Central nervous system

Functions
• Maintaining homeostasis - The trillions of cells in the
human body do not function independently of each other
but must work together to maintain homeostasis. For
example, heart cells must contract at a rate that ensures
adequate delivery of blood to all tissues of the body. The
nervous system can stimulate or inhibit these activities to
help maintain homeostasis.
• Receiving sensory input - Sensory receptors monitor
numerous external and internal stimuli. We are aware of
sensations from some stimuli, such as vision, hearing, taste,
smell, touch, pain, body position, and temperature. Other
stimuli, such as blood pH, blood gases, and blood Central nervous system (cns)
pressure, are processed at an unconscious level.
• Integrating information. The brain and spinal cord are the • The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
major organs for processing sensory input and initiating • The brain is housed within the skull and the spinal
responses. The input may produce an immediate response, cord is housed within the vertebral canal of the
be stored as memory, or be ignored. vertebral column.
• Controlling muscles and glands. Skeletal muscles normally • The brain and spinal cord are continuous with each
contract only when stimulated by the nervous system; thus, other, transitioning from brain to spinal cord at the
the nervous system controls the major movements of the foramen magnum of the skull.
body by controlling skeletal muscle. Some smooth muscle, • The CNS processes the information and initiates a
such as that in the walls of blood vessels, contracts only response by the body
when stimulated by the nervous system or by hormones.
Cardiac muscle and some smooth muscle, such as that in Peripheral nervous system (pns)
the wall of the stomach, contract autorhythmically—that is,
no external stimulation is necessary for each contraction
event. Although the nervous system does not initiate • The PNS consists of all the nervous tissue outside
contraction in these muscles, it can cause the contractions the CNS, which includes nerves, ganglia, and
to occur more rapidly or more slowly. Finally, the nervous sensory receptors.
system controls the secretions from many glands, including • The PNS has two primary divisions:
exocrine glands such as sweat glands, salivary glands, and (1) the sensory division
glands of the digestive system as well as some endocrine (2) the motor division.
glands.
• Establishing and maintaining mental activity. The brain is sensory division
the center of mental activities, including consciousness, • transmits electrical signals from specialized
thinking, memory, and emotions. receptors in the body toward the CNS.
• For this reason, the sensory division is also called
Division of the nervous system the afferent division (afferent = toward).
The nervous system consists of two major divisions: (1) • Sensory receptors detect stimuli and then send
the central nervous system and (2) the peripheral input along nerves, which extend from the
nervous system. receptor to the brain or spinal cord.
• Sensory receptors can be neuron endings or
• Central nervous system (CNS) receives information specialized cells that detect external and internal
from and sends information to the body. The CNS environmental stimuli, such as temperature, pain,
can be thought of as the key decision maker touch, pressure, and light, among others.
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is responsible • Sensory receptors are distributed around the
for detecting stimuli in and around the body and body within muscles, skin, joints, eyes, ears, and
sending that information to the CNS and then many other locations.
communicating messages from the CNS to the body. • These receptors constantly monitor body
PNS is the messenger that provides input about the conditions and communicate that information to
body to the CNS and then delivers the CNS decision the CNS.
on how the body is to respond to a particular set of
stimuli.
The motor division A. Neuron Cell Body
• transmits electrical signals from the CNS to effector • The neuron cell body, or soma (SOH-mah; body),
organs, such as muscles and glands. performs the typical functions of any cell, such as
• the motor division is also called the efferent division protein synthesis and packaging of proteins into
(efferent = away). vesicles.
• The motor division consists of two branches: • Each neuron cell body contains a single, relatively
(1) the somatic nervous system large, and centrally located nucleus with a prominent
(2) the autonomic nervous system. nucleolus.
• Neurons have extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum
Somatic nervous system (ER), called Nissl (NIS-il) bodies.
• somatic (soh-MAT-ik; body) nervous system is the • The abundance of Nissl bodies reflects the significant
voluntary division of the motor division. amount of protein synthesis neurons perform.
• It allows you to decide to move your skeletal muscles, • The Golgi apparatuses are located near the nucleus,
such as when raising your hand to ask a question, or and mitochondria and other organelles are present.
to stand and walk across the room. Large numbers of intermediate filaments
• The CNS generates electrical signals that are sent to (neurofilaments) and microtubules form bundles that
the skeletal muscles by nerves of the somatic nervous organize the cytoplasm into different regions.
system.
B. Dendrites
Autonomic nervous • Dendrites (DEN-drights; tree)
• The autonomic (aw-toh-NOM-ik; self-governing) • are extensions of the cell body and receive
nervous system is the involuntary division of the information from other neurons or from sensory
motor division. receptors.
• It regulates activities without our conscious control • Dendrites are short, often highly branched
such as contractions of cardiac muscle and smooth cytoplasmic extensions that are tapered from their
muscle and secretions by certain glands. For example, bases at the neuron cell body to their tips.
your heart rate increases when you hear an • Many dendrite surfaces have small extensions, called
unexpected loud noise that startles you. dendritic spines, where axons of other neurons form
• There are two major subdivisions of the ANS that connections with the dendrites.
regulate functions throughout the body. • When stimulated, dendrites generate small electric
• These are currents, which are conducted toward the neuron
(1) the sympathetic division cell body.
(2) the parasympathetic division. C. Axons
• In most neurons, a single axon arises from a cone-
1. The sympathetic division readies the body for shaped area of the neuron cell body called the axon
physical activity and is called the fight-or-flight hillock.
division. • As the axon hillock narrows, it transitions into the
2. The parasympathetic division regulates resting initial segment, which is the actual beginning of the
functions, such as digesting food or slowing the heart axon.
rate, and is called the rest-and- digest division. • The combination of the axon hillock and the initial
3. A third division of the nervous system is the enteric segment is called the trigger zone.
nervous system (entero, intestine; ENS), • The trigger zone is where action potentials are
which consists of neuronal networks within the wall generated. Many axons remain as a single structure,
of the digestive tract. but others branch to form collateral axons, or side
branches
Cells of the nervous system
• Each axon has a constant diameter, but axons can
• The two cell types that make up the nervous system, vary in length from a few millimeters to more than 1
neurons and glial cells, work together to monitor the meter.
body’s environment and make changes when needed. • The cytoplasm of an axon is called the axoplasm,
• There are an estimated 100 billion neurons in our body, and its plasma membrane is called the axolemma
yet glial cells account for over half of the brain’s weight, (lemma, husk).
and there can be 10 to 50 times more glial cells than • The axon projects away from the cell body until it
neurons in various parts of the brain. reaches the plasma membrane of the effector.
• The point of contact between the axon ending and its
1. Neuron effector is called a synapse (SIN-aps).
Neurons are the electrically excitable cells of the • Usually, axons branch many times and form synapses
nervous system. There are three parts to most types of with multiple effector cells.
neuron a neuron cell body, (2) dendrites, and (3) a • The region of the axon ending at the synapse is called
single axon. the presynaptic terminal. Presynapatic
terminals have many synaptic vesicles, which store
the signal molecules produced by the neuron.
• These signal molecules control the effectors and are c. Pseudo-unipolar
called neurotransmitters. • Pseudo-unipolar neurons (uni, one) start out as
bipolar neurons during development, but the two
Anterograde processes that extend from the cell body fuse into
• Within the axoplasm, transport mechanisms move a single process.
cytoskeletal proteins, mitochondria, and synaptic • This single process divides into two branches a
vesicles down the axon toward the presynaptic short distance from the cell body.
terminals. • The two branches function as a single axon.
• Movement away from the cell body is called • One branch, the peripheral process, extends to the
anterograde. periphery and has dendrites.
Retrograde
• These dendrites either act as a sensory receptor or
• damaged organelles, recycled plasma membrane,
communicate with a sensory receptor.
and substances taken in by endocytosis can be
• The other branch, called the central process,
transported up the axon toward the neuron cell
extends to the CNS.
body.
• In this way, stimuli that occur at a sensory receptor
• Movement toward the cell body is called
generate action potentials that are conducted
retrograde.
along the peripheral process to the central process
• The movement of materials within the axon is
and ultimately to the CNS. Most sensory neurons
necessary for its normal function, but, unfortunately,
are pseudo-unipolar.
it also provides an entryway for infectious agents
d. Anaxonic
and harmful substances to the CNS. For example,
• Anaxonic neurons do not have axons and only
rabies and herpes viruses can enter damaged axons
have dendrites projecting from their cell body.
in the skin and, in a retrograde fashion, be
• Found within the brain and retina, these neurons
transported within the axons to the CNS.
communicate using only graded potentials and not
Types of neurons action potentials

1. Based on direction of action

potentials

a. Sensory neurons (afferent neurons)

• conduct action potential towards CNS
b. Motor neurons (efferent neurons)
• conduct action potentials away from
the CNS towards muscles or glands
C. Interneurons
• conduct action potentials within CNS
from one neuron to another
2. Based on the number of dendrites

a. Multi polar
• Multipolar neurons (multi, many)
have many dendrites and a single
axon. The dendrites vary in number
and in their degree of branching.
Motor neurons of the PNS and most
of the neurons within the CNS are
multipolar.
b. Bipolar
• Bipolar neurons (bi, two) have two
processes: one dendrite and one
axon. The dendrite is often specialized
to receive the stimulus, and the axon
conducts action potentials. Bipolar
neurons are located in some sensory
organs, such as in the retina of the eye
and in the nasal cavity.
 Central nervous system

Nervous System is a group of tissues Glial Cells of the CNS

composed of highly specialized cells A. Glial cells
possessing the characteristics of are supportive cells that support and aid the neurons
excitability and conductivity of the CNS and PNS.
B. Astrocytes
Morphological divisions: provide structural support for neurons and blood
vessels. Astrocytes influence the functioning of the
A. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM blood-brain barrier and process substances that pass
1. Brain
2. Spinal cord through it. Astrocytes isolate damaged tissue and limit
B. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM the spread of inflammation. Astrocytes also help
1. Cranial Nerves (12 pairs) maintain synaptic
2. Spinal Nerves ( 31 pairs) function.
3. Autonomic Nervous System C. Ependymal cells
line the ventricles and the central canal of the spinal
cord. Some are specialized to
produce cerebrospinal fluid.
D. Microglia
phagocytize microorganisms, foreign substances, and
necrotic tissue.
E. oligodendrocyte
forms myelin sheaths around the axons of several CNS
neurons.
NEURON
- basic unit of the nervous system which conducts
electrical impulses from one part of the body to
another
Two types of processes:
1. Dendrites
− Transmit impulses toward the cell body.
FUNCTIONAL DIVISIONS: − Afferent process
A. SOMATIC EFFERENT 2. Axons
- innervating somatic structures like skeletal muscles and − Conducting impulses away from the cell body.
skin. − Efferent process
B. VISCERAL EFFERENT Synapse
- innervating visceral or involuntary structures like − point of connection between neurons.
smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands. This is the Main neurotransmitters:
autonomic nervous system − that will allow the conduction of impulse to pass
TYPES OF CELLS IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM through from one neuron to
1. Neurons another.
- the active conducting elements 1. Epinephrine (Adrenalin)
• functional cells or parenchymal 2. Norepinephrine (Nor Adrenaline)
2. Neuroglia 3. Acetylcholine
- the supporting elements Nerve impulse:
- astrocyte 1. Myelin Sheath
- oligodendrocyte
- microglia − Insulating material covering axons in central and
- ependymal cells peripheral nervous system.
− The electrical impulse jumps from node to node in
myeline sheath instead of
traveling continuously along the nerve fiber. (Saltatory
Conduction of Impulses)
− Node of Ranvier
- periodic gap in the insulating myelin sheath on the
axon of certain neurons that serves to facilitate the rapid
conduction of nerve impulses.
 Central nervous system

Central nervous system A. CEREBRUM

− Includes the brain and spinal cord. - 7/8 of weight of brain
- discriminatory identification
Central nervous system is divided grossly - integration of sensory information
into: - memory
1. Gray matter - reasoning
− So, called because of its appearance and - for use of language
preponderance of nerve cell bodies and - for emotional behavior
true dendrites. - for initiation of movement
− Outer part in brain; inner part in spinal cord
2. White matter
− Composed chiefly of myelinated nerve fibers
− Inner part in brain; outer part in spinal cord
Ganglion/ganglia cells
− Group or aggregates of nerve cell bodies outside the
Central Nervous System

Brain

− Part of the central nervous system contained within the

skull
− Most complex and largest mass of nervous tissue in the
body and contains literally
billions of nerve cells.
− The average weight of the human brain in the adult is
approximately 1380 grams in the male and 1250 grams in
the female.
Embryological Divisions of the Brain:
− Brain is originated from a tube
− sa una magkakaroon ng tatlong umbok (Forebrain,
Midbrain and Hindbrain)

1. Forebrain (Prosencephalon)

a. Telencephalon (Cerebrum)
b. Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus,
epithalamus, subthalamus)

2. Midbrain (Mesencephalon)
a. Corpora quadrigemina (tectum)
− 2 superior colliculi – visual reflexes
− 2 inferior colliculi – auditory reflexes

b. Cerebral peduncles

c. Vertebral Aqueduct of Sylvius (iter)

3. Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)
a. Metencephalon (cerebellum, pons)
b. Myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)
 Central nervous system

Fissures of cerebrum 4. Transverse Fissure

− Fissure - Deep depression − Between the cerebellum and the cerebrum.
− Shallow – sulcus – singular − Cerebellum –little brain
− Sulci – Plural − Cerebrum – big brain
− Deep – Fissures
− In the spinal cord, you don’t interchange the fissure and
sulcus.
Types of fissures

1. Longitudinal Fissure
− Separating 2 cerebral hemisphere

5. Parieto – occipital Fissure

− Between the occipital and parietal lobes.
− Middle surface of the brain

2. Lateral Sylvian Fissure

− Separate your frontal lobe and parietal lobe above from
the temporal lobe.
− End of lateral sylvian fissure is Supramarginal
Gyrus.
− Antero median fissure – don’t interchange the
fissure and sulcus because anteriorly ang spinal mo
hinahati sya ng deep groove
− Dorso median fissure – shallow groove
− Lumalabas un Middle cerebral artery 6. Calcarine Fissure
− Found in the occipital lobe
− Visual center (calcarine area)
− 2 parts of visual area: Cuneus and Lingual
gyrus

Superior Temporal Sulcus

− Temporal lobe
− yun dulo nya, Angular gyrus

Central Sulcus (Rolandic Fissure)

− Depression that separating the frontal lobe and the parietal
lobe.
Lobes of the Cerebral cortex:

1. Frontal lobe
− Includes all the cortex lying anterior to
the central sulcus of Rolando and above the
lateral sulcus sylvius.
− Center for motor functions and personality.

2. Parietal lobe
− Lies posterior to central sulcus of Rolando
and above lateral Sylvian fissure.
− Center for sensory functions

3. Temporal lobe
− Lies beneath the lateral sulcus of Sylvian
− Center for hearing and olfaction.

4. Occipital lobe
− Occupies the posterior extremity of the
cerebral hemisphere behind parieto-
occipital fissure.
− Visual center

5. Insula (Island of Reil)

− Exposed when the lips of lateral Sylvian
fissure are separated.
− Icucut ng coronal and makikita yun lateral
sulcus, un nasa gilid tapos nandoon
sa loob yun Insula.
Functional areas of the cerebrum:
1. Primary Motor area or Pre-central gyrus
− Lies in the frontal lobe immediately
anterior to the central sulcus
− Controls voluntary movements in the
opposite side of body.
− Brodmann’s area 4

2. Pre-motor Area
− In front of the motor area
− Exerts a controlling influence over the
motor area, ensuring an orderly series of
movements.

3. Pre-frontal area
− Concerned with behavior, character and
emotional state of the individual.
− Concerned with foresight, good judgement,
abstract thinking.

4. Primary sensory/ somesthetic area or Post-

central gyrus
− Lies behind the central sulcus of Rolando
in parietal lobe
− Sensations of pain, temperature, pressure,
and touch, position and movement
sensation from opposite side of body are
received and interpreted.
− Brodmann’s area 3, 1, 2
5. Motor speech area
− Lies in inferior frontal gyrus of dominant
hemisphere
− Will control the muscles that you used for
talking.

Middle cerebral artery – dito lumalabas sa

lateral sylvian fissure; sinusupply nya
yun mga primary motor, primary sensory,
motor speech area.

− Frontal lobe is divided to 3 gyri:

Superior frontal gyrus
middle frontal gyrus
inferior frontal gyrus

3 part of inferior frontal gyrus:

Pars opercularis
Pars triangularis
Pars orbitalis- (not part of Broca’s area)

− Pars opercularis – Brodmann’s 44

− Pars triangularis – Brodmann’s 45
− Broca’s area (Brodmann’s area 45,

6. Sensory speech area:

- lies in temporal lobes posterior to auditory
area of dominant hemisphere
- Wernicke's area
(Brodmann's area 22)

7. Auditory or Hearing Area (transverse gyri

of Heschl)
- lies below lateral sulcus within the
temporal lobe
- center for hearing
- Brodmann's area 41 & 42

8. Visual area:
- around the calcarine fissure, including
greater part of the occipital lobe
- Brodmann's area 17
 9. Olfactory or smell area
- within the temporal lobe

10. Taste Area

- above lateral sulcus into the deep
layers of the sensory area

BASAL GANGLIA

masses of gray matter embedded in the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres
- include the caudate nucleus (medial portion) and the putamen and globus pallidus called lentiform nucleus.
• constitute the corpus striatum
• Basal ganglia play a role in the control of motor function...... and .... injury manifest as

B. DIENCEPHALON

1. Thalamus
− Relay center for sensory impulses (except olfactory)
from peripheral receptors to
cerebral cortex.

2. Hypothalamus
− Involved in the regulation of body temperature,
feeding activities, biorhythm,
emotion, etc.

Corpus Callosum
− Largest commissural fibers

Callosal Sulcus
− Depression above the corpus callosum

Cingulate Gyrus
− Above the corpus callosum and callosal sulcus.

Cingulate Sulcus
− Depression above the cingulate gyrus
Cerebellum
− Oval in shape with a central constriction and
lateral expanded portions.
− Vermis
- the constricted centra; portion– as a
connection (Latin of worm) and the
lateral expanded portions the hemisphere.
− 2 lobes: Vermis and Corpus Callosum
Divided into lobes by deep and distinct
fissures, these lobes include the:
a. Anterior Lobe
− Regulation of muscle tone
b. Posterior Lobe
− Coordination of voluntary motor activity
c. Flocculonodular lobe
− Concerned with the function of equilibrium, posture
and balance

2.Midbrain (mesencephalon)
− Connects the forebrain and hindbrain
− Concerned with motor coordination

a. Cerebral peduncles
− found anteriorly
− pair of cylindrical bodies made up of nerve
fiber tracts which connect the forebrain
with the hindbrain.

b. Corpora quadrigemina
− Found posteriorly

1. Superior colliculi – upper 2; for visual

reflexes

2. Inferior colliculi – lower 2; for

auditory reflexes

Pons
− Lies anterior to the cerebellum and between
the midbrain and medulla.
− Bridge-like structure, consisting almost entirely
of white matter linking the various
parts of the brain.

Medulla Oblongata
− Continuous with the spinal cord inferiorly with
the spinal cord inferiorly and with
the pons superiorly.
− Lies ventral to the cerebellum
− Has a number of vital regulatory and reflex
centers, including those controlling
the circulatory system, breathing, swallowing,
vomiting, coughing, sneezing.

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

− Circulating within the ventricles, the central
canal of the spinal cord and also
within the subarachnoid spac
Production will be by the choroid plexus, which are present in
all of the ventricles
of the brain
− Nagbibigay ng nutrition and immune function
− Colorless, with a composition similar to that of lymph.

Ventricles of the brain:

− absorption will be by the Arachnoid villi or Arachnoid
granulate

1. Lateral ventricle
− Found inside the cerebral hemispheres
− Interventricular foramen (foramen of Monroe)
− Under the corpus callosum
2. Third ventricle
− Between the 2 thalamic nuclei, continuous with the cerebral
aqueduct of Sylvius
3. Fourth ventricle
− Communicates with subarachnoid space through foramen of
Luschka and Magendie
− Iter – cerebral aqueduct of sylvius (this is the
communication between third
ventricle and fourth ventricle)

Meninges
− Three membranes collectively known as the meninges provide
protection to the
brain and spinal cord.
From outside in, there are the:
a. Dura Mater – outermost (below of dura mater, there have
Subdural space)
b. Arachnoid mater – middle (below this, there have
subarachnoid space)
c. Pia mater – innermost (closely adherent to the brain)

Spinal Cord
− Continuous with the medulla oblongata above
− Extends from the level of foramen magnum to the lower
border of 1st lumbar
vertebra in adult and level of L3 vertebra in children.
− Average length: 45 cm

2 enlargements:
1. Cervical enlargement
− Where nerve supply of arms arises from
− Upper extremities
− C4 to T2
2. Lumbar enlargement
− Where nerve supply of legs arises from
− Lower extremities
− Level of 10th thoracic vertebra; widest at the 12th thoracic
vertebra
− It narrows down was conus medullaris, where it gives
rise to the thread-like filum terminale.
− that will be attached to your coccygeal vertebral
− The lumbar and sacral spinal nerves descend along the filum
terminale in a bundle known as the cauda equina. (horse
tail like)
 Peripheral nervous system

I. Cranial Nerves 7. Facial (VII)

II. Spinal Nerves − (Mx) Sensory – special sensation of taste
III. Autonomic Nervous system anterior 2/3 of the tongue
Motor – nagsusupply sa mga muscles of facial
Cranial Nerves expression = Mixed Nerve (Mx)
− 12 pairs of symmetrically arranged − (PS) – glands; innovation of the lacrimal glands
and salivary glands except parotid gland.
nerves attached to the brain
3, 4 – midbrain 8. Vestibulocochlear (acoustic) (VIII)
5, 6, 7, 8 – pons − (S) hearing
9, 10, 11, 12 – medulla oblongata
(S) – Purely sensory nerve 9. Glossopharyngeal (IX)
(M) – Purely motor function − (Mx) Night cranial nerve
(Mx) – Mixed Nerve − Sensory – will innovate the general and special
(PS) – Parasympathetic sensation on the posterior 1/3 of the tongue,
(taste and touch);
− Motor – innovate the muscles of the tongue,
Types of Nerves Palatoglossus and muscles of
1. Olfactory (I) pharynx, stylopharyngeus = Mixed Nerve (Mx)
− (S) nerve for smell. − (PS) – innovation of Parotid gland
− Located in the axons of superior concha of nose.
− Tutusok sya sa cribriform plate of ethmoid para 10. Vagus (X)
− (Mx) Longest nerve
tumusok doon sa olfactory bulb at dadaloy sa Sensory – internal organs;
olfactory tract. Motor – laryngeal muscles that you use for
− Anosmia – loss of the sense of smell talking
pharyngeal muscles use for swallowing. = Mixed
2. Optic (II) Nerve (Mx)
− (PS) - smooth muscle of the visceral/ internal
− (S) Nerve arising from the eye; for vision organs
− Magcocross sya sa optic chiasm
− Anopsia – blindness 11. Accessory (XI)
− (M) Spinal accessory or accessory spinal
3. Oculomotor (III) − Innovation of sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
− (M) Arise in between your cerebral 12. Hypoglossal (XII)
peduncle; Found in brainstem. − (M) innervates the tongue muscles except the
− Innervate the extraocular muscles of the eye palatoglossus
− Exception:
Classification of Cranial Nerves
LR6 – Lateral rectus muscles of the eye that innovated A. Sensory Nerves
by abducens; − Carry impulses towards brain
SO4 – superior oblique innovated by trochlear. − Also called afferent fibers
− (PS) – innervates the iris. − Cranial nerves: I, II, VIII
B. Motor Nerves
4. Trochlear (IV) − Carry impulses away from the brain.
− Also called efferent fibers
− (M) only cranial nerve that will arise − Cranial nerves: III, IV and VI which supply the
from posterior surface of the brainstem. eye muscles; XI and XII
− Thinnest nerve C. Mixed Nerves
− Innovating your superior oblique muscle − Carry both sensory and motor nerve fibers
− Cranial nerves: V, VII, IX, X
5. Trigeminal (V)
− (Mx) Largest of the cranial nerves
− 3 branches:
ophthalmic
mandibular
maxillary
Sensory – general sensation on the anterior
2/3 of the tongue,
special sensation - taste sensation innovated
by the facial nerve;
motor – yung mandibular division ay nag susuply
sa muscles of mastication = Mixed Nerve (Mx)

6. Abducens (VI)
− (M) – LR6 innovating by abducens
Spinal Nerves Thoracic Spinal Nerves
− A bundle of nerve fibers attached to spinal cord − Do not form plexuses
− Independent nerves
− 31 pairs of nerves called spinal nerves arise from the
spinal cord along almost its entire length and emerge T1 – T11 spinal nerves = Intercostal nerves
from the vertebral canal through the intervertebral − T12 spinal nerves = Subcostal nerve
foramina
− There are eight pairs of cervical spinal
nerves:
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 sacral
1 coccygeal
− Always mixed nerves
− Union of dorsal root and ventral root

a. Dorsal root
− Containing fibers of sensory neurons
b. Ventral root
− Containing fibers of motor neurons
− These 2 roots join together to form spinal nerve
Plexuses
− Group of nerve fibers from ventral rami of cervical,
Autonomic system
lumbar and sacral spinal nerves. Posterior rami never
from plexuses.
1. Sympathetic/ Thoracolumbar Divisions
Types of Plexus − Arises from all the thoracic and the first three
lumbar segments of the spinal
1. Cervical plexus cord
− Formed by the first 4 cervical nerves (C1, − Sympathetic - responding to dangerous or
C2, C3, C4) stressful situations; fight or flight
− This supplies the back and sides of the head and the
front of the neck 2. Parasympathetic/ Craniosacral Divisions
− Gives off the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm − Arises from the third, seventh, ninth, and tenth
cranial nerves and from the
2. Brachial plexus second, third and fourth sacral segments of the
− Lower 4 cervical (C5, C6, C7, C8) nerves
and 1st thoracic (T1) supplies the skin spinal cord.
and muscles of the upper limb/extremities. − Repost and repair
− Gives off large nerves: circumflex, radial, median, − Parasympathetic - responsible for the body's
ulnar and musculocutaneous nerves. relaxation response, and it also plays a large part in
regulating digestion, heart rate, and breathing; rest
3. Lumbar plexus and digest
− From L1-L4 spinal nerves
− Anterior portion and medial portion

a. Obturator nerve
− Arising from anterior division of L2, L3, L4 spinal
nerves
− Supplies the muscles and skin on medial aspect of
thigh
b. Femoral nerve
− Arising from the posterior divisions of L2, L3, L4 spinal
nerves
− Supplies muscles and skin on anterior aspect of the
thigh
4. Sacral plexus
− From L4, L5, S1, S2, S3 spinal nerves
− The largest branch which is the sciatic
nerve (the largest nerve in the body)
− Posterior aspect of lower extremities

Sciatic nerve divides into:

a. Tibial nerve
b.Common peroneal nerve