NERVOUS SYSTEM NEURON

▪ The nervous system is responsible for perceptions, behaviours, and memories. Most neurons have three parts:
▪ It also initiates all voluntary movements. 1. Cell body,
▪ The structures that make up the nervous system include the brain, cranial nerves 2. Dendrites, and
and their branches, the spinal cord, spinal nerves and their branches, ganglia, 3. An axon
enteric plexuses, and sensory receptors
▪ The Brain, which contains trillions of neurons. 1. The cell body contains a nucleus
▪ A Nerve is a bundle of hundreds to thousands of axons plus associated connective surrounded by cytoplasm that
tissue and blood vessels that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. includes typical organelles such as
▪ Each nerve follows a defined path and serves a specific region of the body. rough endoplasmic reticulum,
These diverse activities can be grouped into three basic functions: lysosomes, mitochondria, and a Golgi
1. Sensory function. complex.
2. Integrative function. Two kinds of processes (extensions) emerge from the cell body of most neurons:
3. Motor function. 2. Multiple dendrites and
3. A Single axon.
1. Sensory receptors detect internal stimuli, such as an increase in blood acidity, The cell body and the dendrites are the receiving or input parts of a neuron.
and external stimuli, such as a raindrop landing on arm. An axon is a long, cylindrical projection that often joins the cell body at a cone shaped
This sensory information is then carried into the brain and spinal cord through elevation called the Axon Hillock.
cranial and spinal nerves. The Axon, conducts nerve impulses toward another neuron, a muscle fiber, or a gland cell.
2. The nervous system integrates (processes) sensory information by analysing and
storing some of it and by making decisions for appropriate responses. TYPES OF NEURON / CLASSIFICATION OF NEURON
3. Once sensory information is integrated, the nervous system may elicit an
appropriate motor response by activating effectors (muscles and glands) through ❖ BASED ON STRUCTURE
cranial and spinal nerves. Stimulation of the effectors causes muscles to contract Structurally, neurons are classified according to the number of processes
and glands to secrete. extending from the cell body
1. Multipolar neurons usually have several dendrites and one axon. Most
Nervous tissue consists of two types of cells: neurons and neuroglia. neurons in the brain and spinal cord are of this type.
2. Bipolar neurons have one main dendrite and one axon They are found in
1. Neurons provide most of the unique functions of the nervous system, such as the retina of the eye, in the inner ear, and in the olfactory area of the
sensing, thinking, remembering, etc. brain.
3. Unipolar neurons have dendrites and one axon that are fused together to
2. Neuroglia support, nourish, and protect the neurons and maintain, homeostasis in form a continuous process that emerges from the cell body.
the interstitial fluid that bathes them.
❖ BASED ON FUNCTION
Functionally, neurons are classified according to the direction in which
the nerve impulse (action potential) is conveyed with respect to the CNS.
1. Sensory or afferent neurons :
Either contain sensory receptors at their distal ends (dendrites)
or are located just after sensory receptors that are separate cells
 2. Motor or efferent neurons : SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
Convey action potentials away from the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands) in
the periphery (PNS) through cranial and spinal nerves. A nerve impulse arrives at a synaptic end bulb of a presynaptic axon.

The depolarizing phase of the nerve impulse opens voltage gated Ca2 channels, which are
❖ BASED ON LOCATION present in the membrane of synaptic end bulbs.
1. The neuron sending the signal is called the presynaptic neuron (pre-
before) Because calcium ions are more concentrated in the interstitial fluid, Ca2 flows into the
2. The neuron receiving the message is called the postsynaptic neuron synaptic end bulb through the opened channels.
(post-after).
An increase in the concentration of Ca2 inside the synaptic end bulb triggers exocytosis of
SYNAPSE some of the synaptic vesicles, which releases thousands of neurotransmitter molecules into
the synaptic cleft.
▪ The site where two neurons or a neuron
and an effector cell can communicate is termed The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to
a Synapse. neurotransmitter receptors in the postsynaptic neuron’s plasma membrane.
▪ The tips of most axon terminals swell into
Synaptic end bulbs. Binding of neurotransmitter molecules opens ion channels, which allows certain ions to
▪ These bulb-shaped structures contain flow across the membrane.
Synaptic vesicles, tiny sacs that store
chemicals called neurotransmitters. As ions flow through the opened channels, the voltage across the membrane changes.
▪ The neurotransmitter molecules The Central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord.
released from synaptic vesicles are the
means of communication at a synapse. Depending on which ions the channels admit, the voltage change may be a depolarization
or a hyperpolarization.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
▪ About 100 substances are either known or suspected neurotransmitters. If a depolarization occurs in the postsynaptic neuron and reaches threshold, then it triggers
▪ Most neurotransmitters are synthesized and loaded into synaptic vesicles in the one or more nerve impulses.
synaptic end bulbs, close to their site of release.
▪ One of the best-studied neurotransmitters is acetylcholine (ACh), which is
released by many PNS neurons and by some CNS neurons.
▪ ACh is an excitatory neurotransmitter at some synapses, such as the
neuromuscular junction.
▪ It is also known to be an inhibitory neurotransmitter at other synapses.
▪ For example, parasympathetic neurons slow heart rate by releasing ACh at
inhibitory synapses.
BLOOD–BRAIN BARRIER CLASSIFICATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

▪ The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective semipermeable membrane

that protects brain cells from harmful substances and pathogens flowing through
blood into brain tissue.
▪ This barrier consists of very tightly sealed blood capillaries in the brain.
▪ Lipid-soluble substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, alcohol, and most
anesthetic agents, easily cross the blood–brain barrier.

➢ CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

▪ The Central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord.
▪ It is also the source of thoughts, emotions, and memories.
▪ Most nerve impulses that stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete
originate in the CNS.

➢ PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

PERMEABLE SUBSTANCES
It includes all nervous tissue outside the CNS
✓ Glucose
▪ Components of the PNS include cranial nerves and their branches, spinal nerves
✓ O 2,
and their branches, ganglia, and sensory receptors.
✓ CO2,
▪ The PNS may be subdivided further into
✓ hormones
1. A somatic nervous system (SNS) (soma-body),
RESTRICTED SUBSTANCES
2. An autonomic nervous system (ANS) (auto-self; nomic- law),
ꓫ Signaling molecules,
3. An enteric nervous system (ENS) (enter-intestines)
ꓫ Antibodies,
ꓫ Immune cells,
A) SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
ꓫ Pathogens, (1) Sensory neurons that convey information from somatic receptors in the
ꓫ solutes such as hydrophilic molecules head, body wall, and limbs and from receptors for the special senses of
ꓫ Most of drugs vision, hearing, taste, and smell to the CNS and
 (2) Motor neurons that conduct impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
only. Because these motor responses can be consciously controlled, the
action of this part of the PNS is voluntary. ▪ CSF is a clear, colourless liquid that carries oxygen, glucose, and other needed
chemicals to neurons and neuroglia and removes wastes and toxic substances
B) AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM produced by brain and spinal cord cells.
1. Sensory neurons that convey information from autonomic sensory receptors,
located primarily in visceral organs such as the stomach and lungs, to the ▪ CSF protects brain and spinal cord against chemical and physical injury
CNS, and
2. Motor neurons that conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to smooth muscle, ▪ CSF circulates through the subarachnoid space, around the brain and spinal cord,
cardiac muscle, and glands. and ventricles.
Because its motor responses are not normally under conscious control, the
action of the ANS is involuntary.

The motor part of the ANS consists of two branches,

I. Sympathetic division and
II. Parasympathetic division.
▪ With a few exceptions, effectors receive nerves from both divisions, and usually
the two divisions have opposing actions.
▪ For example, sympathetic neurons increase heart rate, and parasympathetic
neurons slow it down.
▪ In general, the sympathetic division helps support exercise or emergency actions,
so-called “fight-or-flight” responses,
▪ and the parasympathetic division takes care of “rest-and-digest” activities.

C) ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

▪ Also known as the “brain of the gut,” as most of its function is involuntary.
▪ The ENS consists of approximately 100 million neurons in enteric plexuses
that extend most of the length of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.
▪ Many of the neurons of the enteric plexuses function independently of the
ANS and CNS to some extent,
▪ Although they also communicate with the CNS via sympathetic and
parasympathetic neurons.
▪ Sensory neurons of the ENS monitor chemical changes within the GI tract as
well as the stretching of its walls.
▪ Motor neurons govern contraction of GI tract smooth muscle to propel food
through the GI tract, secretions of the GI tract organs such as acid from the
stomach, and activity of GI tract endocrine cells, which secrete hormones.
FUNCTIONS OF CSF

1. Support - The CSF supports the weight of the brain estimated at 1500 gm and
suspends it in neutral buoyancy to a net weight of about 25 gm. Hence, the entire
brain density is cushioned, protecting it from crushing into the bony cranium.

2. Shock absorber - It protects the brain from damage during head trauma.

3. Homeostasis - The biochemical constituents and volume of the CSF play vital
cerebral homeostatic roles:
a. Maintains stable intrinsic CNS temperature
b. Biochemical constituents and electrolytes maintain the osmotic pressure
responsible for normal CSF pressure which is essential to maintaining
normal cerebral perfusion
c. Biochemical waste products diffuse into the CSF and are removed as
CSF is resorbed through arachnoid granulations into venous circulation, a
small percentage of CSF also drains into lymphatic circulation.

4. Nutrition - The CSF contains glucose, proteins, lipids, and electrolytes, providing
essential CNS nutrition.

5. Immune function - The CSF contains immunoglobulins and mononuclear cells.