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Content Table

Topic
 Organization of nervous system, neuron, neuroglia, classification and properties

of nerve fiber, electrophysiology, action potential, nerve impulse, receptors,

synapse, neurotransmitters.

 Central nervous system: Meninges, ventricles of brain and cerebrospinal fluid.

structure and functions of brain

 Divisions and anatomy of the spinal cord.

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NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is made up of neurons and nervous tissue. It is master controlling and
communicating system of body. Its objective is to keep conditions controlled within limits to
maintain life. The nervous system carries out a complex array of tasks. It also controls our
emotions, perceptions, behavior, memories and initiates voluntary movements. It allows us to
sense various smells, produce speech, remember past events, control body movements and
regulates the operation of internal organs. The nervous system includes Brain, Cranial nerves
and its branches, Spinal cord, Spinal nerves and its branches, Ganglia, Enteric plexus and
Sensory receptors. It detects the changes (stimuli) inside or outside the body and acts
accordingly. Nervous system communicates with the body cells through electric signals called
nerve impulses.

Functions of Nervous System:

The functions of nervous systems can be grouped into three basic functions
a) Sensory function: Sensory receptors detect internal stimuli (such as an increase in
blood acidity) and external stimuli (such as a raindrop landing on your arm). This
sensory information is then carried into the brain and spinal cord through cranial and
spinal nerves.
b) Integrative function: The nervous system integrates (processes) sensory information
by analyzing and storing some of it and by making decisions for appropriate responses.
c) Motor function: Once sensory information is integrated, the nervous system produces
an appropriate motor response by activating effectors (muscles and glands) through
cranial and spinal nerves. Stimulation of the effectors causes muscles to contract and
glands to secrete.

Organization of the Nervous System:

The nervous system consists of two main subdivisions:
1. Central Nervous System: The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and
spinal cord. The CNS processes many different kinds of incoming sensory information. It is
also the source of thoughts, emotions and memories. Most nerve impulses that stimulate
muscles to contract and glands to secrete originate in the CNS.

2. Peripheral Nervous System: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all nervous
tissue outside the CNS. Components of the PNS include cranial nerves and their branches,
spinal nerves and their branches, ganglia, and sensory receptors. The PNS may be
subdivided further into:

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Somatic nervous system (SNS): (soma = body): It consists of:

1. Sensory neurons that convey information from somatic receptors in the head, body
wall, and limbs and from receptors for the special senses of vision, hearing, taste and
smell to the CNS.
1. Motor neurons that conduct impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles only.
Because these motor responses can be consciously controlled, the action of this part of
the PNS is voluntary.
a) Autonomic nervous system (ANS) (auto = self): The ANS consists of:
1. Sensory neurons that convey information from autonomic sensory receptors, located
primarily in visceral organs such as the stomach and lungs, to the CNS.
2. Motor neurons that conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and glands. Because its motor responses are not normally under conscious
control, the action of the ANS is involuntary. The motor part of the ANS consists of two
branches, the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division. Usually the two
divisions have opposing actions. For example sympathetic neurons increase heart rate,
and parasympathetic neurons slow it down. In general, the sympathetic division helps
support exercise or emergency actions, so it is called “fight-or-flight” responses and the
parasympathetic division takes care in resting conditions, so it is called “rest-and-
digest” response.
b) Enteric nervous system (ENS) (ent = intestines): The ENS consists of neurons in
enteric plexuses of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Sensory neurons of the ENS monitor
chemical changes within the GI tract as well as the stretching of its walls. Motor
neurons control contraction of GI tract to propel food through the GI tract, secretions of
the GI tract organs such as acid from the stomach, and activity of GI tract endocrine
cells, which secrete hormones. The operation of the ENS, the “brain of the gut,” is
involuntary.

Nervous Tissue:
Nervous tissue consists of two types of cells: neurons and neuroglia.

1. Neurons provide most of the unique functions of the nervous system, such as
sensing, thinking, remembering, controlling muscle activity, and regulating glandular
secretions.
2. Neuroglia is the cells which support, nourishes and protect the neurons. Neuroglia
of the CNS can be classified into four types: astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia,
and ependymal cells. Neuroglia of the PNS completely surrounds axons and cell bodies

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and includes two types of cells i.e. Schwann cells and satellite cells.
Neuron or Nerve Cell:
It is a single cell of nervous system. It possesses electrical excitability i.e. the ability to
respond to a stimulus and convert it into an action potential. A stimulus is any change
in the environment that is strong enough to initiate an action potential. An action
potential (nerve impulse) is an electrical signal that propagates (travels) along the
surface of the membrane of a neuron. It begins and travels due to the movement of ions
(such as sodium and potassium) between interstitial fluid and the inside of a neuron
through specific ion channels in its plasma membrane.

Parts of Neuron:

Most neurons have three parts: (1) a cell body (2) dendrites (3) axon.
1. The cell body: The cell body contains a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm that
includes typical cellular organelles such as lysosomes, mitochondria, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum and a Golgi complex. A cluster of neuronal cell bodies located
in the PNS is called ganglion (plural is ganglia) and a cluster of neuronal cell bodies
located in the CNS is called nucleus (plural is nuclei).
2. Dendrites: Dendrites (little trees) are the receiving or input portions of a neuron.
They usually are short, tapering, and highly branched and form a tree-shaped array of
processes extending from the cell body.

Structure of Neuron

3. Axon: An axon is a long, thin, cylindrical projection that carries nerve impulse to
other neuron, muscle or glands. It is often joined to the cell body at a cone-shaped
elevation called the axon hillock (small hill). The part of the axon closest to the axon
hillock is the initial segment. In most neurons, nerve impulses arise at the junction of

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the axon hillock and the initial segment, an area called the trigger zone, from which
they travel along the axon to their destination. The axon of a neuron propagates nerve
impulses toward another neuron, a muscle fiber, or a gland cell. Axon can have side
branches (at right angle to axon) which are called axon collaterals. At the ends, the
axon divide into many fine processes called axon terminals (telodendria). The tips of
axon terminals swell into bulb-shaped structures called synaptic end bulbs. Synaptic
end bulbs contain many tiny membrane-enclosed sacs called synaptic vesicles that
store a chemical neurotransmitter. Many neurons contain two or even three types of
neurotransmitters, each with different effects on the postsynaptic cell. When
neurotransmitter molecules are released from synaptic vesicles, they excite or inhibit
other neurons, muscle fibers, or gland cells. The site of communication between two
neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell is called a synapse. Bundle of axons
located in the PNS is called a Nerve. Cranial nerves connect the brain to the periphery,
whereas spinal nerves connect the spinal cord to the periphery. A bundle of axons
located in the CNS is called Tract. Tracts interconnect neurons in the spinal cord and
brain.
Myelination: Axons of some neurons are covered by layers of lipid and protein. This
covering is called the myelin sheath and the neurons having this covering are called
myelinated. Axons without such a covering are said to be unmyelinated. The sheath
electrically insulates the axon of a neuron and increases the speed of nerve impulse
conduction. Myelin sheaths are produced by Schwann cells (in the PNS) and
oligodendrocytes (in the CNS). Gaps in the myelin sheath appear at intervals along the
axon. These gaps are called nodes of Ranvier.
In a freshly dissected section of the brain or spinal cord, some regions look white and
glistening, and others appear gray. White matter is called so because it is composed of
myelinated axons which appear white in color. The axons present in gray matter lack
myelin sheath that is why they appears greyish in color. In the spinal cord, the grey
matter is present in central part in shape of letter „H‟ surrounded by white matter. In the
brain white matter is present inside and a thin layer of gray matter is present on outer
surface of the brain.

Classification of neurons:
1. On Structural Basis: On the basis of number of processes extending from the cell
body.
Multipolar neurons: usually have several dendrites and one axon. Most neurons in the
brain and spinal cord are of this type.

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Bipolar neurons: have one main dendrite and one axon. They are found in the retina of
the eye, in the inner ear, and in the olfactory area of the brain.
Unipolar neurons: have a single process emerging from cell body that divides into a
dendrites and an axon. The dendrites of most unipolar neurons function as sensory
receptors that detect a sensory stimulus such as touch, pressure, pain, or thermal stimuli.

Types of Neuron

2. On Functional Basis: On basis of the direction in which the nerve impulse (action
potential) is conveyed with respect to the CNS.

1. Sensory or afferent neurons (af = toward; ferrent = carried) either contain sensory
receptors at their distal ends (dendrites) or are located just after sensory receptors that
are separate cells. Once an appropriate stimulus activates a sensory receptor, the
sensory neuron forms an action potential in its axon and the action potential is
conveyed into the CNS through cranial or spinal nerves. Most sensory neurons are
unipolar in structure.
2. Motor or efferent neurons (ef = away from) convey action potentials away from
the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands) in the periphery (PNS) through cranial or
spinal nerves. Most motor neurons are multipolar in structure.
3. Interneurons or association neurons are mainly located within the CNS between
sensory and motor neurons. Interneurons integrate (process) incoming sensory
information from sensory neurons and then elicit a motor response by activating the
appropriate motor neurons. Most interneurons are multipolar in structure.

Electrical Signals in Neuron/ Physiology of nerve impulse:

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Neurons have two functional properties;

1. Electrical excitability i.e. ability to produce electric signal (nerve impulse) in
response to a stimuli.

2. Conductivity or propagation i.e. ability to transmit the impulse to other neuron,

muscle or glands.

COVERING MEMBRANE OF BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD

The brain and spinal cord are covered by surrounding with three fluid-containing
membranes called the meninges. The meninges are then surrounded by bone. The
spinal meninges form tube like covering around the spinal cord and line the bony
vertebral foramen of the vertebrae that surround the cord. There are three layers of the
spinal meninges.
1. Dura mater:
2. Arachnoid mater
3. Pia mater
The space is found between the dura and arachnoid called the subdural space. The is
found between arachnoid and pia mater called subarachnoid space, containing
cerebrospinal fluid.

.
Covering membrane of brain and spinal cord (meninges)

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

Fluid fills the subarachnoid spaces between the pia mater and arachnoid in the brain and spinal
cord. This fluid is called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Cerebrospinal fluid also fills spaces in the
brain called cerebral ventricles. CSF is secrated from brain part called choroid plexuses.CSF
conatins water, mineral salts glucose, plasma protein (albumin, globulin) and some traces
amount of creatinine, urea.

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Functions of cerebrospinal fluid

The functions of CSF include: (1) buoyancy of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves; (2) volume
adjustment in the cranial cavity; (3) nutrient transport; (4) protein or peptide transport; (5) brain
volume regulation through osmoregulation.
DIVISIONS OF THE BRAIN
The brain, one of our largest organs, consists of the following major divisions, named in
ascending order beginning with most inferior part:

Brain

Cerebellum Diencephalon Cerebrum

Brain Stem

1. Brain stem: Medulla oblongata, Pons, Midbrain

2. Cerebellum
3. Diencephalon: Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Epithalamus
4. Cerebrum

Major regions of the Brain

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Brain Area Functions

Brain stem
Medulla oblongata Two-way conduction pathway between the spinal cord and higher brain
centers; cardiac, respiratory,
and vasomotor control center
Pons Two-way conduction pathway between areas of the brain and other
regions of the body; Influences respiration

Midbrain Two-way conduction pathway; relay for visual and auditory Impulses

Diencephalon
Hypothalamus Regulation of body temperature, water balance, sleep cycle control
appetite, and sexual arousal
Thalamus Sensory relay station from various body areas to cerebral cortex; emotions
and alerting or arousal
mechanisms

Cerebellum Muscle coordination; maintenance of equilibrium and posture

Cerebrum Sensory perception, emotions willed movements, consciousness,

andmemory
Classification and functions of brain parts
Brain Stem
The brain stem consists of three major parts named as medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain. The
lowest part of the brain stem is the medulla oblongata. In superior to the medulla lies the pons and
superior to that the midbrain. Together these three structures are called the brain stem.

Major regions of the Brain stem.

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The medulla oblongata is an enlarged, upward extension of the spinal cord. It lies just inside the
cranial cavity superior to the large hole in the occipital bone called the foramen magnum. Like the
spinal cord, the medulla consists of gray and white matter, but their arrangement differs in the two
organs. In the medulla, bits of gray matter mix closely and intricately with white matter to form the
reticular formation (reticular means “netlike”). In the spinal cord, gray and white matter does not
intermingle; gray matter forms the interior core of the cord, and white matter surrounds it. The pons
and midbrain, like the medulla, consist of white matter and scattered bits of gray matter. All three
parts of the brain stem function as two-way conduction paths. Sensory fibers conduct impulses up
from the cord to other parts of the brain, and motor fibers conduct impulses down from the brain to
the cord. The cardiac, respiratory, and vasomotor centers (collectively called the vital centers) are
located in the medulla. Impulses from these centers control heartbeat, respirations, and blood vessel
diameter (which is important in regulating blood pressure). In addition, many important reflex centers
lie in the brain stem.
Diencephalon
The diencephalon is a small but important part of the brain located between the midbrain inferiorly
and the cerebrum superiorly. It consists of two major structures: the hypothalamus and the thalamus.
The ventricles of the diencephalons are the 3rd ventricle.

Major regions of the diencephalon.

1. Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus, as its name suggests, is located inferior to the thalamus. The posterior pituitary
gland, the stalk that attaches it to the undersurface of the brain, and areas of gray matter located in the
sidewalls of a fluid-filled space called the third ventricle are extensions of the hypothalamus. Impulses
from neurons whose dendrites and cell bodies lie in the hypothalamus are conducted by their axons to

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neurons located in the spinal cord, and many of these impulses are then relayed to muscles and glands
all over the body. Thus the hypothalamus exerts a major control over virtually all-internal organs.
Among the vital functions that it helps control are the heartbeat, constriction and dilation of blood
vessels, and contractions of the stomach and intestines.
Some neurons in the hypothalamus function in a surprising way; they make the hormones that the
posterior pituitary gland secretes into the blood. Because of one of these hormones (called antidiuretic
hormone or ADH) affects the volume of urine excreted, the hypothalamus plays an essential role in
maintaining the body's water balance.
Endocrine glands: Their axons secrete chemicals called releasing hormones into the blood, which
then carries them to the anterior pituitary gland. Releasing hormones, as their name suggests, control
the release of certain anterior pituitary hormones. These in turn influence the hormone secretion of
other endocrine glands. Thus the hypothalamus indirectly helps control the functioning of every cell in
the body. The hypothalamus is a crucial part of the mechanism for maintaining body temperature.
Therefore a marked elevation in body temperature in the absence of disease frequently characterizes
injuries or other abnormalities of the hypothalamus. In addition, this important center is involved in
functions such as the regulation of water balance; sleep cycles, and the control of appetite and many
emotions involved in pleasure, fear, anger, sexual arousal, and pain.
2. Thalamus: Just superior to the hypothalamus is a dumb-bell shaped section or largely gray matter
called the thalamus. Each enlarged end of the dumbbell lies in a lateral wall of the third ventricle. The
thin center section of the thalamus passes from left to right through the third ventricle. The thalamus is
composed chiefly of dendrites and cell bodies of neurons that have axons extending up to the sensory
areas of the cerebrum. It performs the following functions:
1. It helps produce sensations. Its neurons relay impulses to the cerebral cortex from the sense organ of
the body.
2. It associates sensations with emotions. Almost all sensations are accompanied by a feeling of some
degree of pleasantness or unpleasantness.
3. It plays a part in the so -called arousal or alerting mechanism.
4. It contains important nuclei such as medial geniculate which is responsible for auditory sense and
lateral geniculate which is responsible for vision.
Cerebellum:
The cerebellum is the second largest part of the human brain. It lies under the occipital lobe of the
cerebrum. In the cerebellum, gray matter composes the outer layer, and white matter composes the bulk

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of the interior.
Function: The general functions of the cerebellum are to produce smooth coordinated movements,
maintain equilibrium, and sustain normal postures.
Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest and uppermost part of the brain. Outer surface of cerebrum is found ridges
and grooves. The ridges are called convolutions or gyri, and the grooves are called sulci. The deepest
sulci are called fissures; the longitudinal fissure divides the cerebrum into right and left halves or
hemispheres. These halves are almost separate structures except for their lower midportions, which are
connected by a structure called the corpus callosum. Two deep sulci subdivide each cerebral
hemisphere into four major lobes and each lobe into numerous convolutions.
The lobes are named for the bones that lie over them: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal
lobe, and the occipital lobe. A thin layer of gray matter, made up of neuron dendrites and cell bodies,
composes the surface of the cerebrum. Its name is the cerebral cortex. White matter made up of
bundles of neuronal fibers (tracts), composes most of the interior of the cerebrum. Within this white
matter, however, are a few islands of gray matter known as the basal ganglia, whose functioning is
essential for producing automatic movements and postures.
The nerve fibres of the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres are of three groups: commissural,
association and projection.Commissural fibres unite corresponding areas of the cortex of the two
hemispheres across the midline. They comprise the corpus callosum, and the anterior and fornix
commissures.The corpus callosum is a broad band of fibres passing between corresponding cortical
areas of the two hemispheres.It lies at the base of the median longitudinal fissure and above the
diencephalons and midbrain. In midsagital section it is the shape of a hook lying horizontally with its
bend anteriorly and its point downwards. The pointed portion is known as the rostrum, the bend as
genu, the horizontal part as the bod and the expanded posterior end as the splenium. The callosum
extends laterally into each hemisphere; the anterior fibres pass forwards into the frontal pole and are
known as the forceps major, passes backwards into the occipital poles.
The rostrum of the corpus callosum fuses inferiorly with the lamina terminalis. A bundle of fibres
within the lamina, the anterior commissure, unites the piriform areas and the olfactory tracts of the two
sides. The fornix (hippocampal) commissure is found on the undersurface of the corpus callosum where
the two crura meet and form the fornix. Fibres here pass across the midline between the two
hippocampi.
Association fibres may be long or short, uniting adjacent or widely separated gyri of the same

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hemisphere. Projection fibres ascend from or descend to lower lying parts of the central nervous
system. Many form a well-defined layer, the internal capsule, between the lentiform nucleus laterally
and the thalamus and caudate nucleus medially. Superiorly its fibres fan out as the corona radiate
interdigitating with the fibres of the corpus callosum. In horizontal section the capsule is V-shaped. It
possesses an anterior limb (between the caudate nucleus and the lentiform nucleus and crossed by fibres
and grey matter uniting the two structures), an apex (the genu) pointing medially, and a posterior limb
lying between the thalamus and the lentiform nucleus. The anterior limb carries (a) frontopontine fibres
from the frontal lobe to the pons, and (b) fibres from the thalamus (medial and ventro-anterior nuclei) to
the frontal lobe. The posterior limb carries from before backwards, (a) pyramidal fibres from the motor
cortex which pass to the cranial nerve nuclei (corticospinal fibres), (b) somatosensory fibres passing
from thalamus (ventroposterior nucleus) to the postcentral (somatosensory) cortex, (c)temporopontine
fibres from the temporal lobe to the pons, (d) the auditory radiations passing from the medial geniculate
body under the lentfiform nucleus, to the superior temporal gyrus, (e) the visual radiations passing from

the lateral geniculate body around the lateral aspect of the posterior horn of the lateral ventricle to the
visual cortex.

Diagram of Cerebrum
The functions of cerebrum
1. It is responsible for thinking, intelligence, consciousness and memory.
2. It is also responsible for interpreting touch, hearing and vision.

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Spinal Cord
Location of the Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a part of the central nervous system. It is a long pipe-like structure arising from the
medulla oblongata, part of the brain consisting of a collection of nerve fibres, running through the
vertebral column of the backbone. It is segmented with a pair of roots (dorsal and ventral roots)
consisting of nerve fibres joining to form the spinal nerves.
Structure of the Spinal Cord
The spinal cord lies within the vertebral canal and extends from the foramen magnum to the level of the
second lumbar vertebrae after which a fibrous remnant, the filum terminale, descends to be attached to
the back of the coccyx. The cord is about 45 cm long. It is cylindrical in shape, flattened slightly
anteroposteriorly, and has cervical and lumbar enlargements where the nerves supplying the upper and
lower limb originate the enlargements lie opposite the lower cervical and lower thoracic vertebrae.
Since the spinal cord is shorter than the vertebral canal, the nerves descend with increasing obliquity
before leaving the canal through the intervertebral foramina. The collection of lower lumbar, sacral and
coccygeal nerves below the spinal cord, with the filum terminale, is known as the cauda equina. The
cord has an anterior median fissure and a posterior median sulcus. On its sides the rootlets of the spinal
nerves emerge from anterolateral and posterolateral sulci.
The spinal cord has a small, irregular shaped internal section that consists of gray matter (nerve cell
bodies) and a larger area surrounding this gray part that consists of white matter (nerve cell fibers). The
gray matter is so arranged that a column of cells extend up and down dorsally, one on each side;
another column is found in the central region on each side. These two pairs of columns, called the
dorsal and ventral horns, give the gray matter an H-shaped appearance in cross section. In the center of
the gray matter is a small channel, central canal that contains cerebrospinal fluid, the liquid that
circulates around the brain and spinal cord. The white matter consists of thousands of nerve cell fibers
arranged in three areas external to the gray matter on each side.
Functions of the Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is the link between the spinal nerves and the brain. It is also a place where simple
responses, known as reflexes can be coordinated even without involving the brain.
The functions of the spinal cord may be divided into three categories:
1. Conduction of sensory impulses upward through ascending tracts to the brain
2. Conduction of motor impulses from the brain down through descending tracts to the efferent neurons
that supply muscles or glands

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3. Reflex activities. A reflex is a simple, rapid, and automatic response involving very few neurons

Structure of Spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System
The nerves connecting the brain and the spinal cord to other parts of the body constitute the peripheral
nervous system (PNS). This system includes cranial and spinal nerves that connect the brain and spinal
cord, respectively, to peripheral structures such as the skin surface and the skeletal muscles. In addition,
other structures in the autonomic nervous system (ANS) are considered part of the PNS. These connect
the brain and spinal cord to various glands in the body and to the cardiac and smooth muscle in the
thorax and abdomen.
Nerves
A nerve is a bundle of nerve cell fibers located outside the CNS. Bundles of nerve cell fibers within the
CNS are tracts. Tracts are located within the brain and also within the spinal cord to conduct impulses
to and from the brain. A nerve or tract can be compared to an electric cable made up of many wires. As
with muscles, the "wires," or nerve cell fibers in a nerve, are bound together with connective tissue. A
few of the cranial nerves have only sensory fibers for conducting impulses toward the brain. These are
described as sensory, or afferent, nerves. A few of the cranial nerves contain only motor fibers for
conducing impulses away from the brain and are classified as motor, or efferent, nerves. However, the
remainder of the cranial nerves and all of the spinal nerves contain both sensory and motor fibers and
are referred to as mixed nerves.

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Cranial Nerves
Cranial nerves are nerves that are attached to the brain. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. They are
numbered according to their connection with the brain; beginning at the front and proceeding back. The
first 9 pairs and the 12th pair supply structures in the head.
General Functions of the cranial nerves
From the functional point of view, we may think of the kinds of messages the cranial nerves handle as
belonging to one of four categories:
1. Special sensory impulses, such as for smell, taste, vision, and hearing
2. General sensory impulses, such as those for pain, touch, temperature, deep muscle sense, pressure,
and vibrations
3. Somatic motor impulses resulting in voluntary control of skeletal muscles
4. Viscera motor impulses producing involuntary control of glands and involuntary muscles (cardiac
and smooth muscle). These motor pathways are part pf the autonomic nervous system, parasympathetic
division.

Names and Functions of the Cranial Nerves

The 12 cranial nerves are always numbered according to the traditional Roman style.A few of the
cranial nerves−I, II, and VIll−contain only sensory fibers; some −III, IV, VI, XI and Xll−contain all or
mostly motor fibers. The remainder−V, VII, IX, and X− contain both sensory and motor fibers; they are
known as mixed nerves. All 12 nerves are listed below:
I. The olfactory nerve they supply the olfactory mucous membrane in the upper part of the nasal cavity.
The nerve fibres originate I the bipolar olfactory cells of the mucosa and join to form 15-20 olfactory
bundles which pass through the cribiform plate of the ethmoid bone to reach the olfactory bulb.
II. The optic nerve it is the sensory nerve of the retina. Its fibres originate in the ganglion layer and
converge on the posterior part of the eye ball. The nerve passes backwards through the orbit and optic
canal into the middle cranial fossa where it unites with the
nerve of opposite side of the optic chiasma.
III. The oculomotor nerve this nerve has somatic motor and general visceral (parasympathetic) motor
fibres. The somatic fibres supply the bulbar muscles, except superior oblique and lateral rectus. The
parasympathetic fibres synapse in the ciliary ganglion and supply the sphincter pupillae and ciliary
muscle.
The nuclei of the nerve are situated in the upper midbrain in the perri-aqueductal grey matter. The nerve

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fibres pass forwards through the midbrain and leave it between the cerebral peduncles. The nerve pass
through the posterior andmiddle cranial fossae and divides into superior and inferior divisions near the
superior orbital fissure.
IV. The trochlear nerve this is the somatic motor nerve supply to the superior oblique. Its nucleus lies
in the lower midbrain in the peri-aqueductal grey matter. The fibres pass posteriorly and undergo a
dorsal decussation with the nerve of the opposite side caudal to the inferior colliculi the nerve then
passes forwards through the posterior and middle cranial fossae, enters the orbit through the superior
orbital fissure and supplies superior oblique.
V. The trigeminal nerve is the great sensory nerve of the face and head. It has three branches that
transport general sense impulses (e.g., pain, touch, temperature) from the eye, the upper jaw, and the
lower jaw. The third branch is joined by motor fibers to the muscles of mastication (chewing).
VI. The abducens nerve is a somatic motor nerve supplying lateral rectus. Its nucleus is situated in the
lower pons. The nerve leaves the inferior border of the pons near the midline, passes forwards through
the posterior and middle cranial fossae, the cavernous sinus and the orbit, and supplies lateral rectus.
VII. The facial nerve is largely motor. Branches from the facial nerve supply all the muscles of facial
expression. This nerve also includes special sensory fibers for taste (anterior two thirds of the tongue),
and it contains secretary fibers to the smaller salivary glands (the submandibular and sublingual) and to
the lacrimal gland
VIII. The vestibulocochlear nerve contains special sensory fibers for hearing as well as those for
balance from the semicircular canals of the internal ear. This nerve is also called the auditory or
acoustic nerve.
IX. The glossopharyngeal nerve contains general sensory fibers from the back of the tongue and the
pharynx (throat).
This nerve also contains sensory fibers for taste from the posterior third of the tongue, secretary fibers
that supply the largest salivary gland (parotid), and motor nerve fibers to control the swallowing
muscles in the pharynx.
X. The vagus nerve is the longest cranial nerve. (Its name means "wanderer. ") It supplies most of the
organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities. This nerve also contains motor fibers to the larynx (voice
box) and pharynx, and to glands that produce digestive juices and other secretions.
XI. The accessory nerve (formerly called the spinal accessory nerve) is a motor nerve with two
branches. One branch controls two muscles of the neck, the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid; the
other supplies muscles of the larynx

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XII. The hypoglossal nerve, the last of the 12 cranial nerves, carries impulses controlling the muscles
of the tongue.
Spinal Nerves and Branches of the Spinal Nerves
Spinal nerves arise from spinal cord. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, each pair numbered according
to the level of the spinal cord from which it arises. Each nerve is attached to the spinal cord by two
roots; the dorsal root and the ventral root. The roots are formed from a number of rootlets which emerge
from the anterolateral and posterolateral sulci of the spinal cord. The ventral root carries efferent
(motor) fibres from the cord and the dorsal root, afferent (sensory) fibres to the cord. The cell bodies of
the sensory fibres are situated in a ganglion on the dorsal root.
The spinal nerves are therefore a mixture of motor and sensory fibres. Each nerve leaves the vertebral
canal through an intervertebral foramen and soon divides into a large ventral and smaller dorsal ramus
(branch). The adjacent ventral rami of most regions communicate to form plexuses (cervical, brachial
and lumbosacral) while those of the thoracic region become the intercostals and subcostal nerves. The
dorsal rami pass backwards into the postvertebral muscles and divide into medial and lateral branches.
These rami supply the muscles and skin over the posterior aspect of the body but give no branches to
the limbs. The ventral rami supply the anterior and lateral wall of the back and the lower limbs.
Each spinal nerve continues only a very short distance away from the spinal cord and then branches into
small posterior divisions and rather large anterior divisions. The larger anterior branches interlace to
form networks called plexuses, which then distribute branches to the body parts. The three main
plexuses are described as follows:
1. The cervical plexuses supplies motor impulses to the muscles of the neck and receive sensory
impulses from the neck and the back of the head. The phrenic nerve, which activates the diaphragm,
arises from this plexus.
2. The brachial plexus sends numerous branches to the shoulder, arm, forearm, wrist, and hand. The
radial nerve emerges from the brachial plexus.
3. The lumbosacral plexus supplies nerves to the lower extremities. The largest of these branches is the
sciatic nerve, which leaves the dorsal part of the pelvis, passes beneath the gluteus maximus muscle,
and extends down the back of the thigh. At its beginning it is nearly 1 inch thick, but it soon branches to
the thigh muscles; near the knee it forms two subdivisions that supply the leg and the foot.

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The Autonomic Nervous System

Parts of the Autonomic Nervous System
Although the internal organs such as the heart, lungs, and stomach contain nerve endings and nerve
fibers for conducting sensory messages to the brain and cord, most of these impulses do not reach
consciousness. These afferent impulses from the viscera are translated into reflex responses without
reaching the higher center of the brain; the sensory neurons from the organs are grouped with those that
come from the skin and voluntary muscles. In contrast, the efferent neurons, which supply the glands
and the involuntary muscles, are arranged very differently from those that supply the voluntary
muscles. This variation in the location and arrangement of the visceral efferent neurons has led to their
classification as part of a separate division called the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The ANS itself
is comprised of sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
The autonomic nervous system has many ganglia that serve as relay stations. In these each message is
transferred at a synapse from the first neuron to a second one and from there to the muscle or gland cell.
This differs from the voluntary (somatic nervous system, in which each motor nerve fiber extends all
the way from the spinal cord to the skeletal muscle with no intervening synapse.
Some of the autonomic fibers are within the spinal nerves; some are within the cranial nerves. The
distribution of the two divisions of the ANS is as follows:
1. The sympathetic pathways begin in the spinal cord with cell bodies in the thoracic and lumbar
regions, the thoracolumbar area. The sympathetic fibers arise from the spinal cord at the level of the
first thoracic nerve down to the level of the second lumbar spinal nerve. From this part of the cord,
nerve fibers extend to ganglia where they synapse with a second set of neurons, the fibers of which
extend to the glands and involuntary muscle tissues.
Many of the sympathetic ganglia form the sympathetic chains, two cord like strands of ganglia that
extend along either side of the spinal column from the lower neck to the upper abdominal region. The
nerves that supply the organs of the abdominal and pelvic cavities synapse in three single ganglia
farther from the spinal cord. The second neurons of the sympathetic nervous system act on the effectors
by releasing the neurotransmitter epinephrine (adrenaline). This system is therefore described as
adrenergic, which means "activated by adrenaline."
2. The parasympathetic pathways begin in the craniosacral areas, with fibers arising from cell bodies of
the midbrain, medulla, and lower (sacral) part of the spinal cord. From these centers the first set of
fibers extends to autonomic ganglia that are usually located near or within the walls of the effector
organs. The pathways then continue along a second set of neurons that stimulate the involuntary tissues.

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These neurons release the neuro transmitter acetylcholine, leading to the description of this system as
cholinergic (activated by acetylcholine).
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system regulates the action of the glands, the smooth muscles of the hollow
organs and vessels, and the heart muscle. These actions are all carried on automatically; whenever any
changes occur that call for a regulatory adjustment, the adjustment is made without conscious
awareness. The sympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system tends to act as an accelerator for
those organs needed to meet a stressful situation. It promotes what is called the fight-or-flight response.
If you think of what happens to a person who is frightened or angry, you can easily remember the
effects of impulses from the sympathetic nervous system:
1. Stimulation of the central portion of the adrenal gland. This produces hormones, including
epinephrine, that prepare the body to meet emergency situations in many ways. The sympathetic nerves
and hormones from the adrenal gland reinforce each other.
2. Dilation of the pupil and decrease in focusing ability (for near objects)
3. Increase in the rate and force of heart contractions
4. Increase in blood pressure due partly to the more effective heartbeat and partly to constriction of
small arteries in the skin and the internal organs
5. Dilation of blood vessels to skeletal muscles, bringing more blood to these tissues
6. Dilation of the bronchial tubes to allow more oxygen to enter
7. Increase in metabolism.
The sympathetic system also acts as a brake on those systems not directly involved in the response to
stress, such as the urinary and digestive systems. If you try to eat while you are angry, you may note
that your saliva is thick and so small in amount that you can swallow only with difficulty.
Under these circumstances, when food does reach the stomach, it seems to stay there longer than usual.
The parasympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system nonnal1y acts as a balance for the
sympathetic system once a crisis has passed. The parasympathetic system brings about constriction of
the pupils, slowing of the heart rate, and constriction of the bronchial tubes. It also stimulates the
formation and release of urine and activity of the digestive tract. Saliva, for example, flows more easily
and profusely and its quantity and fluidity increase.
Most organs of the body receive both sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation, the effects of the
two systems on a given organ generally being opposite. Table 11.2 shows some of the actions of these
two systems.

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Effectors Sympathetic system Parasympathetic

Pupils of eye Dilation Constriction

Sweat glands Sweat glands Stimulation None

Digestive glands Inhibition Stimulation

Heart Increased rate and Decreased rate and

strength of beat strength of beat

Bronchi of lungs Dilation Constriction

Muscles of digestive Decreased Increased contraction

system contraction
(peristalsis)
Kidneys Urinary bladder Decreased activity None
and Relaxation
Contraction
emptying
Liver Increased release of None
glucose
Penis Ejaculation Erection
Adrenal medulla Stimulation None
Blood vessels to Dilation Constriction
skeletal muscles

Skin Constriction None

Respiratory system Dilation Constriction

Digestive organs Constriction Dilation

Table Effects of the sympathetic and Parasympathetic Systems on Selected Organs

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