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Nervous System
The functions of nervous system:
• It is the major control system of our body
• It controls our body movement by muscle contraction and rapidly changing visceral events
• It controls the secretion of endocrine and exocrine.

Classification of Nervous System:

1) Central Nervous System (CNS)
2) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Central Nervous System (CNS) has two parts
1) Brain
2) Spinal Cord
Brain has three parts
1) Fore Brain
2) Mid Brain
3) Hind Brain
Peripheral Nervous System has Two parts
1) Somatic
2) Autonomic
Somatic also Has Two parts
1) Cranial (12 pairs)
2) Spinal (31 pairs)
Autonomic also has Two parts
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1) Sympathetic
2) Para-Sympathetic

Neuron
Neuron is the structural and functional unit of nervous system, there are about 100 billion neurons
in human body.

Components/Structure/Parts of Neuron
Neuron has of two parts
1) Cell Body
2) Processes
Cell Body: Cell has all the organelles a normal cell usually contains except centrosome and has an
extra organelles named as nissle granules. Neurons can not divide multiple because of absence of
centrosome. Cell body contains –
1. Nucleus
2. Mitochondria
3. Endoplasmic reticulum
4. Lysosome
5. Nissle granules
6. Absence of centrioles
Processes: Processes has two parts
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1) Axons
2) Dendrite
Serial Axon Dendrite
no.
1 Axon is always single in number. Dendrite is zero to multiple in number
2 Axon carries impulse from cell Carries impulse from periphery to central.
body/central to periphery.
3 It is motor in nature. It is sensory in nature.
4 Nissle granules is absent in axon. Nissle granules is present in dendrite.
5 Myelin sheath is present in axon. Myelin sheath is not present in dendrite.
6 Does not contain any branches. It has branches.

Classification of Neurons:
According to Number of Process:
1) Unipolar: One axon zero dendrite
2) Bipolar: One axon one dendrite
3) Multipolar: One axon multiple dendrite
According to Size of the neuron:
1) Golgi-I: Axon is very long
2) Golgi-II: Axon is very Short
According to Functionality:
1) Motor: Carries impulse from central to periphery
2) Sensory: Carries sensation from periphery to central
Functions of Neuron:
1) It generate impulse, receive impulse, integrate impulse and transmit impulse
2) Synthesis of neurotransmitter
Organization of Nervous System:
1) Composed of sensory Axis
2) Integrating Zone
3) Motor Axis
Mechanism of action of nervous system:
Firstly the sensory impulses passes from periphery to the central (cerebrum). Then integrate it and
produce a command. Then according to the command desired action is fulfilled.

Myelin Sheath
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It is the covering of nerve. In case of central nervous system myelin sheath is formed by
oligodendrocyte and in case of Peripheral nervous system myelin sheath is formed by Schwann
cell.
Central Nervous system can not regenerate because lack of neurolema but Peripheral nervous
system can because it has neurolema.

Nerve Fiber
Axon and dendrite are called nerve fiber.
Classification of nerve fiber:
According to diameter and conduction velocity:
1) A Fiber
2) B Fiber
3) C Fiber: Carries slow or dull pain
A Fiber:
1) Alpha
2) Beta
3) Gamma
4) Delta: Carries Sharp Pain or acute pain
NB: A and B fiber are myelinated but C fiber is not myelinated.
According to Numerical Classification:
1) Class I
2) Class II
3) Class III
4) Class IV
Class I has two parts
1) I a
2) I b
NB: I,II,III are myelinated and IV is non-myelinated
According to Histology:
1) Myelinated nerve fiber
2) Non-Myelinated nerve fiber
According to functionality:
1) Sensory Nerve fiber
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2) Motor Nerve Fiber

Properties of nerve fiber:
1) Excitability
2) Conductivity
3) Adaptation (except pain)
4) All or none laws
5) Fatigue

Neurotransmitter (NT)
These are highly active chemical substances which are released from nerve ending
Classification of NT:
According to small molecule and rapidly active NT:
1) Class I- Acetylcholine
2) Class II- Amines
• Epinephrine
• Nor-Epinephrine
• Dopamine
• Serotonin
3) Class III- Amino-acid Groups
• GABA (Gamma amino Butyric Acid)
• Glycine
• Aspartate
• Glutamate
4) Class-IV NO (Nitric Oxide)
According to Functionality
1. Excitatory NT
• Acetylcholine
• Aspartate
• Glutamate
1) Inhibitory NT
• GABA
• Glycine
2) Both excitatory and inhibitory
• 5HT (5 hydroxy tryptamine)
• Histamine
• Prostaglandin
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Synapse
It is the junction between two neurons, where one neuron end and another neuron begins.

Classification of Synapse:
According Morphologically or Anatomically
1) Axo-axonic Synapse: Synapse between axon of one neuron and axon of another neuron is
called axo-axonic synapse
2) Axo-somatic Synapse: Synapse between axon of one neuron and cell body/soma of another
neuron.
3) Axo-Dendrytic Synapse: Synapse between axon of one neuron and dendrite of another
neuron.
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According Functionally or Physiologically

1) Chemical Synapse: It is called chemical synapse as because it communicates via
neurotransmitter (maximum synapses are chemical synapse)
2) Electrical Synapse: It is called electrical synapse because of it communicates through
electrical impulses. Found in Heart .
Structure of a Chemical Synapse:
1) Pre-synaptic Neuron
2) Synaptic cleft
3) Post Synaptic Neuron
Pre-Synaptic Neuron: Covered by a membrane called presynaptic membrane, this membrane
contains Ca Channel, Presynaptic terminal contains mitochondria, vehicles. Vehicles contains
neurotransmitter.
Synaptic Cleft: It is a narrow space between pre and post synaptic neuron. Synaptic cleft contains
extra cellular fluid (ECF).
Post-Synaptic Neuron: Covered by a membrane called post-synaptic membrane. Contains Na, Cl
and Ka Channel and receptor.
Function of Synapse:
1) It acts as a relay station for nerve impulse
2) Integrate and transmit impulses
3) It forms reflex arc
Properties of Synapse:
1) Synaptic Delay
2) One way Direction (as because receptor is only found in post synaptic neuron)
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3) Summation
a)Spatial Summation
b) Temporal Summation
4) Fatigue
5) Occlusion
Impulse Transition Through Synapse : By three steps –
1) Impulse passes through the presynaptic neuron which causes release of
neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.
2) This neurotransmitter diffuses through the ECF & bind with receptor in the
postsynaptic membrane.
3) These binding of neurotransmitter with receptor causes opening some
channels and produce EPSP & IPSP.
EPSP → Excitatory post synaptic potential.
IPSP → Inhibitory post synaptic potential.

EPSP Formation
Excitatory neurotransmitter
↓
Opening of Na + & Ca ++ Channel
↓
Interns of Na + & Ca ++ channel
↓
RMP become less negative (-65 to – 40 mvolt)
↓
Partial Depolarization
↓
EPSP

NB: Electrical charge difference across the cell membrane in resting condition is called resting
membrane potential or RMP. In resting condition RMP is always negative
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Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential (IPSP) Formation

Inhibitory neurotransmitter
↓
Opening of Cl - or K + Channel
↓
K + comes out of the cell or Cl - enters into the cell
↓
RMP become more negative
↓
Hyperpolarization
↓
IPSP.

Brain

Brain is located inside the skull. It includes three parts

1) Fore brain
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2) Mid Brain
3) Hind Brain
Outer portion of the brain is called gray matter and inner portion of the brain is white matter. But
for spinal it is vice-versa of the brain. Means outer portion is made of white matter and inner
portion is made of gray matter and the white matter contains nerve fibers.

Fore Brain
Fore brain contains cerebrum which is composed of two cerebral hemisphere by corpus
callosum. ( Sulcus means depression and Gyrus means elevated portion) Cerebrum has four
lobes/
1) Frontal Lobe
2) Parietal Lobe
3) Temporal Lobe
4) Occipital Lobe
Frontal Lobe:
Frontal lobe situated at anterior portion of the central sulcus. It has four area
1) Primary motor area(Brodmann area no 4)
2) Pre motor area ( Brodmann area 6 and 8 )
3) Broca’s Area/ Motor Speech area (Brodmann are no 44 and 45)
4) Pre Frontal area ( Brodmann area 9,10,11,12,13,14,23,24,29,32 area 13 is concerned with
emotions)
Function of Primary Motor Area (Brodmann area 4):
Primary motor area of frontal lobe controls the voluntary movement of opposite side of the body.
If any damage occurs in primary motor area then the opposite side of the body become paralyzed
(Unable to move)
Function of Pre Motor Area (Brodmann area 6 and 8):
Pre Motor area of frontal lobe controls the series movement of the body like combing, buttoning
etc. If any damage occurs in Pre Motor area then the person become unable to perform series
movement.

Function of Broca’s Area (Brodmann Area 44,45):

Broca’s area also known as motor speech area. Controls speech movement of an individual.
Damage in broca’s area is known as broca’s aphasia or unable to speak.
Function of Pre Frontal Lobe (Brodmann area 9,10,11,12,13,14,23,24,29,32):
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Pre Frontal lobe is the forth and perhaps most important lobe of the frontal lobe. It controls several
action of an individual which are given below:
1) Center for higher function such as learning, emotion, memory and behavior.
2) Seat of intelligence.
3) Short Term Memory.
4) Maintains Personality.
5) It is the center for planned of action.
Damage of the pre frontal lobe is called frontal lobe syndrome. There are several features of the
frontal lobe syndrome exist, which are given below:
Features of Frontal Lobe Syndrome
1) Aggressiveness
2) Lack of Concentration
3) Restlessness
4) Loss of Memory
5) Loss of moral and social behavior
6) Loss of love for family and friends
7) Hyperphagia: Increase of eating
Parietal Lobe:
Parietal lobe is the second lobe of the front brain. It is situated at the posterior portion of the central
sulcus. It has only one area called somatosensory area ( Brodmann area no 3,1,2)
Function of Somatosensory Area (Brodmann area 3,1,2)
It is responsible for cutaneous sensation (touch, temperature, Vibration, pain) Damage in
somatosensory area causes loss of cutaneous sensation means the individual will not feel the
sensation of touch, temperature, pain and vibration. This phenomena is called parietal lobe
syndrome.
Temporal Lobe:
Temporal lobe situated below the frontal and parietal lobe. It is separated from frontal and parietal
lobe by a sulcus known as lateral sulcus. It has been composed of three parts so far:
1) Primary auditory area (Brodmann area 41,42)
2) Audito psychic area ( Brodmann area 22)
3) Area of equilibrium ( No Brodmann area )
Function of Primary Auditory Area ( Brodmann area 41,42)
a) It is responsible for perception for auditory impulse.
b) It is responsible for analysis of pitch.
c) It is responsible for determination of intensity
d) It is responsible for determination of source of sound.
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Function of Audito Psychic Area ( Brodmann area 22)

Integration of auditory impulse
Function of Area of Equilibrium ( No Brodmann Area)
It controls equilibrium or balance of the body.
If any damage to the temporal lobe happen then it is called temporal lobe syndrome

Features of Temporal Lobe Syndrome:

a) Aphasia
b) Auditory disturbance – Tinnitus : Noise inside ear
c) Hallucination- feeling of particular type of sensation without stimulus and sensation.
d) Auditory Hallucination
e) Visual Hallucination

Occipital Lobe:
Occipital lobe is the fourth lobe of the fore brain. It is situated behind the parietal lobe. The parieto-
occipital sulcus separated it from the parietal lobe of the fore brain. It has three parts
1) Primary Visual Area (Brodmann area 17)
2) Visual Association Area (Brodmann area 18)
3) Occipital Eye field ( Brodmann area 19)
Function of Primary Visual Area:
It is responsible for the perception of visual impulse.
Function of Visual Association Area:
It is responsible for the integration of the visual impulse
Function of Occipital Eye Field:
It is responsible for the movement of the eye
Damage to the occipital lobe causes blindness ( Loss of vision). lesion at the upper and lower part
of the occipital lobe causes Hemianopia (loss of half of visual field)
Function of Cerebrum:
a) It is the center for all the sensory impulses
b) Initiates the motor activity
c) Seat of intelligence
d) Retains the impulse
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e) It stores memory
f) It controls other parts of the nervous system.
Thalamus:
It is egg shaped gray matter situated in the wall of third ventricles in diencephalon.
Function of the Thalamus:
a) It is the relay station of all the sensory impulses
b) Processing of impulses
c) Integration of the impulse

Lesion in thalamus causes:

a) Anesthesia – loss of sensation
b) Loss of ability to recognize the known object by touching it when eyes are closed.
c) Hyperesthesia- Simple touch causing severe pain.
Hypothalamus- master of the master gland:
It is situated at the floor of the third ventricles in diencephalon.

Function of Hypothalamus:
a) It acts as endocrine gland by secreting the releasing and inhibiting hormone
b) It maintains temperature of our body
c) It controls hunger and satiety.
d) It maintains emotional behavior such as anger, hate, love etc.
e) It acts as biological clock.
Lesion at hypothalamus causes:
a) Obesity
b) Diabetes insipidus – more urine loss
c) Abnormal sexual behavior
d) Narcolepsy – abnormal pattern of sleep

Hind Brain
Hind brain composed of three parts:
a) Cerebellum
b) Pons
c) Medulla oblongata
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NB: Medulla oblongata is the most vital part of the brain as because it controls CVS
(Cardiovascular system) and respiratory regulation.
Cerebellum:
Cerebellum is presented in the posterior cranial fossa. It is composed of two cerebellar cortex
which are connected by median vermis.
Functional Division of cerebellum:
a) Vestibulocerebellum
b) Spinocerebellum
c) Neocerebellum

Vestibulocerebellum
It is composed of floccunonodular lobe and nodular vermis. It is the oldest part of cerebellum
Function: It maintains equilibrium.
Spinocerebellum
It is composed of medial portion of the cerebellar hemisphere and pyramid of vermis.
Function: It maintains the movement.
Neocrebellum/cerebrocerebellum
It is composed of lateral portion of cerebellar hemisphere. It is the newest part of cerebellum .
Function: It maintain planning and programming.
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Organization of the Cerebellum:

Outer portion of the cerebellum is called gray matter or cerebellar cortex, inner portion is called
white matter which contains intra cerebellar nucleus.
Cerebellar cortex/gray matter which has three layers from outer to inner side
a) Molecular layer /outer layer
b) Purkinjee cell layer /middle layer
c) Granular layer /inner layer
The Nucleus of Cerebellum:
a) Dentate nucleus
b) Emboliform nucleus
c) Nucleus globose
d) Fastigial nucleus
These four are the structural unit of cerebellum
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Function of Cerebellum:
a) It maintains muscle tone
b) It maintains postures
c) It maintains equilibrium of the body
d) It makes the movement skilled, coordinated, purposeful, goal oriented.
Clinical Features of cerebellar lesion:
a) Hypotonia – decreased muscle tone
b) Ataxia – incordintion of movement
c) Gait – drunken gait
d) Intention tremor – tremor during work
e) Dys Diadocho kinesia – unable to perform alternative movement rapidly and regularly
f) Nystagmus – disturbance of eye movement
g) Dysarthria – disorder of speech (Scanning of speech)
Test for Cerebellar Lesion:
a) Finger-nose test
b) Finger-finger test
c) Hill-knee test