called nucleons. They
have about the same mass, whereas electrons are much smaller (about
1/1800th of a proton mass ). Neutrons have no electric charge. Protons have a
positive charge of +1, and electrons have a negative charge of -1. An atom
with its complete number of electrons is therefore electrically neutral.

Nucleus
-12
~10 cm

K shell

L shell

M shell

-8
~10 cm

Figure1.1: Simplified model of atomic structure with central nucleus

surrounded by electrons of different energy levels (‘shells’)
Adapted from: Nuclear Medicine Technology and Techniques.
Bernier, Christian, Langan. Pub: Mosby.
6
Electrons
The electrons circulate around the nucleus in different orbits, sometimes called
“shells”. Each electron is bound, or held in orbit, by a fixed amount of energy.
The electrons in the inner orbits closest to the nucleus are bound tightest to the
atom, whereas the electrons in the outermost orbits are loosely attached. It
does not take much energy to strip outer electrons (valence electrons) off the
atom; when this happens, the atom is said to be ionized. The atom in such a
situation will have a net positive charge because it has lost one or more
electrons.

Figure 1.2. Comparison of electron energy state principle to a racetrack

Adapted from: Principles and Practice of Nuclear Medicine
2nd Edition - P.J.Early, D.B.Sodee
A special unit of energy called the electron volt (eV) is used for atomic and
nuclear processes and electromagnetic radiation. [An eV is very small indeed,
being the energy acquired by a single electron moved through an electric
potential of 1 volt.]
The electrons in the outermost shell of the atom are the ones that are involved
in chemical reactions, including all the biochemistry in the body. These
electrons have binding energies of a few electron volts (eV). In contrast,
nucleons are bound together in the nucleus with much greater energies, up to
thousands of electron volts (keV) or millions of electron volts (MeV).
The nucleus
The number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus determines
a) the stability of the nucleus
b) the identity of the material
Any combination of neutrons and protons is referred to as a nuclide. Certain
combinations of neutrons and protons results in a stable condition: these
correspond to the stable elements. However other combinations of neutrons
and protons result in an unstable nucleus which will lose energy in the form of
radiation to reach a more stable state: these are radionuclides.
The number of protons in the nucleus determines also the number of orbiting
electrons and it is the number of these electrons and their position in shells that
determines the chemical properties of the substance. The number of protons is
referred to as the atomic number (Z). The total number of neutrons and

7
 protons is referred to as the atomic mass number (A). Normally a nuclide or
radionuclide is written in a notation which uses these numbers.
A
Z X
where X refers to the specific chemical element

131
e.g. 53 I is the common radionuclide of Iodine which has an atomic number
53, which defines the properties of Iodine but a total number of neutrons and
protons equal to 131 which means the nucleus is unstable. Normally this is
written simply as 131 I or Iodine-131 and these forms will be used in the rest of
the course.
The chemical properties of elements will be discussed in a separate subject
later in the course. However a section of the periodic table is given in Figure
1.3a so that you can see how the elements form groups that have similar
properties . For example, metals, rare gases etc. are usually arranged in
columns in the periodic table.
 http://www.ptable.com and
 http://www.karriwells.com/2010/12/the-periodic-table-of-elements-in-a-
song for more details
Note that if you know the atomic number of a nuclide from the periodic table
you can easily work out the number of neutrons for any radionuclide for a
given atomic mass number. The number of neutrons is A-Z.

Figure 1.3a. The periodic table:

8
Here we are more concerned with the properties of radionuclides and these
can also be listed in a table that demonstrates the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus: this table is called a chart of nuclides (see Figure
1.3b). You can see that all the nuclides for an element have the same atomic
number, but different atomic mass number.

Figure 1.3b. Section from chart of nuclides

Adapted from Nuclear Medicine Technology and Techniques
Bernier, Christian & Langan
Note that the Z defines the material, independent of A. Note also that it is most
common to define the specific species by the element’s symbol and the atomic
mass number (since the A will be fixed and known for a specific nuclide )

Radioactive decay processes

Basically, whether a substance is radioactive or not depends on the
composition of its nucleus. There are three reasons why a substance might be
radioactive. Its nucleus may be unstable because it has either:
i) too many protons (p excess or proton rich), or
ii) too many neutrons (n excess or neutron rich), or
iii) too many neutrons and protons (p, n excess).

(see Figure 1.4 below)

9
Figure 1.4 Neutron-proton ratio of all stable nuclides (black dots).
.
Some radionuclides occur naturally in very small amounts, left over in soils
from the time of the earth's creation, or produced continually by cosmic rays in
the upper atmosphere. A much bigger range of radionuclides can be produced
artificially.
There are basically two ways of making radionuclides: using a nuclear reactor
or a cyclotron (or particle accelerator).
In the case of a reactor a target material is introduced and bombarded by the
many neutrons present in the reactor. The result is that ‘extra’ neutrons are
added to the nucleus of the target, resulting in a ‘neutron-rich’ radionuclide.
In the case of a cyclotron the target material is bombarded with charged
particles (e.g. protons) resulting in ‘extra’ protons being added to the nucleus
of the target, producing a ‘proton-rich’ radionuclide.
You can see from Figure 1.4 that the balance for stable nuclides has slightly
more neutrons than protons in general whereas radionuclides are either proton
rich or neutron rich.
10
Radioactive decay is the process by which the unstable nucleus tries to change
into a more stable form. The radioactive atom is said to "disintegrate" in the
process. Exactly how the transformation takes place depends on the
composition of the nucleus. The mode of radioactive decay in order to become
more stable depends on whether the radionuclide is neutron rich or proton
rich.
Radioactive decay scheme
The nucleus has well defined energy levels, rather like the electron energy
levels of the atom. When some radionuclides decay, the nucleus may
transform straight into the lowest energy or "ground state" of the daughter
nucleus, which is stable and that is the end of the disintegration process. But
with many radionuclides, the transformation goes to one or more "excited
states" of the daughter nucleus, which then emits gamma rays of exactly the
right energies to get to the ground state.
Radioactive decay can be a very complex process. One way of showing the
details in a more easily understood format is to use a decay scheme, (See
Figure 1.5) which describes the transformation of the radioactive nucleus
(parent nucleus) to another (daughter nucleus). The processes in the decay
scheme are represented by arrows.
If a nucleus is unstable the nucleus will have an associated energy level and
the result of radioactive decay is that the nucleus will attempt to reach a stable
lower energy, with the difference in energy being transferred to the emitted
radiation.
In the following diagram horizontal lines represent the energy levels, from the
highest (unstable) level of the parent nucleus to the lowest energy level of the
daughter nucleus, sometimes via intermediate energy levels. Usually this
results in an instantaneous (or “prompt”) further decay with release of energy
in the form of a Gamma photon (although this is not always the case). Note in
this case that the intermediate level simply involves the structural organisation
of the nucleus so there is no further conversion of neutrons to protons or
protons to neutrons. Note that a gamma ray is simply a small burst or packet
of energy rather than a physical particle.

Look at the schematic diagrams for radioactive decay schemes below

11
 Figure 1.5 Representation of radioactive decay using a decay scheme.
Note that the direction of arrows indicates the change in atomic number that
occurs as a result of the decay, with either an increase, decreases or, in the case
of gamma emission, no change in the atomic number (and therefore element
name). The energy levels are usually also indicated so that the energy of the
emission is known (being the difference between the energy levels). Note also
that there may be more than one possible route for a radionuclide to reach the
stable state. In this case it is normal to also indicate the probability or % chance
of this happening.
 Look at the ‘Radioactive Decay’ flowchart in conjunction with the following.

Beta emission
For radionuclides that are neutron rich the most common mode of decay is by
emission of beta particles which effectively changes a neutron into a proton.
Beta particles have similar mass and charge to electrons.

 One of the best known radionuclides with beta decay in nuclear medicine is
iodine-131
When a nucleus decays by only beta emission, the transition is always between
well-defined energy levels, eg. Strontium-89 has transition energy of exactly
1.46 MeV. However, the beta rays are not all emitted with this energy – the
energies are distributed between the lowest and the maximum energy (1.46
MeV). The spread of energies can be represented on a diagram called a
spectrum (see figure-1.6). The remainder of energy is emitted in the form of
neutrinos that are undetectable nuclear particles.

12
 Number of beta particles
Average Emax

Energy

Figure 1.6 A typical spectrum of beta ray energies.

Adapted from: Nuclear Medicine Technology and Techniques.
Bernier, Christian, Langan. 3rd Edition. Pub: Mosby.

In the spectrum above the number of Beta particles is plotted at each energy.
Note the shape of this typical energy spectrum. You can see that the largest
number of particles have an energy less than half the maximum energy. The
average energy is 1/3 of the maximum energy.
Positron emission
For radionuclides that are proton rich or cyclotron produced there are two
common modes of decay:
• Emission of positrons effectively changes a proton into a neutron. Positrons
have similar mass to electrons but a charge of +1 instead of -1.
These radionuclides including fluorine-18 are used in PET imaging and will be
considered later in one of the advanced modules.
In the case of a positron, it does not last long in the real world before it
combines with an ordinary electron, annihilating them both and releasing
energy as gamma rays that travel in opposite directions. We will see later that
this forms the basis for positron emission tomography (PET).

Two anti-parallel 511 keV

photons produced

Unstable parent
nucleus Positron combines with
electron and annihilates

Proton decays to
neutron in nucleus -
positron and
neutrino emitted

Figure 1.7: Annihilation of positron and electron produces two 511keV

gamma photons.
13
 Electron capture
• In electron capture the nucleus absorbs an electron from an inner electron
shell, which also converts a proton to a neutron, usually with additional
release of energy in the form of gamma rays.

 There are many electron capture radionuclides in nuclear medicine.

They include 125I, 123I, 201Tl, 67Ga, 111In

Alpha emission
In the case of radionuclides that have excess protons and neutrons these
usually decay by emission of alpha particles, which are like Helium nuclei
with mass of 4 and charge of +2. These are less common in nuclear medicine
although recently have been used for therapy. However they will not be
considered in this Unit.
Before discussing gamma emission in more detail it is useful to consider the
decay schemes outlined below.
Summary diagram
An extract from the chart of nuclides was provided in Figure 1.3b. It is useful
to consider this chart to understand the decay process.

Figure 1.8a
You can see that when radioactive decay occurs by positron or Beta emission
or by electron capture the result is the formation of a nuclide of a different
element. This is demonstrated by the following diagram (Figure 1.8b) which
summarises the transitions that would occur for different modes of decay.

14
 IODINE-131 ( β -, γ decay ) TECHNETIUM - 99m (Isomeric Transition)
131 99
53
I (8.04 d) 42 Mo (66 h)

β− β−
99m
0.364 43Tc (6.01 h) 0.1405
γ (364 keV)
γ (140 keV)

99 5
Stable 131 Xe 43
Tc (2.12 x 10 y)
54

GALLIUM - 67 (EC decay) THALLIUM - 201 (EC decay)

67 201
31 Ga (78.2 h) 81 Tl (73.1 h)

EC EC
0.3936 0.167
(300 keV) γ γ (167 keV)
0.1846
(185 keV) γ
0.0933
(93 keV) γ 0.0
0.00
67 Zn 210
Stable 30 Stable 80 Hg * [+68 - 80 keV Hg X-rays]

INDIUM - 111 (EC decay) IODINE - 125 (EC decay)

111 125
49 In (2.81 d) 53 I (60.1 d)

EC EC
0.416
γ (171 keV)
0.245
0.0355
γ (245 keV) γ (35.5 keV)
0.0 0.0
111 125
Stable 48 Cd Stable 52 Te * [+28 keV Te X-rays]

Figure 1.8b Decay schemes of common nuclear medicine radionuclides. Only

the most important and useful decay paths are shown. The clinically useful
characteristic X-rays have been added to the schema.
Adapted from: Nuclear medicine in Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment
P.J. Ell, S.S Gambhir 3rd Edition Pub: Churchill Livingstone

Gamma emission

As outlined above gamma emission occurs in conjunction with either electron

capture or beta emission, with immediate emission of one or more gamma
emissions. This is termed spontaneous gamma emission.

Note that the end product of emission may itself be a further radionuclide
which may not decay immediately but may decay at a later time. Often we are
not interested in what the daughter nuclide is. This is because it will be
produced in such tiny amounts that it has absolutely no effect on body
chemistry. However we are interested if the daughter is radioactive itself.
15
When this occurs in the case of gamma emission, the intermediate product is
called an isomer and the decay is called isomeric transition (simply a
structural reorganisation of the nucleus). The intermediate product is said to
be in a metastable state and is referred to using the symbol ‘m’. The most
important radionuclide in nuclear medicine is an example of this: technetium-
99m or 99mTc.

Isomers like 99mTc can be very useful in nuclear medicine because there are no
charged particles (beta rays or positrons) emitted. This means the radiation
dose to the patient will be less. [ See section 3 of this unit] This in addition to
the good imaging properties of 99mTc and the relative ease of labelling various
radiopharmaceuticals has resulted in this being the most widely used
radionuclide in Nuclear Medicine. In addition 99mTc can be produced on-site
using a generator system as discussed briefly at the end of section 2 of this
unit.

Some radionuclides yield gamma rays of several different energies. An

example is gallium-67. When 67Ga decays, it emits a mixture of gamma rays,
with the most abundant emissions, as shown below. Some gamma cameras can
use more than one gamma energy “window” for imaging. These gamma
cameras can be set to detect the three most abundant gamma ray energies
when imaging 67Ga in a patient.

gamma ray energy (keV) abundance (%)

93.3 38
184.6 21
300.2 16
393.5 4

An energy spectrum can be plotted for gamma rays similar to that plotted fro
Beta particles -  see section 3 of this unit. In the case of Gamma photons
these are emitted with an exact energy rather than a distribution of energies,
however the detection of these photons and the interaction of photons prior to
detection results in a measured spread of energies in practice.

Some radionuclides have quite complicated decay schemes, because of other

processes which can happen as a result of the nuclear disintegration. Further
changes will happen if either the nucleus or the electron shells of the daughter
atom are not in their final, stable states.

For example let us also consider a further possible form of radioactive decay.
In some cases the energy emitted from the nucleus is relatively small and the
result is that this energy is transferred to one of the inner electrons such that
this electron in emitted instead of the original photon (in some cases
accompanied by x-ray emission). This is referred to as internal conversion

16
(IC). Note that IC electrons like Beta particles give rise to high local radiation
dose. This occurs in the case of Iodine-125 (see Figure 1.9b).
125
53I

EC

IC

125
52Te
Figure 1.9b: Generalized decay scheme for Iodine-125, which decays by
electron capture, followed by internal conversion.
Adapted from: Nuclear Medicine Technology and Techniques.
Bernier, Christian, Langan. 3rd Edition. Pub: Mosby.

Internal
Conversion

Figure 1.10: Internal conversion of L shell electron. Energy is transferred from

the nucleus to eject an orbital electron, as an alternative to gamma ray
emission. Internal conversion electron will have kinetic energy equal to the
gamma ray energy minus the binding energy with which it is held in orbit.
Adapted from: Nuclear Medicine Technology and Techniques.
Bernier, Christian, Langan. 3rd Edition. Pub: Mosby.
The likelihood of internal conversion depends on the radionuclide. In some,
only a small fraction of gamma rays are "internally converted" and not emitted.
For example:
During the decay of 99mTc, one internal conversion electron is produced for
every 11 gamma rays of 140 keV. In other radionuclides, the fraction is quite
large.

17
In contrast
125
I decays by electron capture to an excited state of 125Te (tellurium). A
gamma ray (35 keV energy) is emitted in only 7% of the transitions to the
ground state of 125Te. In the other 93% of transitions, the gamma rays are
"internally converted" and do not appear. IC electrons appear instead.
X-rays
Sometimes the decay of a radionuclide leaves a vacancy in an inner electron
shell of the daughter nuclide. This happens after electron capture or internal
conversion. The vacancy is filled by another electron from electron orbits,
which are further away from the nucleus. This results in a release of energy in
the form of an x-ray.

Characteristic
X-ray
Figure 1.11 Characteristic x-rays are produced when an electron fills the
lower shell vacancy. Energy of the x-ray represents energy difference between
two electron shells.
Adapted from: Nuclear Medicine Technology and Techniques.
Bernier, Christian, Langan. 3rd Edition. Pub: Mosby.
This process has one very important practical application in nuclear medicine.
A number of useful radionuclides (eg. 201Tl) decay by electron capture, which
is followed by x-ray emission. (There may also be gamma rays). X-rays usually
have much lower energies than gamma rays and are generally of no use for
scanning. One exception is 201Tl. Because it is such a heavy element, the x-rays
from its daughter, mercury-201, are about 68 - 80 keV. These 201Hg x-rays are
less than the ideal nuclear medicine energy of about 140 keV, but they are still
useful for scanning because 201Tl itself emits very few gamma rays (in only
10% of disintegrations, with energy of 167 keV).
Sometimes, electrons from higher orbits still may not fill electron shell
vacancies, and the end result of this is emission of characteristic x-rays, which
may result in the release of a number of very low energy electrons from the
outer-most orbits. These are called Auger electrons, but they do not need to be
considered in this course.
18
  Now read about Atomic Structures in your textbook.
for example: Nuclear Medicine and PET/CT: Technology and Techniques
P.E.Christian, K.M.Waterstram‐Rich, Elsevier – Health Sciences Div. 7th edition ‐ 2011

Go To your workbook section Basic Physics - BP and answer questions 1 – 12.

Key Points: 
 Radioactive substances have an unstable combination of neutrons and protons
in the atomic nucleus.
 Radionuclides which are “neutron rich” like molybdenum-99, decay by
emitting beta rays - negatively charged electrons.
 Radionuclides which are “neutron deficient”, like gallium-67, decay by
electron capture. Some, like fluorine-18, decay by emitting positrons -
positively charged electrons.
 Many radionuclides decay with the emission of gamma rays, which are used
for nuclear medicine imaging. (Radionuclides which decay by internal
conversion do not produce gamma rays useful for imaging and add to the
radiation dose).
 Molybdenum-99 decays to technetium-99m, the most important radionuclide
in nuclear medicine.

19
 Section 2
Activity - The rate of Decay

How “Hot” is a Sample of Radioactive Material?

We will now look at the rate at which radioactive substances decay.

Introduction:
The activity of a radioactive sample is the rate at which its atoms disintegrate.
As time passes, there are fewer radioactive atoms remaining in the sample,
and the rate of decay also falls. In other words, the activity decreases with
time. This happens in a predictable way for every radionuclide.
What our instruments actually detect is some of the radioactive emissions
resulting from these atomic disintegrations; this is related to the activity of the
radioactive sample, but calibration is required if the true activity is to be
obtained from measurements. Gamma cameras, for example, only detect a
small fraction of the radiation emitted from one part of the patient’s body in
one particular direction.

Objectives:
On completion of this section you will be able to:-
 Understand the relationship between a half-life and decay constant.
 Determine the half life of 99mTc.
 Assess the importance of counting time.

Time Check :
Allow 1 hour to read the material in this section, and answer questions 13 - 16
in your workbook section BP pages 4 and 5 as before. This section also
includes two exercises, which will require additional time. Use the flowchart
“Activity - The Rate of Decay” as a guide.
Remember

The activity of a radioactive sample is the rate at which its atoms disintegrate,
ie. the number of disintegrations/ second.

20
 The General Decay Equation
The activity remaining after a sample has decayed for a given time can be
calculated from the following equation :
Remember At = Ao e-t
where:
At = the amount of activity left after a time 't'
Ao = the amount of activity initially present in the sample at time t= 0
 = the decay constant, which is constant for a specific radionuclide

What this equation says is that the amount of radioactivity, A, decreases at a

rate which is predictable and, like so many other natural processes, can be
described mathematically by an ‘exponential function’. After a time t, the
initial activity Ao has been decreased by the decay factor, e-t.
The decay constant  determines how quickly the radionuclide decays. A
large decay constant corresponds to fast decay. is absolutely characteristic of
each radionuclide and represents the fraction of atoms in a sample which
disintegrates per second or per minute, or per hour, or per year, depending on
how short-lived or long-lived the radionuclide is.
Don't worry too much about the mathematics of the exponential function.
Here it is written as "e" with an exponent, -t, above. Sometimes you may see
it written as "exp(.......)" with the exponent in the brackets, eg. exp(-t).

Note that the negative exponent means that the curve is decreasing with time;
a positive exponent would result in a curve that is increasing with time, for
example in some population growth curves.

Positive exponent
activity

Negative exponent

time
Figure 2.1. Examples of exponential curves

21
 Units of measurement:
In SI system of units, activity is measured in Becquerel which is one
disintegration per second. (SI stands for 'Systeme Internationale'). A kilo-
becquerel (kBq) is a disintegration rate of 1000 disintegrations per second.
Carbon-14 and potassium-40 occur naturally in the body at these sort of levels.
The activities given to patients in nuclear medicine tests are usually in the
range of megabecquerels (MBq, one million or 106 disintegrations per second
(dps)) to gigabecquerels (GBq , one thousand million or 109 dps).
Some countries still use the old units of millicuries and microcuries etc. and
many nuclear medicine departments are using instruments, which read in
these old units. A millicurie is 3.7 x 107 disintegrations per second or 37 MBq.

Remember

A simple way to convert from one system of units to another is to remember

that 1 millicurie is equivalent to 37 MBq, and 1 MBq is equivalent to 27 µCi.
13 Try converting the following quantities:

Old units SI units

100 mCi

160 MBq

4 GBq

25 µCi

15 mCi

800 MBq

60 kBq

For a particular radionuclide the rate of decay is defined by the half-life for
the radionuclide. The half-life is the time it takes for half the atoms in the
radioactive substance to decay. This can vary from fractions of a second to
many thousands of years.
For Example:
Suppose we start working with a sample of 100 radioactive atoms of a
radionuclide whose half-life is 5 minutes. After 5 minutes there will be about
50 atoms remaining. After another 5 minutes there will be about 25 atoms left.
After another 5 minutes there will be 12 atoms left (more or less!) . And so
on...... Not only that, the rate of decay - the activity - falls by half every 5
minutes. The decay rate will fall from about 14 disintegrating atoms/minute at
first (initially), to 7 disintegrations/minute after 5 minutes etc.

22
 100

Activity
75 gone

Percentage of radioactivity 50

Activity
25 remaining

2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (hours)

Figure. 2.2A Linear plot of radioactive decay for T1/2 = 6 hrs

100
90
80 Activity
Percentage of radioactivity

70
gone
60
50
40

30

Activity
20 remaining

10
2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (hours)

Figure. 2.2B Semilog plot of radioactivity for T1/2 = 6 hrs.

y axis is logarithmic.
Adapted from: Nuclear Medicine Technology & Techniques
3rd Edition. Bernier, Christian & Langan
The half-life, T1/2 is easier to understand and is more commonly used than the
decay constant.

The half life is the time it takes for the activity (that is the count rate) to fall by
half, so that
AT1/2 / A0 = 1/2

23
 So that the activity remaining after a time t is therefore given by
n
1
At  Ao   
2
where n is the number of half-lives which have passed in the time t (t divided
by T1/2) .
Half life and decay constant are simply different ways of describing the same
thing. If you know one, you can calculate the other using this formula:

 = 0.693/T 1/2 or T 1/2 = 0.693/

Complete the following table, finding out the half-lives and using the above
relationship between half-life and decay constant:
Radionuclide  (fraction of atoms T1/2 (hours or days)
decaying/hour or day)
Fluorine-18 0.693/1.83 = 0.38 / h 1.83 h
Technetium-99m 6h
Gallium-67 0.0089/h
Cobalt-57 271d

Using half life instead of decay constant, the basic law of radioactive decay can
be re-written as:
At = Ao e-0.693 t/T1/2

We have just replaced  by 0.693 /T1/2 in the general decay equation

If the half-life is known, there are two practical ways of working out how
much a radioactive substance has decayed after a time t, either using a
calculator or graph paper.
(i) You can work it out on your calculator using the exponential (ex) or power (xy)
function buttons. We will give an example here, but please ask your
supervisor to demonstrate if you are not sure what to do on your own
calculator.
For Example:
Suppose you had 2.7 GBq of 99mTc at 11.00 am. How much activity would be
left at 1.30 p.m., which is 2.5 hours later?
Either:
From the equation above, first calculate the exponent, -0.693t/ T1/2 :
0.693 x 2.5/6  0.28875
and change sign  -0.28875
Then find the exponential term by pressing the "exp" function key. This gives
you the decay factor. (On some calculators, you might have to use a special
key such as "inv" first, to select the operation of the exponential function key
which you need.)
exp(-0.28875)  0.7492 , the decay factor

24
Lastly, multiply the initial activity by the decay factor:
2.7x 0.7492  2.0228 GBq remaining at 1:30 p.m.

Or (this is probably easier):

First calculate how many half-life (n) are required.

In this case n = 2.5 = 0.4167
6
Now the decay factor is also given by (1/2)n
so:- enter 0.5 on the calculator
press xy function button
enter 0.4167
press “ = “ to give 0.7492
and multiply the initial activity by this decay factor as before.

(ii) You can look up the decay factor from a graph like those shown here.
1.0 1.0
0.6
Fraction of activity remaining

Fraction of activity remaining

0.8 0.4

0.2
0.6
0.1
0.4 0.06
0.04
0.2
0.02

0 0.01
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Time (half - lives) Time (half - lives)

Figure. 2.3 Fraction of radioactivity remaining as function of time is shown

for a linear plot (left) and a semilogrithmic graph (right). Slope of
semilogrithmic straight line is determined by decay constant.
Adapted from: Nuclear Medicine Technology & Techniques
3rd Edition. Bernier, Christian & Langan

The straight-line plot on semi-log graph paper is the easier one to use. The
decay factor is on the (vertical) y-axis. Both graphs express time on the x-axis
in multiples of the half-life - not hours, days etc. - so that they can be used to
work out the decay of any radionuclide.
 The same information is contained in tables like the one supplied with these
notes (see end of this unit)
If you look closely at the semi-log graph paper supplied with these notes, (see
end of this unit) you will see it has the vertical axis only compressed to a 'log
scale', which covers a number of cycles of ten but never goes down to zero.
The semi-log scale covers a bigger range of values and is very useful because
exponential decay curves plot as straight lines on this paper.
 (see back of BP section in your workbook for extra semi-log paper)
25
 For the worked example above, you would look up the decay factor for 2.5/6 =
0.4167 half lives.
You might find it easier to plot a separate semi-log graph for each
radionuclide, with actual hours or days on the x-axis scale, so you can look up
the decay factor for any elapsed time directly. ie. you don't have to convert the
elapsed time into a number of half-lives.

Go To your workbook BP opposite question 15 and find the semi-log paper. There is
an extra copy at the back of the BP section.
Using semi-log graph paper, plot the first point on the graph at t=0, when the
decay factor = 1 (or 100%). Plot the second point at t = T1/2 (eg. at 6 hours for
99m
Tc), and decay factor = 0.5 (or 50%). You can then draw a straight line
through these two points, and use it to look up the decay factor for any other
point.

For practice, try the above methods yourself to work out how much 99mTc
activity is left after 4 hours, if you had 800 MBq to begin with. How do the
results of your three methods compare?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
.....................
Tables of decay factors for different times can also be found in the information
sheets which are supplied as package inserts with commercial
radiopharmaceuticals.

For those who are feeling particularly lazy, there are a variety of online decay
calculators available - see, for example

 http://www.radprocalculator.com/Decay.aspx

Before using such calculators, however, it is wise to ensure that you can
perform calculations manually. You should also check their accuracy before
using them on a regular basis, and have a “feel” for the magnitude of the result
you expect.

26
 Prepare for an exercise

Half Life Measurement

Objectives:
On completion of this exercise you will be able to
 Measure the half life of 99mTc
Materials:
 A source of about 50 MBq of 99mTc and a gamma camera or dose calibrator
or
a small source of less than 100 kBq and a NaI probe counter
or
a smaller source of less than 10 kBq and a well counter.
 Your Workbook

Time Check: 
Allow 2 hours spread over 2 days to complete the following exercise and
answer the questions.
Procedure:
(i) Count a sample of 99mTc at 3-hourly intervals through the day, and again the
next morning. If you have enough activity (several hundred MBq) use the dose
calibrator or a gamma camera if it is available.
Important: Make sure the source is in exactly the same position each time.
If you only have a little activity, use a well counter. This is a good time to
remember that there is always some background radiation around and it
might be significant compared to a small sample of radioactivity (make sure
any sources around are well shielded). Before you start counting samples,
acquire a background count with no sample present. This should be done for a
much longer time than you would count the sample in order to improve
precision. Calculate the background counts for the same time interval as the
99m
Tc sample is counted.

Background counts
B=  time for sample counting
time for background reading

Subtract the background from each reading to get the net counts:

Net counts = Reading – B

When you are counting low activity samples in a well counter, it is a good idea
Good to check the background again at the end, to make sure there has been no
Idea!
change in background and that the well has not been contaminated by any of
the samples.

27
 (ii) Then plot the net count rate against time on the sheet of semi log graph paper
supplied in your workbook. The slope of the line is the decay constant, and
you can read the half-life from the graph, it is the point on the horizontal axis
where the activity falls to 50%. The half- should be 6 hours.
Helpful Hint:
If the slope is much less or the curve is flattened at the beginning, perhaps
your source was too 'hot' for the counter, maybe more than 10000 counts per
second (cps). If this is what you suspect, try the exercise 24 hours later.
If the slope is flattened out at the tail end after 24 hours, perhaps there are
long-lived impurities in the source, eg 99Mo, or you did not subtract the
background.
 In practice, the decay equation is used when calculating what volume of a
radiopharmaceutical solution contains the required amount of activity at any
time.
Note: As the activity decays, the volume needed increases. Simply work out the
volume of the required activity at zero time, and divide it by the
corresponding decay factor for later times.

Be Careful! WARNING!!
There are dose calibrators which will do this job for you, knowing the initial
activity and volume. However, you should still have a "feel" for the expected
decay. Be wary of providing the wrong initial activity and volume, or using
the wrong radionuclide setting. Watch out for any problems with the
calibrator, such as faulty display lights or 'hot' sources nearby, which might
give you the wrong reading.
Use your own graph for 99mTc or the Decay Factors Table to complete the
information below, for an initial radioactive concentration of 12.2 GBq / 9.2
mL.
Note: Radioactive concentration is the amount of activity in a given volume,
whether solid, liquid or gas. Do not confuse radioactive concentration with the
term specific activity, which is the amount of activity in a given mass of the
chemical compound. You will learn more about specific activity in the
Radiopharmacy Unit.
Activity required Decay factor Vol. at time t
600 MBq at t = 0 hr
600 MBq at t = 1 h
600 MBq at t = 2 hr
600 MBq at t = 4 hr
600 MBq at t = 5 hr
600 MBq at t = 6 hr
600 MBq at t = 8 hr

28
 Effective Half Life:
Is a falling count rate in a patient entirely due to radioactive decay?
 Read about Effective Half Life , in your textbook
for example: Nuclear Medicine and PET/CT: Technology and Techniques
P.E.Christian, K.M.Waterstram‐Rich, Elsevier – Health Sciences Div. 7th edition ‐ 2011

The fall in radioactivity in an organ, tissue or the whole body will be due to a
combination of radioactive decay, and clearance by excretion eg. through the
kidneys. The term "biological half life" is sometimes used to describe the
clearance of radioactive material from the patient's body by excretion, if the
clearance is the simplest cause of a single exponential fall. It is written as
bT1/2, while the physical half-life can be written pT1/2.
9k Yo
8k
7k
6k
Visual estimate of best fit line
5k
Log (stomach counts)

4k
Y1/2
3k

2k

T1/2
1k
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (minutes)

Figure. 2.4 Measurement of effective T1/2 = 12.5 minutes in the stomach by

visual estimate of best fit line on semilog plot.
Adapted from: Nuclear Medicine Technology & Techniques
3rd Edition. Bernier, Christian & Langan
The fall in activity due to the combined processes can be described by the
effective half-life, effT1/2, which is given by the equation:
1 1 1
 
eff T 1 b T1 p T1
2 2 2

This equation may also be written as:

T  pT
T  b 1/2 1/2
eff 1/2 T . p T
b 1/2 1/2

29
 Example:

99m
i) What is the effective half-life of Tc sulphur colloid taken up by the liver and
not excreted at all?
pT1/2 = 6 h (hours)
bT1/2 = ∞ ...( "infinity" - a mathematical symbol which represents a
very large number)
Mathematically, 1/∞ = 0 ,
so
1/ effT1/2 = 1/6 + 1/∞
= 1/6 + 0
therefore:-
effT1/2 = 6 h

In other words, the effective half-life is the same as the physical half-life, as
you would expect.
Note: effT1/2 is never longer than the greater of pT1/2 or bT1/2

ii) What would be the biological half-life of 131I iodide in a patient who has had a
131
cancerous thyroid removed, if the I activity in the body falls by 50% every
24 hours?
pT1/2 = ......8 d (days)
effT1/2 = ...24 h = 1 d.
Rearranging the equation:
1/bT1/2 = 1/ effT1/2 – 1/ pT1/2

= 1/1 – 1/8

=7/8
bT1/2 =8/7 =1.14 d
therefore:-
biologicalT1/2 = 1.14 days
This shows that if the rates of radioactive decay and excretion are very
different, the effective half life will be much the same as the shorter of pT1/2
and bT1/2.

30
 Practical application of half-life: Technetium-99m
Of particular interest is the decay scheme for Technetium-99m shown in
Figure 2.5. Note that in this case the parent is Molybdenum-99, which has a
relatively long half life of 65.9 hours compared to a half life of 6 hours for the
daughter Technetium-99m. This difference in half-life forms the basis for the
production of Technetium-99m on-site using a generator system (which is
more fully described in the section on radiopharmacy). The half life of
Technetium-99m is almost ideal since this permits time for the distribution of a
particular radiopharmaceutical prior to imaging withot losing too much
activity due to decay. At the same time the half-life is sufficiently short that the
radiation dose is not excessive. However, a major practical problem would be
the availability of Technetium-99m for daily use since the short half-life could
limit its distribution. Fortunately the longer lived parent provides a practical
solution since a generator system (usable for at least a whole week) can be
more easily distributed and the daughter product extracted from the
generator. In the generator system the activity of the daughter builds up
relatively quickly to a level that is defined by the parent. The daughter can
then be removed on a regular basis over until the parent has decayed. This
ready availability has resulted in widespread use of Technetium-99m.

Remember

The basis of the generator system is the following:

i) the parent is longer-lived than the daughter, so it is easier to distribute it from
the manufacturer to the nuclear medicine clinic and the supply will last longer.
ii) the daughter can easily be separated from the parent by chemical means
because they are different elements, and then given to the patient.

Note that Technetium-99m decays to Technetium-99 which is also radioactive.

However this is not a problem since the half-life is very long (212 000 years)
and the rate of disintegration therefore does not interfere with the nuclear
medicine study or result in any significant radiation hazard. After 400 MBq of
99m
Tc has decayed away, it leaves only a tiny amount (1 Bq) of 99Tc.

31
 Counting Statistics:
Or, how accurate are your radioactivity measurements?
 Read about Counting Statistics, in your textbook
for example: Nuclear Medicine and PET/CT: Technology and Techniques
P.E.Christian, K.M.Waterstram‐Rich, Elsevier – Health Sciences Div. 7th edition ‐ 2011

Accuracy and Precision

Before we start, it is important to understand the difference between the
accuracy and precision of measurements. This is illustrated in the diagram
below:

Figure 2.5
The precision of a measurement is a measure of how reproducible it is; that is,
if we repeat the measurement several times how close will our measurement
values be? The accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how close our
measurements get to the real value of what we are trying to measure. What we
would like is good accuracy and precision (see d above). It is possible, however
that we may have high accuracy and low precision ( see c) or low accuracy and
good precision (i.e. the measurements have good reproducibility, but there is
some bias which is skewing them off target – see b)

Why is it so important to measure radioactivity with good accuracy?

Firstly, radioactive decay is a random process because it is impossible to say
exactly which radioactive atoms are going to disintegrate next, or when.
Whether you are counting a sample in a well counter, or monitoring
contamination with a meter, or collecting a gamma camera image, the results
of a number of repeated measurements will not be exactly the same each time.
Fortunately, the average behaviour of the very large number of radioactive
atoms in a sample of radioactive material is mathematically predictable, by
something called Poisson Statistics.
NOTE!!! The more counts you collect, the better the precision.

Remember

This is a really important aspect of radioactive decay.

Suppose you have to scan a patient with a very low count rate. Perhaps only a
small dose of radiopharmaceutical was given, or the activity has been excreted,
or has simply decayed as time passed. It is essential to collect enough counts
32
 on the image, otherwise small abnormalities simply will not show up. This is
because the “signal” from the abnormalities become buried in the “noise”
surrounding them1; the better the “signal to noise” ratio is on an image, the
better chance you have of detecting small and/or low contrast abnormalities
(see images below). You will learn in later teaching modules (Imaging
Techniques and other clinical subjects) what reasonable count rates and
scanning times are needed for different clinical procedures in order to obtain
acceptable “signal to noise” ratios.

Figure 2.6
Loss of object delectability as the counts on the image (and hence the signal to
noise ratio) are reduced from 10,000,000 (top left) to 250,000 bottom right
The error or "noise" of any series of measurements can be expressed by a
parameter called standard deviation. With radioactive decay, there is no need
to worry about a complicated formula to calculate the standard deviation,
because it is simply the square root of the total number of counts. This is a
feature of anything, which can be described by Poisson Statistics, including
radioactive decay.

 Work through the three examples below for:-

Poisson Distribution and Counting Statistics ,

1 It may seem odd to use the term "noise" as a characteristic of images, which of course are
seen and not heard! The term is a carry-over from the processing of audio signals, and has
now become firmly embedded in the jargon of image processing. The concept can be
illustrated using a simple analogy; suppose you are trying to obtain the cricket or other sports’
score by listening to a small "transistor" radio in a room full of people conversing loudly. The
background noise will tend to swamp the "signal" you are listening for (i.e. the voice of the
cricket commentator). In other words, the signal to noise ratio will be small. This can be
improved, however, by putting the radio closer to your ear, or moving to a quieter area.
33
Example 1.
What is the standard deviation,  of a sample that produced 10,000 counts?
 c = 10, 000 = 100 counts

Example 2.
What is the coefficient of variation of 10,000 counts?
 c   100 
CV     100 =    100 = 1%
 C  10, 000 

Example 3.
What is the and CV for 100 counts?
 c = 100 counts

100
cv   100  10%
100

The last column in the following table shows how the errors get smaller and
the precision improves as more counts are collected:

Total counts standard % error ratio

collected deviation signal : noise
(signal) (noise)

100 √100 = 10 10/100 = 10% 10 : 1

10,000 √10,000 = 100 100/10,000 = 1% 100 : 1

1,000,000 √1,000,000 = 1,000 1,000/1,000,000 = 0.1% 1000 :1

34
 Prepare for an exercise

Importance of counting time for improving precision

Introduction:
The precision of a radioactive measurement depends on the total number of
counts recorded. This includes a gamma camera image.

The higher the activity of the source (including patients) the faster the
measurement can be made. The longer the measurement lasts, the better the
results.
Objectives:
On completion of this exercise you will be able to
 Assess the importance of counting time for improving precision.
Materials:
Any convenient radionuclide can be used for this exercise.
 A source of about 50 MBq , and a gamma camera
or
a small source of a few hundred kBq and a NaI probe counter
or
a smaller source of a few kBq and a well counter.
 Workbook section BP

Time Check :
Allow 1 hour to complete the following exercise and answer the questions.
18. Procedure:
(i) Measure the activity of your source in a dose calibrator if you have one,
otherwise calculate the activity from the volume and decay factor.
Activity: ........................... ,
time and date of calibration ...................................
volume: ..............................
(ii) Count your sample as follows. Work quickly if you are using 99mTc, because if
the measurements take longer than 15 minutes from the time of calibration you
will need to apply decay corrections to your results.
 Count the sample 10 times, about 5 seconds each time (to give you ten x
values).
 Count the background for the same time interval. (It should be less than 1% of
the source count, so that it can be ignored for this exercise.)
 Repeat, but count the sample for 10 times longer, about 50 seconds each time.

(iii) Work out the average count (X = ∑x/10).

Work out the standard deviation of the average count (√X).

35
 If there are no faults with the detector, the variation in counts is due mainly to
the randomness of radioactive decay. You can confirm this by checking that at
least 6 of the 10 readings fall within + 1 standard deviation of the average, and
9 of the 10 readings fall within + 2 standard deviations.
Work out the % error of the average count, (√X/X) x 100

Count Number Counts / 5" Counts / 50"

Background
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Average X = ∑x/10
Standard deviation = √X
% error = (√X/X) x 100
Range (X-2√X) to (X+2√X) ............... to .................. ............... to ..................
How many of the 10
readings are in this range?

(iv) Finally, you can estimate the efficiency of your counter.

Remember

The unit of activity is the Becquerel, one disintegration per second. What
you record with a radiation instrument is the number of counts. per second.
The count rate does not truly represent the activity because it is impossible to
record every disintegrating atom by the detector. Efficiency of detectors varies
widely: from only a couple of percent for a gamma camera, up to 90% for a
well detector. So the count rate of the sample you are measuring will depend
on both activity and efficiency.
Work out the count rate (counts per second) of your sample from the average
of the counts in the last column. (see previous table above).
Knowing the amount of activity in your sample, work out the efficiency of
your detector:
In counts per second per MBq .................................. cps/MBq
As percent efficiency.................................................. %
(Remember 1 MBq = 106 disintegrations per second)

36
 High count rates mean that you can collect enough counts for to get the
precision ( or signal to noise ratio) you need in a shorter time. This is very
useful when scanning patients who have difficulty lying still for a long time,
and when you have a heavy workload for your camera!
Why else do you need to be able to measure radioactivity with accuracy?
 You need to know how much activity the patient gets because this determines
the radiation dose.
and
 Radiopharmaceuticals are often expensive and in short supply, so you do not
want any waste.
Go To your workbook BP and transfer your answers to questions on procedure 18.

Key Points: 
1. The rate of radioactive decay is described by an exponential function.

2. Each radionuclide has a characteristic half-life and decay constant.

3. The effective half-life of radioactivity in a tissue, organ or body is a

combination of radioactivity decay and biological clearance.

4. The quality of a gamma camera image depends on the total number of counts
recorded.

5. More activity and longer counting times give better images – provided there is
no patient movement.

37
 Section 3
Interaction of Radiation with Matter

Finally, what happens to radiation as it passes through the body and into the
detector?
Introduction:
This section is intended to give you an understanding of the interaction of
radiation with matter. You will do practical experiments related to this topic
later in the course.
Objectives:
On completion of this section you will be able to:
 Name the charged particles, which are emitted by the radionuclides, used in
nuclear medicine.
 Describe how charged particles interact with matter and what effect this has on
human tissue.
 Name the two most important processes by which gamma rays interact with
matter.
 Understand how one type of gamma ray interaction, the photoelectric (PE)
Effect, is used in the gamma camera crystal to form an image of the
distribution of activity within the body.
 Understand how the other important type of gamma ray interaction, Compton
scattering, can degrade the quality of an image formed by the gamma camera.
 Describe the means used to reject counts from the gamma camera crystal
which are not in the photopeak of the energy spectrum.
Time Check :
Allow 1 hour to read the material in this section, and answer question 20 in
your workbook.
 Look at Flowchart Section 3 for this section.
 Read a section on Interactions, in your textbook
for example: Nuclear Medicine and PET/CT: Technology and Techniques
P.E.Christian, K.M.Waterstram‐Rich, Elsevier – Health Sciences Div. 7th edition ‐ 2011
Radiation interacts with atoms in the material it is passing through, losing
energy along the way. Eventually the radiation is absorbed and the atoms of
the absorbing material are excited and ionized, and it is the ionization, which
is important. Radiation detectors measure excitations and ionizations in solids
(eg. sodium iodide crystals, TLD badges, film badges), liquids (liquid
scintillation counters) or gases (eg. Geiger Muller tubes, dose calibrators). In
biological tissues, ionization sets off a chain of chemical reactions, which may
end in cell damage or cell death.
There are several different processes by which radiation is absorbed.
Interaction of Charged particles (e.g. electrons) and Electromagnetic radiation
(e.g. X and gamma rays, also called photons) with matter can be considered
separately.
38
 Charged Particles:
The only charged particles of importance in routine nuclear medicine are
 beta rays emitted by radionuclides like 131I and 90Y,
and
 internal conversion (IC) electrons from gamma-emitting radionuclides,
including 99mTc.
 positrons emitted by radionuclides such as 18F. Remember a positron is
positively charged and behaves similarly to a beta particle.
Charged particles lose their energy by causing ionization and excitation of the
atoms along their path. They do not travel very far in solid and liquid
materials before they are completely absorbed. The maximum distance the
particles travel will depend on their initial energy and the density of the
absorbing material, and all their energy will be deposited within this range.
Most ionization is created at the very end of their path, when they have slowed
down and are more likely to interact with surrounding atoms. Typical ranges
are a few millimetres in water or tissue, and up to a few metres in air.
A high speed electron will lose a small fraction of its energy in another way.
When it passes near the electric field of a positively charged nucleus,
particularly in material with high atomic number Z like lead, it slows down
and changes direction. This causes it to radiate electromagnetic radiation
called Bremsstrahlung. (This is how x-ray tubes work) 'Pure' beta emitters like
32
P are best shielded with a low Z material like perspex, in which they can
easily be absorbed while emitting very little of the penetrating Bremsstrahlung
radiation

Incident
electron

L
e- M
Bremsstrahlung
photon

.
Figure. 3.2 Deceleration of charged particle passing near the nucleus
results in release of energy in the form of Bremsstrahlung x-rays.
Adapted from: Nuclear Medicine Technology and Techniques
3rd Edition: Bernier, Christian and Langan.

39
 Radionuclides used for nuclear medicine imaging are chosen because of their
gamma radiation, as beta radiation has no use for imaging and only adds
radiation dose to the patient. The most suitable radionuclides for imaging are
those which do not emit any beta radiation (eg. 99mTc). There are some
radionuclides which emit both beta and gamma radiation such as 131I. Beta
radiation which can cause cell damage and cell death making it more suitable
for therapy than for diagnostic scanning procedures.
(Radionuclides like 14C which only emit beta particles are used mainly in
research and are counted by different techniques to the gamma camera
detector. It is difficult to measure beta activity accurately. Many beta particles
will not reach the detector because of 'self absorption' in the sample and
absorption in the wall of the detector. Liquid scintillation counting is used to
get over these difficulties when measuring samples of body tissues and fluids.
This is covered in a later module.)
Then there are internal conversion (IC) electrons which are also charged
particles. An IC electron will have an energy equal to that of the 'converted'
gamma ray minus the binding energy which held it in its atomic orbit.
for example,
99m
Tc emits IC electrons of 7 different energies, the most important being 1.7
keV (from 98.6% of disintegrations) and 120 keV (from 8.8% of
disintegrations). Electrons of these energies travel less than a millimetre in
water or tissue, and all this energy ends up as a radiation dose to the patient.
Photons
Nuclear medicine textbooks usually refer to the three principal interactions of
X and gamma rays with matter:
i) Photo-electric (PE) effect,
ii) Compton or 'inelastic' scattering,
iii) Pair production.
Only the first two occur at the energies used in nuclear medicine (and
radiology), so we will not consider pair production here.

Photon interactions within the body - either by Compton scattering or PE

effect - are not wanted in radiology or nuclear medicine. They only add to the
radiation dose, and the overall effect is a reduction in the number of photons
that reach the detector. However, if the photon has managed to go straight
through the body to the gamma camera, it needs to be totally absorbed in the
sodium iodide (NaI) crystal of the gamma camera in order to locate the
photon's origin on the image. This means a PE interaction is needed in the
crystal.

40
 • Photoelectric effect

Incident
photon

e-
Photo-
electron

Figure. 3.3 In a PE interaction, the photon is totally absorbed by an atom, and

a 'photo-electron' is ejected from an inner orbit of the atom (rather like the
internal conversion process).
Firstly, the PE effect is much more likely in materials with high atomic number
(Z). Its probability depends on Z3, that is why lead (Z = 82) is so good for
shielding and collimators. Also inorganic crystal detectors like sodium iodide
(Z = 53 for iodine) are more efficient than plastic scintillators with low Z.
Secondly, the PE effect is much more likely at low photon energies, with a
probability depending on 1/E3. It is the most important process of interaction
for photons < 100 keV.
• Compton Scattering

Scattered
photon
Incident
photon

e-
Compton
electron

K
L
M

Figure. 3.4 In a Compton interaction, the photon loses some of its energy to an
atom of the material through which it is passing.

Two things happen:

i) a 'Compton electron' may be ejected from an outer orbit of the atom, and
ii) a scattered 'Compton photon' of lower energy than the original one is emitted,
and in a different direction.
The Compton effect is not very dependent on energy, but it does depend on
electron density ((Z/A)*NA),
where Z is the atomic number, A is the atomic weight of the medium and NA is
Avogadro’s number.

41
Remember

It is particularly important to understand Compton scattering in nuclear

medicine imaging.
For example :
How does the energy of the scattered photon compare to the initial photon
energy?
The energy of the scattered Compton photon will always be less than the
initial photon energy, down to a predictable minimum value. More energy is
lost when high energy photons are scattered.
For example,
In a single Compton scattering event,
• Photons of 80 keV (similar to 201Tl) could lose up to 24% of their energy, and
Compton photons would emerge from the patient with an energy between 61-
80 keV.
• 99mTc photons at 140 keV can lose up to 36% of their energy, and the Compton
photons would be in the range of 90-140 keV.
• 131I photons at 360 keV can lose up to 58% of their energy, and the Compton
photons would be in the range of 149-360 keV.
The Compton photons with higher energies are emitted in the "forward"
direction, through very small scattering angles. Those with the lowest energy
are "backscatter" photons, emitted at an angle of 180o.
Does the angle of the scattered photon depend on the initial photon energy?
The angular distribution of scattered photons depends on the initial photon
energy, and can be described mathematically. Photons with higher energies
tend to produce scatter in the forward direction, not much different from the
original direction. At lower photon energies, say at 100 keV or less, there is
o o
quite a lot of scatter at 90 and even at 180 .

increasing energy

photon radiation

absorbing material
eg. body tissue

Figure: 3.5 Variation in the range of scatter angles depends on energy; as

energy increases there is more chance that the photon will be scattered in a
forward direction.

42
 How can we distinguish between scattered and unscattered photons?
 This topic will be covered fully in the module on Instrumentation.
As an introduction, read about gamma spectra in your textbook
for example: Spectrometry, Nuclear Medicine and PET/CT: Technology and Techniques
P.E.Christian, K.M.Waterstram‐Rich, Elsevier – Health Sciences Div. 7th edition ‐ 2011

There are two ways of separating scattered radiation.

1) The collimator of the gamma camera reduces the amount of scatter reaching
the crystal, but it does not really distinguish between scattered and
unscattered photons. It separates photons according to their direction of
travel. It is quite possible for a photon scattered inside the body to travel
through a collimator hole and reach the crystal.

C0

B C1

D
A0 A1

Figure: 3.6 : Side view showing arrangement of collimator, crystal, and

photomultiplier tubes in a gamma camera. Photon Ao scatters in the patient,
resulting in photon A1 which is detected in the crystal; photon B is absorbed by
the collimator; photon Co scatters in the patient, resulting in photon C1, which
is absorbed by the collimator; photon D does not scatter, and is detected in the
crystal.
Adapted from: Nuclear Medicine Technology & Techniques
3rd Edition. Bernier, Christian & Langan

2) The electronics of the camera can be used to separate scattered photons

because of their lower energy, by a process called pulse height analysis
(PHA). Each photon that interacts with the crystal produces a small electronic
pulse whose height depends on the energy deposited. If the number of pulses
are plotted on the y-axis of a graph against photon energy on the x-axis, a
spectrum of the detector's response to the radiation is obtained.
 Look at examples of spectra in your textbook
which shows spectra for 99mTc and 137Cs. (see figures 3.7 and 3.8 below)

43
 10 5

4
number of 10
pulses (per
pulse height
interval) 3
10

2
10
0
50 100 150 200
Pulse Height
Figure: 3.7 Pulse height spectrum of technetium-99m

5000

4000 Percentage of cesium-137 energy resolution

Full width at half maximum

= ______________________________ x 100
Count rate

3000
Photopeak centre Full width at half
56 x 100 = 8.5% maximum
= ___ count rate
2000 662
= 56 dial units

1000

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Pulse - height dial units (Energy = 1 keV/du)

Figure: 3.8 Caesium-137 energy spectrum and energy resolution

Only pulses in the photopeak, whose energy corresponds to a primary
unscattered photon completely absorbed in the crystal (by a PE interaction),
should be recorded on the image.
adapted from: Rollo F.D. Nuclear Medicine Physics, Instrumentation and agents,
St. Louis. 1977, Mosby.

44
 PULSE HEIGHT
ANALYSER
LL UL
Pulses Scaler

NUMBER
OF
PULSES

LL UL
PULSE HEIGHT

Figure: 3.9 Use of pulse height window, defined by lower and upper energy
level discriminators, to select desired range of energies (usually photopeak
energies, representing unscattered events).
Adapted from: Nuclear Medicine Technology & Techniques
3rd Edition. Bernier, Christian & Langan
In practice, for a single energy photon the pulse may vary in size for a number
of reasons. The energy of an unscattered photon does not appear as a single
line in the spectrum (e.g. at 140 keV for 99mTc) but as a broad peak. You will
learn more about the energy resolution of the gamma camera in a later
module. The PHA is often set to accept pulses in an energy window of 10 -
20% centred on the photopeak. The amount of scatter included in the window
depends very much on the primary energy.
For example,
• Single scattering of 360 keV (131I) photons through an angle of 32o results in
Compton photons of 324 keV, falling within a 20% window on the photopeak
(360 + 36 keV). Photons scattered through 50o would end up in a 40%
window (360 + 72 keV).
The situation is much worse for low energy photons like 201Tl:
• 80 keV photons scattered through 73o would produce Compton photons with
an energy of 72 keV, falling within a 20% photopeak window (80 + 8 keV).
Scattering through 127o would still be counted in a 40% window (80 + 16 keV)!

This is the reason photopeak windows are kept narrow, not more than 20%.
They may even be "offset", or moved up slightly towards the high energy side
of the photopeak, to screen out more of the scatter.

45
THINK!
Where can Compton scatter occur?
Think about the places where Compton scattering can occur:
i) In the patient.
The bigger the patient, the more scattering there will be. A photon may be
scattered more than once. The scattered photon might still reach the gamma
camera, but it will no longer be possible to say exactly where it came from in
the body, but it will have a lower energy. If the energy is low enough, it may
be possible for it to be electronically rejected by the camera’s PHA.
ii) In the septa of the collimator.
Whether the scattered photon penetrates the septum or stays in the same
collimator hole, it will be rejected if the energy is too low.
iii) In the NaI crystal of the camera.
Suppose a photon reached the camera without being scattered in the patient or
collimator, and then had a single Compton interaction in the crystal. The
Compton photon might escape from the crystal, leaving behind the Compton
electron carrying the energy difference. Photons, which only deposit part of
their energy in the crystal, would still be of no use for imaging, because they
couldn't be distinguished from low energy photons, which had been scattered
in the patient.

Of course the primary photon could have a series of Compton scattering

interactions in the crystal, ending up with a PE interaction. All its energy
would be deposited and it would look like a primary photon and be recorded
in the photopeak. However, its location would be blurred by the multiple
interactions in the crystal. This is more likely to be a problem with medium
energy photons and the thick crystals (>1 cm) found in some of the older
cameras. It is not a problem at low photon energies where the PE effect
predominates, or in thin crystals.

46
 Prepare for an exercise
on your gamma camera

Introduction:
Most gamma cameras can display the spectrum of energies of counts recorded
by the camera. There are two main features:
 The unscattered photons appear as a broad photopeak, not as a single line (e.g.
140 keV for 99mTc).
 The scattered photons have less energy and appear as a flatter, continuous part
of the spectrum below the photopeak.

There is some overlap of these two effects particularly for a low energy
radionuclide like 99mTc.
Objective:
On completion of this exercise you will be familiar with a 99mTc spectrum as
displayed on your gamma camera.

Materials:
 A small point source of 99mTc
 Any patient having been injected with 99mTc

Procedure:
 Place the point source under the gamma camera head with its 99mTc, low
energy, collimator.
Look at the spectrum from your gamma camera of a small point source of
99m
Tc in air. You will see that most of the counts are in the photopeak,
corresponding to unscattered photons. But there will also be some low energy
counts from Compton photons from the source, its container, the floor beneath
etc. and from Compton electrons in the crystal.
 Compare it to the spectrum of the radiation from 99mTc coming from a patient's
body. You will see how there are more low energy counts, because there is
much more scattering before the radiation reaches the gamma camera.


Go To your workbook section BP question 19

99m
Sketch into your workbook the spectrum for a point source of Tc in air
and the spectrum for 99mTc in a patient.

47
 Attenuation and Absorption:

 Read about Attenuation of Radiation, in your textbook

For example: Nuclear Medicine and PET/CT: Technology and Techniques
P.E.Christian, K.M.Waterstram‐Rich, Elsevier – Health Sciences Div. 7th edition ‐ 2011

Do you know what is meant by the terms attenuation and absorption ?

A beam of radiation passing through material - eg. body tissues, lead
shielding - loses energy by the various processes described above. The energy
may be absorbed in the material, or scattered out of the beam. A beam of
electromagnetic radiation is said to be attenuated when energy is removed by
absorption or scattering or both. Unlike neutron scattering, which can be
elastic with no loss of energy, photon scattering usually results in a loss of
energy to the absorbing material.

The fall in intensity of the radiation (or count-rate) can be described by a

similar mathematical equation as that for radioactive decay, ie.

Ix= Io e-µx

Io is the initial intensity of the radiation leaving the source, and

Ix is the intensity of the radiation after travelling a distance x through the
attenuating material.
µ (pronounced 'mew') is the total linear attenuation coefficient,
µ is the fraction of radiation which is removed per (small) unit length of
absorber thickness.

Total
attenuation
Attenuation

Compton
Pair
production
Photo-
electric

0.5 1.0
Energy (MeV)

Figure. 3.10 Interaction by photoelectric, Compton, and pair

production combine to form attenuation coefficient.
Adapted from: Nuclear Medicine Technology & Techniques
3rd Edition. Bernier, Christian & Langan

48
  PE effect and Compton scattering are the only processes of photon energy loss
that matter up to 500 keV.
You may also see tables of mass attenuation coefficients, µm. These are used
to avoid the problem that linear attenuation coefficients depend on density, 
(pronounced 'row'). For example, if we double the density of a given material,
we halve the thickness required to reduce the intensity of a gamma ray beam
by a given amount, and the linear attenuation coefficient (by definition) is
doubled. The mass attenuation coefficient is simply:
linear attenuation coefficient 
m  
density of attenuating material 

Steam, water and ice would have three different µ values for what is the same
substance, but only one value of µm
Since µm = µ/, the intensity equation becomes

I x  I o e m x
Strictly speaking, the intensity equation applies to what is called 'good' or
'narrow beam' geometry, when both the source and the detector are well
collimated (i.e, shielded in such a way as to transmit and receive a narrow
beam of photons). Under these conditions, a Compton scatter event will
remove a photon from the beam just as a photoelectric absorption event does.

Lead Collimator

Absorbing
material
with
I0 absorption I Detector
properties
described Attenuated beam
Monoenergetic beam by μ or HVL
of x-rays or γ rays Intensity = I
Lead Collimator
Intensity = I 0

Thickness X
I = I0 e − μχ = I0 e -0.693(χ/HVL)
Figure 3.11. Attenuation of radiation in an absorbing medium.
Adapted from: Nuclear Medicine Technology & Techniques
3rd Edition Bernier, Christian & Langan

With 99mTc, µ for narrow beam geometry in tissue is about 0.15/cm. In lead, it
is much higher, about 23/cm, because the PE effect is extremely probable in
material with a high value of Z.
 Go To your workbook section BP page 6 and complete the following question, using
your calculator.

49
 99m
Suppose there is a uniform distribution of Tc activity in the body which is
viewed by a parallel hole collimator. Under these conditions, you are looking
at a radiation beam which is parallel and not diverging from a point, so the
Inverse Square Law does not apply.
 Read about Inverse Square Law , in your textbook
For example: Nuclear Medicine and PET/CT: Technology and Techniques
P.E.Christian, K.M.Waterstram‐Rich, Elsevier – Health Sciences Div. 7th edition ‐ 2011

Note: Inverse Square Law will be covered more fully in Radiation Safety, Module 1,
Unit 2a.
We will ignore scattered photons for the moment.
Use the narrow beam attenuation coefficient of 0.15/cm for 99mTc in the
attenuation equation to calculate the relative intensity of the beam (Ix/Io) after
travelling through
a) 5cm of tissue ----------------------------------------------------------------
b) 10cm of tissue------------------------------------------------------------ ---
c) 15 cm of tissue ---------------------------------------------------------------

The Half Value Layer (HVL), is related to the linear attenuation coefficient by
the equation
HVL = 0.693/µ
Like Half-Life for the decay equation, Half Value Layer is easy to use. It can
also be found from a straight line plot of intensity vs. shielding thickness on
semi-log graph paper, as the thickness which reduces the intensity to 50%. The
Tenth Value Layer (TVL) is the thickness which reduces the intensity to 10%.
We can write our attenuation equation in terms of half-value layers as follows:
n
1
I x  Io  
2
where n  x is the number of half-value layers
HVL
or

1
n

I x  Io  
 10 
where n  x is the number of tenth-value layers
TVL

50
 Two real situations where we are interested in the attenuation of radiation
are
(i) The quantitation of radioactivity in the patient from gamma camera
measurements. Remember, a gamma camera over a patient will detect
primary and some scattered photons even though it is well collimated.
(ii) The calculation of shielding thickness. Shielding is designed to reduce
primary and scattered radiation coming from all directions, not just to a
direction permitted by the collimator.
In both of these situations, narrow beam geometry does not apply. This is
called broad beam geometry.

Under these conditions, the transmitted radiation is be higher than that

predicted by the linear attenuation coefficient.
One way of accounting for the difference is to use a slightly smaller value of µ
99m
in the intensity equation. When measuring Tc activity in tissue, the broad
beam value of µ is 0.11/cm, compared to 0.15/cm for narrow beam geometry.
For shielding calculations, broad beam attenuation coefficients for the
shielding material of interest should be used.

Summary:
Radioactive decay occurs by the following processes:

Beta emission To balance an excess of neutrons

Electron capture To balance an excess of protons

Positron emission To balance an excess of protons

(above a certain energy)

Alpha emission To balance an excess of both

neutrons and protons

These processes may be accompanied by:

Gamma emission / To remove excess nuclear energy

internal conversion

X radiation/ To fill electron shell vacancies

Auger electron emission

51
 Radiation interactions with matter are:

Charged particles Ionization and excitation/

Bremsstrahlung

Photons Photoelectric absorption/

Compton scattering

Key Points: 
Remember

Radionuclides in Nuclear medicine are chosen with desired physical

properties,
The ideal radionuclides will have
1. A short half life
2. Little or no charged particles
3. A gamma ray which is easily absorbed by the photoelectric effect in the
detector but not in the body.

WE ARE LUCKY TO HAVE TECHNETIUM-99m!

(It will also have good chemical properties for making useful
radiopharmaceuticals, but that is another story.)

52
100

10

0.1

53
100

10

0.1

54
 Basic Physics and Radiation Safety
Glossary:
absorbed dose
Energy imparted by ionising radiations to unit mass of matter. The SI unit of
absorbed dose is the gray (Gy),
1 Gy = 1 J/kg.
The non-SI (conventional) unit was the rad. 1 Gy  100 rad
activity
The number of nuclear transformations or disintegrations occurring in a quantity
of radioactive material per unit time. The SI unit is the becquerel (Bq) which is
one disintegration per second. The non-SI unit was the curie (Ci).
e.g. 37 MBq = 1 mCi; 1 MBq = 27 µCi.
acute exposure
A large dose of radiation received over a short time.
air kerma
A measure of the energy transferred to air from a beam of photons, where kerma
stands for ‘kinetic energy released per unit mass’. Widely used instead of the
quantity exposure. The SI unit is the gray.
ALARA
Acronym for "As Low as Reasonably Achievable", a basic principle of optimising
radiation protection to minimize exposures.
alpha particles (or alpha rays)
A positively charged particle emitted in the radioactive decay of some nuclei, e.g.
radium. Identical with the nucleus of the helium-4 atom, with a mass number of
4 and a charge of +2. It is strongly ionizing, with low penetrating power and
short range. The most energetic alpha particle will generally fail to penetrate the
skin. Alpha particles are hazardous if inside the body. Alpha emitting
radionuclides are not used in nuclear medicine. However, recently some alpha
emitting radionuclides are found to be useful for targeted therapy.
annihilation radiation
Two photons of gamma radiation produced when a positron combines with an
electron. Each photon is of energy 0.51 MeV, and they are emitted in opposite
directions. Used in Positron Emission Tomography (PET), mainly with fluorine-
18.
annual limit on intake (ALI)
For adults working with radioactive materials, the ingested or inhaled activity
that will give an effective dose of 20 mSv.
atom
The smallest part of an element, which has the properties of that element. The
atom consists of a central nucleus containing neutrons and protons, around which
electrons move in orbits.

55
 atomic number
The number of protons in the atomic nucleus, and hence the number of electrons
on an electrically neutral atom. Determines chemical properties of element and is
represented by Symbol Z.
atomic weight
The weight of an atom expressed in atomic mass units (amu). One amu is one
twelfth of the mass of a stable atom of carbon, 12C.
attenuation
The process by which a beam of radiation is reduced in intensity when passes
through matter. It is the combination of absorption and scattering processes
attenuation coefficient, µ
The negative exponent of the exponential equation for the attenuation of
radiation passing a distance x through a substance of density . A fraction µdx of
the radiation beam is removed in passing through a thin layer of thickness dx.
If dx is expressed as a length, then µ is the linear attenuation coefficient, usually
-1
tabulated in units of cm . If dx is expressed as a mass per unit area, then the
2 -1
mass attenuation coefficient µ/ is used, tabulated in units of cm .g .
Auger electron
Electron emitted from the atom, after a nuclear transformation by electron
capture or internal conversion leaves a vacancy in an electron shell. Some of the
resulting characteristic x-rays impart their energy to orbital electrons, which are
emitted instead and are called Auger electrons. Auger electrons are numerous
and with low energy.
background radiation
Radiation from the natural environment, including cosmic rays and radiation
from the naturally occurring radioactive elements, both outside and inside the
bodies of humans and animals.
becquerel (Bq)
The SI unit of activity, equal to one nuclear transformation per second.
beta particles (or beta rays)
A particle with an electric charge of + or - 1, emitted from a nucleus during
radioactive decay. A negatively charged beta particle is identical to an electron.
A positively charged beta particle is called a positron. Beta particles are easily
stopped by a thin sheet of metal or plastic.
bioassay
The collection and analysis of samples of tissue and body fluids to determine the
amount of radioactive material in the body.
biological half life
The time required for the amount of a substance in an organ, tissue or the whole
body to be reduced by half through physiological processes of elimination. Does
not include reduction through radioactive decay.

56
Bremsstrahlung
Electromagnetic (x-ray) radiation created during the deceleration of charged
particles passing through matter. The main component of diagnostic x-rays. Also
associated with the absorption of energetic beta rays from radionuclide decay,
32
e.g. P
calibration
A performance check of a measuring instrument by comparison with a known
standard, e.g. activity or exposure, to determine the correction factors necessary
for accurate use.
characteristic X-radiation
Electromagnetic radiation given off when an atom in an excited state reverts to its
normal energy state by filling an orbital electron vacancy with another electron.
chronic exposure
A low dose of radiation received over a long period of time, typically many years.
contamination
The deposition of unwanted radioactive material on the surfaces of structures,
areas, objects, or persons.
controlled area
A defined and sign-posted area in the workplace where
(i) access by the public is restricted and measures are taken to control
occupational exposures of staff
(ii) measures are taken to avoid unintended exposures and contamination.
See also supervised area.
cosmic radiation
Penetrating ionizing radiation, both particulate and electromagnetic, originating
in space.
coulomb per kg
The SI unit of exposure or absorbed dose, C/kg
counter
A general description of instruments that detect and measure radiation. The
signal produced by an ionization event is called a count.
curie (Ci)
10
The old unit of activity. One curie is 3.7 x 10 disintegrations per second, i.e. 3.7
10
x 10 Bq
daughter products
Nuclides formed by radioactive decay. eg from radium-226 there are 10
successive daughter products, ending in the stable nuclide, lead-206.
decay constant ()
The proportion of nuclei in a radioactive source which disintegrate per unit of
time.
Related to half-life by  = 0.693 / T1/2
e.g. if T1/2 = 6 hours,  = 0.693/6 = 0.115, so 11.5% of the atoms in a sample
disintegrate per hour.

57
decay, radioactive
Disintegration of the nucleus of an unstable (radio)nuclide, leading to an
exponential decrease in the activity with time.
decontamination
The reduction or removal of contaminating radioactive material from a structure,
area, object, or person. If incomplete, may be supplemented by isolation during
natural decay, or by covering the contamination to attenuate the radiation
emitted.
deterministic effects
Radiation damage which occurs above a threshold dose and whose intensity is
proportional to the dose. For example, skin erythema, bone marrow depression,
cataracts, temporary sterility.
disintegration
A spontaneous nuclear process in which the nucleus of an atom changes its form
or its energy state, by emitting charged particles or by electron capture, and/or
electromagnetic radiation (x-rays and gamma rays).
dose
The amount of ionizing radiation energy received. See also absorbed dose,
equivalent dose, and effective dose.
The term "dose" is also used loosely for exposure in air to a radiation beam, or to
the amount of activity administered to a patient.
dose rate
Radiation dose per unit time: e.g µGy/h.
dosimetry
(i) The practical measurement of radiation exposures using various types of
radiation instruments (eg personal monitors, survey meters)
(ii) The application of theoretical principles to estimate radiation dose in human
tissues.
effective dose
The sum of the equivalent doses in all tissues of the body from a particular
exposure, weighted by a tissue weighting factor, according to tissue
radiosensitivity. Gives an indication of the overall risk of an exposure,
independent of the part of the body exposed.
The unit is the sievert, 1 Sv = 1 J/kg.
The non-SI unit was the rem. 1 Sv  100 rem.
effective half life
The time required for the amount of a radioactivity in an organ, tissue or the
whole body to be reduced by half through the combined action of radioactive
decay and biological excretion.
electromagnetic radiation (EM)
Energy propagated by oscillating electric and magnetic fields. EM radiations
range from x- and gamma radiation of very short wavelength, through the ultra-
violet, visible, and infrared radiation, to radar and radio waves of long
wavelength.

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electron
An elementary charged particle with a unit negative charge and a mass 1/1837
that of the proton. Electrons surround the positively charged nucleus of an atom
and determine the chemical properties of the atom.
electron capture (EC)
A mode of radioactive decay whereby the nucleus of the atom captures one of the
orbital electrons, usually from the inner (K) shell, leaving the daughter nuclide in
an excited state. The atom reverts to its ground state by emitting characteristic x-
radiation and Auger electrons.
electron-volt (eV)
A measure of the energy of a particle or EM radiation. It is the kinetic energy
acquired by an electron when it is accelerated across an electric potential of 1 volt.
1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 joules (the joule is the SI unit of energy).
element
Any one of the 103 known substances that consists of a unique stable combination
of protons and neutrons. Some examples include hydrogen, nitrogen, gold, lead
and uranium. Determined by atomic number, Z.
equivalent dose
A modified version of absorbed dose, weighted by a radiation weighting factor, to
take into account the biological impact of the type of radiation concerned. The
unit is the sievert (Sv). The non-SI unit was the rem. 1 Sv  100 rem.
For the x-, gamma and beta radiations used in medicine, equivalent dose in
sieverts and absorbed dose in grays are numerically equal and either can be used
for tissue doses.
exposure
A measure of the ionisation produced in air by X- or gamma radiation. The SI
unit of exposure is Coulombs per kilogram. The non-SI unit was the Roentgen.
See also air kerma.
external radiation
Exposure to a radiation source located outside the body.
extremities
The hands, forearms, feet and ankles. Extremity dose limits are less than for the
whole body because the extremities contain less blood-forming material and have
smaller volume for energy absorption.
film badge
A packet of photographic film used for the approximate measurement of
radiation exposure for personnel monitoring purposes.
gamma radiation
EM radiation emitted from atomic nuclei, following various radioactive decay
processes. Gamma ray emission may be prompt (immediate) or delayed
(isomeric transitions).

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Geiger-Mueller counter
A radiation instrument. It consists of a gas-filled tube containing electrodes,
between which a high voltage is applied. When ionizing radiation passes through
the tube, ions are created in the gas and travel to the electrodes causing a short,
intense pulse of current. The number of pulses per second is a measure of the
intensity of the radiation. The instrument is sometimes called a Geiger counter, or
a GM counter.
Gray (Gy)
The SI unit of absorbed dose. 1 Gy is equal to 1 joule of energy absorption per
kilogram of the material irradiated. Doses are usually expressed in the sub-
multiples 1/1,000 (milli) and micro (1/1,000,000) of a Gray, ie. mGy and µGy.
1 Gy  100 rads.
half life, T1/2 : radioactive or physical
The time required for the activity of a radioactive substance to be reduced by half
through radioactive decay. Each radionuclide has a unique half-life.
See also biological half life and effective half life.
half value layer (HVL)
The thickness of a material which reduces the intensity of an x-ray or gamma ray
beam to one half its original value. HVL = 0.693 x µ approximately, where µ is
the linear attenuation coefficient.
IAEA
International Atomic Energy Agency
ICRP
International Commission on Radiological Protection. The ICRP makes
recommendations for radiation protection which are used as a basis for legal
controls in many countries
internal conversion (IC)
A process whereby the energy of an excited nucleus may be imparted to an inner
orbital electron, which is then ejected from the atom instead of a gamma ray. The
internal conversion coefficient is the ratio of IC electrons per gamma ray photon.
IC electrons are mono-energetic.
internal radiation
Exposure from radioactive substances in the body.
ion
An electrically charged atom or molecule, i.e. one which has lost or gained one or
more electrons. High temperatures, electrical discharges or nuclear radiation can
cause ionization. Ions can exist in gases or in solution.
ionising radiation
Any electromagnetic or particulate radiation capable of producing ions, directly
or indirectly, in its passage through matter.
isomeric transition (IT)
A process whereby an ‘excited’ atomic nucleus changes from a higher to a lower
state of energy, by emitting gamma radiation with a measurable half life. Some of
the energy may be removed by the emission of IC electrons instead.

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isotopes
Nuclides with the same number of protons (atomic number), but different
numbers of neutrons and therefore different mass numbers, e.g. 16O, 17O and
18O are three isotopes of oxygen.
labelled compound
A chemical compound containing a radionuclide. By measuring its radioactivity,
a labelled compound (tracer) may be followed through physical, chemical or
biological processes.
mass number
The number of nucleons (neutrons and protons) in the nucleus of an atom.
Symbol A.
metastable state
When a nucleus is left in an excited state after a nuclear transformation for a
measureable length of time. Eventually decays to its ground state by isomeric
transition.
micro-
-6
A prefix that divides a basic unit by 1,000,000 (i.e. 10 )
milli-
A prefix that divides a basic unit by 1000 (i.e. 10-3)
nano-
A prefix that divides a basic unit by 1,000,000,000 (i.e. 10-9)
neutron
An uncharged elementary particle with a mass slightly greater than that of the
proton, and found in the nucleus of every atom heavier than hydrogen.
nuclear disintegration
See decay, radioactive
nuclear energy
The energy liberated by a nuclear reaction (fission or fusion) or by radioactive
decay.
nuclear radiation
Particles (alpha, beta, neutrons) or photons (gamma, x-rays) emitted as a result of
nuclear reactions or radioactive decay.
nucleon
Common name for a particle of the atomic nucleus. Applies to protons and
neutrons but may also include any other particles found to exist in the nucleus.
nucleus
The central part of an atom consisting of protons and neutrons.
nuclide
A species of atom characterised by its atomic number and mass number, e.g.
17 24 131
O, 11Na,
8 53
I.
Refers to all known nuclides, stable (279) and unstable (about 5000).

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parent nuclide
A radionuclide that upon radioactive decay yields a specific daughter nuclide.
periodic table
An arrangement of chemical elements in order of increasing atomic number.
Elements of similar properties are placed one under the other, yielding groups or
families of elements. There is a general similarity of chemical behaviour within
each group.
personnel monitoring
The measurement of radiation exposure of individuals using dosimeters or
bioassay.
photon
A quantum (or packet) of energy emitted in the form of electromagnetic
radiation.
Its energy is equal to h, where h is Planck's constant (6.626 x 10-34 J-s), and  is
the frequency of the radiation (s-1).
pico-
A prefix that divides a basic unit by one trillion.
pocket dosimeter
A small radiation detection instrument that indicates radiation exposure directly.
May use solid state semi-conductor detector, or gaseous GM or ionization
chamber.
positron
A positively charged electron emitted by certain radionuclides. It is unstable, and
in combination with an electron it undergoes annihilation to form annihilation
radiation.
proportional counter
A radiation detection instrument with a gas-filled detector in which the pulse size
is proportional to the incident energy. Can be used as a sensitive contamination
monitor for large areas.
protective barriers
Walls and barriers of material such as lead, concrete, plaster, lead acrylic or lead
glass. Used to reduce radiation exposure by shielding.
proton
An elementary nuclear particle with a positive electric charge located in the
nucleus of an atom. (See atomic number)
quality assurance
A comprehensive set of actions or procedures to ensure that all aspects of a
service will perform satisfactorily.
quality control
A set of tests routinely performed on a piece of equipment to confirm its
satisfactory performance.

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 rad
The old unit of absorbed dose . 1 rad = 100 ergs per gram.
1 rad  10-2 Gy = 10 mGy.
radiation trefoil
An officially prescribed warning symbol (a magenta trefoil on a yellow
background) that must be on or near radiation sources.
radiation weighting factor
A multiplying factor used to weight the absorbed dose from a given type of
radiation to obtain the equivalent dose. Radiation weighting factors range from 1
for electrons and photons to 20 for alpha particles and some neutron energies.
radioactive decay
The exponential reduction of the number of atoms in a radioactive source as it
undergoes disintegration.
radioactive material
A minimum level (exempt quantity) may be defined by the regulatory body for
the purposes of notification, registration, licensing, transport or disposal,
eg. material with a specific radioactivity exceeding 100 kBq/kg and a total
radioactivity exceeding 3 kBq.
radioactive series
A succession of nuclides, each of which transforms by radioactive disintegration
into the next until a stable nuclide results. The first member is called the parent,
the intermediate members are called daughters, and the final stable member is
called the end product.
radioactivity
The spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of an unstable radionuclide,
generally emitting alpha or beta particles and often accompanied by x- or gamma
rays.
radiological survey
Evaluation of the radiation hazards from the production, use or presence of
radioactive materials or other sources of radiation under a specific set of
conditions. May include a physical survey of the sources and equipment,
measurements of radiation exposure and/or air and surface contamination levels,
review of personnel monitoring records.
radiopharmaceutical
Any labelled compound used as a pharmaceutical in which the radioactivity is an
essential component.
radiosensitivity
The relative susceptibility of cells, tissues, organs, organisms, or other substances
to radiation injury.
rem
The old unit for equivalent dose. 1 rem = 100 ergs/g
1 rem  10-2 Sv = 10 mSv
roentgen(R)
The old unit of exposure. 1 R = 2.58 x 10-4 C kg-1.
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scattered radiation
Radiation that has changed its direction during passage through a substance. It
may also have been modified by a decrease in energy
scintillation detector or counter
The combination of phosphor, photomultiplier tube, and electronic circuits for
counting light emissions produced in the phosphor by ionizing radiation.
secondary radiation
EM or particulate radiation originating from the absorption processes of other
radiation in matter.
SI units
The International System of Units. The SI units of activity and absorbed dose, the
becquerel and the gray, were adopted in 1975. The old units, the curie and the
rad, together with the roentgen and the rem, should no longer be used.
The following prefixes are used to construct decimal multiples of units:
Submultiple Prefix Symbol Multiple Prefix Symbol
10-1 deci d 10 deca da
10 -2 centi c 102 hecto h
10-3 milli m 103 kilo k
10 -6 micro µ 10 6 mega M
10-9 nano n 109 giga G
10-12 pico p 1012 tera T
sievert (Sv)
The SI unit of equivalent dose and effective dose. It has the same dimensions as
the gray, ie 1 Sv = 1 J/kg.
1 Sv  100 rem.
somatic effects
Effects of radiation on the exposed individual, as distinguished from genetic
effects, which may also affect subsequent unexposed generations.
specific activity
Total radioactivity of a given nuclide per gram of a compound, element or
radioactive nuclide.
stochastic effects
Effects of low level radiation exposure, where the probability of occurrence
depends on the dose. It is generally assumed there is no threshold dose for
stochastic effects. Refers to induction of cancer and hereditary defects.
supervised area
An area which is not a controlled area but where radiation safety needs to be kept
under review. For example, a waiting area for patients.
survey meter
Any portable radiation detection instrument especially adapted for inspecting an
area to establish the existence and amount of radioactive material present.

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tenth value layer (TVL)
The thickness of any specified material which reduces the intensity of an x-ray or
gamma ray beam to one tenth its original value. Two TVL's will reduce the
intensity by a factor of 10 x 10; i.e., 100.
terrestrial radiation
The portion of natural radiation (background) that is emitted by naturally
occurring radioactive materials in the earth.
thermo-luminescent dosimeter (TLD)
A semi-conductor radiation detector which is capable of storing a fraction of the
absorbed ionising radiation and releasing this energy in the form of light when
heated at a later time. The amount of light released is a measure of radiation
exposure.
For example, CaSo4:Dy for whole body TLD badges, and LiF:Mg,Ti for extremity
badges.
tissue weighting factors
Multiplying factors used to weight the equivalent doses to 12 specified tissues
and organs before summing to obtain the effective dose. Tissue weighting factors
range from 0.01 for skin and bone surfaces to 0.2 for the gonads. A weighting
factor of 0.05 is allowed for other ‘remainder’ tissues.
Ultraviolet radiation
Electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength between violet light and low-energy x-
rays.
unsealed radioactive material
A radioactive material in a form that allows it to be readily removed from its
container and subdivided or dispersed.
whole-body exposure
An exposure of the body to radiation, in which the entire body rather than an
isolated part is irradiated.
wipe sample or ‘swipe’
A sample made for the purpose of determining the presence of removable
radioactive contamination on a surface. It is done by wiping, with slight
pressure, a piece of moistened filter paper or other absorbent material over a
defined area of the suspect surface.
X-rays
Penetrating electromagnetic radiation of much shorter wavelength than UV or
visible light. They result from the following two processes:
Bremsstrahlung (continuous spectrum to a maximum energy) produced from the
deceleration of electrons in the electric field around the atomic nucleus, eg x-ray
machines bombard a metallic target with fast electrons in a high vacuum.
Or
When high speed beta particles are absorbed in metal shielding and characteristic
x-rays (single energy related to changes in electron vacancies in atomic orbits)
emitted as a result of some radioactive decay processes.

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