A PRUDENT RULER

CANNOT AND MUST NOT

HONOR
HIS WORD
NICCOLÒ MACHIAVELLI (1469–1527)
76 NICCOLÒ MACHIAVELLI

W
ritten by probably the Through his firsthand experience
IN CONTEXT best known (and most in public office for the Florentine
often misunderstood) Republic as a diplomat, and
IDEOLOGY
of all political theorists, Niccolò influenced by his study of
Realism
Machiavelli’s work gave rise to classical Roman society and
FOCUS the term “Machiavellian,” which politics, Machiavelli developed
Statecraft epitomizes the manipulative, an unconventional approach to
deceitful, and generally self-serving the study of political theory.
BEFORE politician who believes that “the
4th century BCE Chanakya end justifies the means.” However, A realistic approach
advises rulers to do whatever this term fails to encapsulate the Rather than seeing society in terms
is necessary to achieve the much broader, and innovative, of how it ought to be, Machiavelli
well-being of the state. political philosophy Machiavelli tried to “go directly to the effectual
3rd century BCE Han Fei Tzu proposed in his treatise The Prince. truth of the thing rather than to the
Machiavelli lived in turbulent imagination of it,” meaning that
assumes it is human nature to
political times at the beginning of he sought to get to the heart of
seek personal gain and avoid
the period that would come to be the matter and treat politics not
punishment, and his Legalist known as the Renaissance. This as a branch of moral philosophy
government makes strict laws. was a turning point in European or ethics, but rather in purely
51 BCE Roman politician Cicero history, when the medieval concept practical and realistic terms.
advocates republican rule in of a Christian world ruled with Unlike previous political
De Republica. divine guidance was replaced by thinkers, he does not see the
the idea that humans could control purpose of the state as nurturing
AFTER their own destiny. As the power the morality of its citizens, but
1651 Thomas Hobbes’s of the Church was being eroded rather as ensuring their well-being
Leviathan describes life in a by Renaissance humanism, and security. Consequently, he
state of nature as “nasty, prosperous Italian city-states, such replaces the concepts of right
brutish, and short.” as Machiavelli’s native Florence, and wrong with notions such
had been established as republics, as usefulness, necessity, success,
1816–30 Carl von Clausewitz but were repeatedly threatened and danger, and harm. By placing
discusses the political aspects taken over by rich and powerful utility above morality, his ideas
of warfare in On War. families—such as the Medicis— for the desirable qualities of a
seeking to extend their influence. successful leader are based on

…and should be
The well-being of the achieved by any means
state is the responsibility possible, including
of the ruler… deception and intrigue.

A prudent
ruler cannot, and
must not, honor
his word.
The ruler’s own morality …and he will be judged
is less important than on the results rather
the good of the state… than the means
he has used.
 MEDIEVAL POLITICS 77
See also: Chanakya 44–47 ■ Han Fei Tzu 48 ■ Ibn Khaldun 72–73 ■ Thomas Hobbes 96–103 ■

Carl von Clausewitz 160 ■ Antonio Gramsci 259

An effective
leader can harness
the weaker traits of
Instinct for self- Lack of humanity in his
preservation individuality people to great
effect, in the same
Credulity way that a sheepdog
Fickleness can manipulate a
herd of sheep.

effectiveness and prudence be useful in establishing a cooperatively. Further, traits such

rather than any sort of ideology successful society, though this as fickleness and credulity allow
or moral rectitude. requires the correct leadership. humans to be easily manipulated
At the center of his political by a skillful leader to behave in
philosophy is the Renaissance Using human nature a benevolent way. Qualities such
idea of viewing human society in Man’s innate self-centeredness, for as selfishness, manifested in the
human terms, completely separated example, is shown in his instinct human desire for personal gain
from the religious ideals imposed for self-preservation. However, and ambition, can be a powerful
by the Christian Church. To when threatened by aggression or driving force if channeled correctly,
achieve this, his starting point a hostile environment, he reacts and are especially useful personal
is an analysis of human nature with acts of courage, hard work, qualities in a ruler.
based on his observations of and cooperation. Machiavelli draws The two key elements to
human behavior throughout history, a distinction between an original, transforming the undesirable,
which brings him to the conclusion fundamental human nature that original human nature into a
that the majority of people are by has no virtues, and a socially benevolent social nature are social
nature selfish, short-sighted, fickle, acquired nature that acts in a organization and what Machiavelli
and easily deceived. His view is virtuous manner and is beneficial describes as “prudent” leadership,
realistic, if somewhat cynical, and to society. Other negative human by which he means leadership that
very different from those of previous traits can also be turned to the is useful to the success of the state.
political thinkers. While they might common good, such as the
appear to be an obstacle to creating tendency to imitate rather Advice for new rulers
an efficient, stable society, than think as individuals. This, Machiavelli’s famous (and now
Machiavelli argues that some of Machiavelli notes, leads people to infamous) treatise The Prince
these human failings can in fact follow a leader’s example and act was written in the style of the ❯❯
78 NICCOLÒ MACHIAVELLI
Sandro Botticelli’s Adoration of the
Magi, painted in 1475, includes
representations of the powerful Medici
family, who ruled Florence at the time
Machiavelli wrote The Prince.

however, that these motivations

are also a manifestation of human
nature’s inherent self-interest, and
similarly can be harnessed for the
common good.
Machiavelli takes the analogy
between military and political
leaders further, pointing out other
aspects of virtù, such as boldness,
discipline, and organization. He
also stresses the importance of
analyzing a situation rationally
before taking action, and basing
that action not on how people
should ideally behave but on how
they will behave (meaning in their
practical guides for leaders known ruling classes. Having explained own self-interest). In Machiavelli’s
as “Mirrors of Princes,” which were man’s essentially self-centered opinion, social conflict is an
common in the Middle Ages and but malleable nature, he then inevitable result of the selfishness
the Renaissance. It is addressed to turns his attention to the of human nature (this is in contrast
a new ruler—and is dedicated to qualities that are necessary to the medieval Christian view
a member of the powerful Medici for a ruler to govern prudently. that selfishness was not a natural
family—with advice on how basic condition). In order to deal with
human nature can be engineered Leadership qualities this selfishness, a leader needs
and manipulated for the good of Confusingly, Machiavelli uses to employ the tactics of war.
the state. Later interpretations, the word virtù to describe these Although Machiavelli believes
however, hint that Machiavelli was leadership qualities, but this is that to a large extent man is master
using the genre somewhat cleverly, very different from our modern of his own fate, he recognizes that
by exposing to a wider audience idea of moral virtue, as well as there is also an element of chance
the secrets already known to the the concept of virtue as understood at play, which he refers to as
by the Church. Machiavelli was fortuna. The ruler must battle
a Christian, and as such he against this possibility, as well as
advocates Christian virtues in day- against the fickleness of human
to-day life, but when dealing with nature, which also corresponds to
the actions of a ruler, he believes fortuna. He sees that political life,
that morality must take second in particular, can be seen as
A prince never lacks place to utility and the security of a continuous contest between
legitimate reasons to the state. In this respect, his ideas the elements of virtù and fortuna,
break his promise. hark back to the Roman quality of and in this regard is analogous
Niccolò Machiavelli “virtue” embodied by the military to a state of war.
leader who is motivated by
ambition and the pursuit of glory, Conspiracy is useful
properties that are almost the exact By analyzing politics using military
opposite of the Christian virtue theory, Machiavelli concludes that
of modesty. Machiavelli notes, the essence of most political life
 MEDIEVAL POLITICS 79
then, compelled to deal with the excusable when done for the public
inevitable conflicts that face him, good. It is also important that the
the ends do justify the means. methods of intrigue and deception
should be a means to an end and
The end is what counts not become an end in themselves,
In judging policies A prince’s success as a ruler is so these methods need to be
judged by the consequences of restricted to political and military
we should consider
his actions and their benefit to leaders, and strictly controlled.
the results that have been the state, not by his morality or Another tactic Machiavelli
achieved through them rather ideology. As Machiavelli puts it in borrows from the military is the use
than the means by which The Prince: “In the actions of all of force and violence, which again
they have been executed. men, especially princes, where is morally indefensible in private
Niccolò Machiavelli there is no recourse to justice, the life, but excusable when employed
end is all that counts. A prince for the common good. Such a policy
should only be concerned with creates fear, which is a means of
conquering or maintaining a state, ensuring the security of the ruler.
for the means will always be judged Machiavelli tackles the question
to be honorable and praiseworthy of whether it is better for a leader
by each and every person, to be feared or loved with
is conspiracy. Just as success in because the masses always follow characteristic pragmatism. In an
war is dependent on espionage, appearances and the outcomes of ideal world, he should be both loved
intelligence, counterintelligence, affairs, and the world is nothing and feared, but in reality the two
and deception, political success other than the masses.” He does, seldom go together. Fear will keep
requires secrecy, intrigue, and however, stress that this is a the leader in a much stronger
deceit. The idea of conspiracy matter of expediency, and not a position, and is therefore better for
had long been known to military model for social behavior. It is only the well-being of the state. Rulers ❯❯
theorists, and was practiced by
many political leaders, but
Machiavelli was the first in the
West to explicitly propose a theory …but to do this effectively,
of political conspiracy. Deceit was The goal of the ruler
he must sometimes use deceit,
considered contrary to the idea is to ensure the
treachery, and secrecy.
well-being and security
that a state should safeguard
of his citizens…
the morality of its citizens, and
Machiavelli’s suggestions were
a shocking departure from
conventional thinking.
According to Machiavelli, while
intrigue and deceit are not morally
justifiable in private life, they are
prudent for successful leadership,
and excusable when used for the
common good. More than that,
Machiavelli asserts that in order to
mold the undesirable aspects of
human nature, it is essential that Though Machiavelli did
a ruler is deceitful and—out of not sanction the use of
questionable methods to get
prudence—does not honor his things done in private life, he
word, since to do so would argued that the ruler should
jeopardize his rule, threatening the use all means necessary to
stability of the state. For the leader, secure the future of the state.
80 NICCOLÒ MACHIAVELLI
utility as the purpose of the state,
and shifted the emphasis from
the moral intention of a political
action to focus primarily on
its consequences.
Since love and fear
Enduring legacy
can hardly exist together, The Prince was very influential
if we must choose between in the centuries following
them, it is far safer to be Machiavelli’s death, particularly
feared than loved. among leaders such as Henry VIII
Niccolò Machiavelli of England, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V, Oliver Cromwell, and
Napoleon, and the book was
acknowledged as an inspiration
by such diverse figures as Marxist
theorist Antonio Gramsci and
Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini.
Italian dictator Benito Mussolini Machiavelli’s critics, too,
was a forceful and ruthless leader, came from all sides of the political
more feared than loved. He claimed
inspiration from The Prince.
spectrum, with Catholics accusing
him of supporting the Protestant
who have gained power through would protect the liberty of cause, and vice versa. His
exercising their virtù are in the the citizens, and minimize importance to mainstream political
most secure position, having any social conflict between the thinking was immense—he was
defeated any opposition and earned common people and a ruling elite. clearly very much a product of the
respect from the people, but to However, to found such a republic, Renaissance, with its emphasis on
maintain this support and hold on or reform an existing state, requires humanism rather than religion, and
to power, they must continually the leadership of an individual who empiricism rather than faith and
assert their authority. possesses the appropriate virtù dogma, and he was the first to take
and prudence. Though it may an objective, scientific approach to
An ideal republic require a strong leader and political history.
While The Prince is addressed to some scurrilous means to begin This objectivity also underlies
the would-be successful ruler, with, once a political society is his perhaps cynical analysis of
Machiavelli was a statesman in established, the ruler can then human nature, which was a
the Republic of Florence, and in his introduce the necessary laws and precursor to Thomas Hobbes’s
less well-known work, Discourses social organization to enable it brutal description of life in a state
on Livy, he strongly advocated to continue as an ideal republic— of nature. His concept of utility
republicanism rather than any form this would be a pragmatic means became a mainstay of 19th-century
of monarchy or oligarchy. Despite to achieve a desirable end. liberalism. In a more general sense,
remaining a lifelong Catholic, Machiavelli’s philosophy, by divorcing morality and ideology
he was also opposed to any based on personal experience from politics, his work was the
interference in political life by the and an objective study of history, basis for a movement that later
Church. The form of government challenged the dominance of the became known as political realism,
he favored was modeled on the Church and conventional ideas with particular relevance in
Roman Republic, with a mixed of political morality, and led to international relations.
constitution and participation by his works being banned by the
its citizens, protected by a properly Catholic authorities. By treating “Machiavellian” behavior
constituted citizens’ army as politics as a practical and not a The term “Machiavellian” is in
opposed to a militia of hired philosophical or ethical subject common usage today, and is
mercenaries. This, he argued, of study, he replaced morality with usually applied pejoratively to
 MEDIEVAL POLITICS 81
saying that those who have been
successful rulers may have behaved
in just as “Machiavellian” a way,
but their actions have not been
as closely examined. How they
achieved their success has been
Everyone sees what
overlooked because the focus has
you appear to be, shifted to what they achieved. It
but few really know seems that we tend to judge leaders
what you are. on their results rather than the
Niccolò Machiavelli means used to have achieved them.
Expanding this argument
further, we might consider how
often the losers of a war are found Niccolò Machiavelli
to be morally questionable, while
the victors are seen as above Born in Florence, Niccolò
reproach—the notion that history Machiavelli was the son of a
lawyer, and is believed to have
politicians who are perceived is written by the victors. Criticizing
studied at the University of
(or discovered) to be acting Machiavelli leads us to examine Florence, but little is known
manipulatively and deceitfully. ourselves and the extent to which of his life until he became a
President Richard Nixon, who we are prepared to overlook the government official in 1498
attempted to cover up a break-in dubious machinations of our in the government of the
and wiretapping of his opponent’s governments if the outcome Republic of Florence. He spent
headquarters and was forced to works in our favor. ■ the next 14 years traveling
resign over the scandal, is a around Italy, France, and
modern-day example of such Spain on diplomatic business.
Richard Nixon resigned as president In 1512, Florence was
underhanded behavior. It is also in 1974. He authorized a break-in and
possible that Machiavelli may have attacked and returned to
wiretap at the Democratic National
been making a less obvious point Committee headquarters: actions the rule of the Medici family.
in The Prince: perhaps he was described as “Machiavellian.” Machiavelli was imprisoned
and tortured unjustly for
conspiring against the Medici,
and when released retired to a
farm outside Florence. There,
he devoted himself to writing,
including The Prince and other
political and philosophical
books. He tried to regain favor
with the Medici, with little
success. After they were
overthrown in 1527, he was
denied a post with the new
republican government
because of his links with the
Medici. He died later that year.

Key works

c.1513 (pub. 1532) The Prince

c.1517 (pub. 1531) Discourses
on Livy
1519–21 The Art of War