5.

**Secondary structures, like faults, are

typically produced by:**
1. **What does structural geology primarily study?
** - A) Lava flow
- A) Earth's atmosphere - B) Rock deformation
- B) Earth's crust and its structures - C) Mineral precipitation
- C) Oceanic currents - D) Erosion
- D) Volcano formation
6. **A discordant structure that cross-cuts
rock layers is known as a:**
2. **Which type of geological structure is formed at
the same time as the surrounding rocks?** - A) Sill
- A) Faults - B) Fold
- B) Primary structures - C) Dyke
- C) Secondary structures - D) Joint
- D) Intrusive bodies
7. **Which structure is a primary contact
that often has an angular relationship between
3. **What is an unconformity in geological
rock layers above and below?**
terms?**
- A) Fault
- A) A type of fault
- B) Unconformity
- B) A boundary between rocks of different
ages - C) Fold
- C) A sedimentary rock - D) Fault plane
- D) A fold
8. **Joints, fractures, and veins within rock
bodies are examples of:**
4. **Which of the following is an example of a
primary structure?** - A) Primary structures
- A) Faults - B) Secondary structures
- B) Folds - C) Discontinuities
- C) Bedding planes - D) Bedding planes
- D) Joints
 9. **Which of these is a sausage-shaped - A) 300
structure in deformed veins?**
- B) 030
- A) Ripple marks
- C) 330
- B) Faults
- D) 360
- C) Boudins
- D) Cleavage
14. **The angle of dip in a plane is measured
from the:**
10. **Graded bedding, which shows coarsest - A) Strike line
grains at the bottom, is a:**
- B) Dip line
- A) Secondary structure
- C) Fault line
- B) Sedimentary structure
- D) Cleavage
- C) Igneous formation
- D) Grain-size pattern
15. **Which tool is commonly used to
measure angles in geological structures?**
11. **A dyke is an example of a(n):** - A) Compass
- A) Concordant structure - B) Scale
- B) Discordant structure - C) Clinometer
- C) Horizontal bed - D) Protractor
- D) Secondary mineral deposit
16. **What defines a planar structure’s
orientation?**
12. **The compass direction of a horizontal
line on a dipping plane is called the:** - A) Strike, Dip, Dip Direction
- A) Dip angle - B) Strike and Fault Line
- B) Strike - C) Bedding plane and Fold line
- C) Pitch - D) Strike and Cleavage
- D) Trend
17. **The attitude of a linear structure is
described by which measurements?**
13. **In Azimuth notation, what would a
direction of 30 degrees clockwise from North be - A) Strike and Dip
represented as?**
- B) Plunge and Trend
 - C) Dip and Dip Direction
- D) Strike and Fold Axis 22. **A fold hinge is an example of a:**
- A) Linear structure
18. **In structural geology, the trend of a - B) Planar structure
line refers to:**
- C) Bedding plane
- A) The direction in which the line plunges
- D) Fault
- B) The angle of dip
- C) The strike direction
23. **What is the acute angle between a line
- D) The fault angle and the strike of a plane known as?**
- A) Plunge
19. **Graded bedding is generally classified - B) Dip
as a:**
- C) Pitch
- A) Tectonic feature
- D) Trend
- B) Primary structure
- C) Fault type
24. **A planar feature dipping 90 degrees in
- D) Cleavage structure either direction would be considered:**
- A) Vertical
20. **Which of the following is a secondary - B) Horizontal
structure in metamorphic rocks?**
- C) Plunging
- A) Cleavage
- D) Faulted
- B) Ripple marks
- C) Bedding planes
25. **A double-headed arrow on a geological
- D) Veins map typically represents:**
- A) A bedding plane
21. **Bedding planes are primarily found - B) A horizontal hinge
in:**
- C) A vertical fault
- A) Igneous rocks
- D) A dipping bed
- B) Sedimentary rocks
- C) Metamorphic rocks
- D) Lava flows
 26. **What is the purpose of using different 30. **How are striations on fault planes
symbols for planar and linear structures on maps?
classified?**
**
- A) As primary structures
- A) To represent different rock types
- B) As linear structures
- B) To indicate orientation data
- C) As bedding planes
- C) To show mineral composition
- D) As cleavage features
- D) To indicate erosion levels
Here are 30 multiple-choice questions
(MCQs) based on the document "Introduction -
Fundamental Structures Part 2," along with their
27. **Which type of bedding is characterized
answers:
by grains decreasing in size from bottom to top?**
- A) Cross-bedding
- B) Graded bedding ### MCQs

- C) Ripple bedding
- D) Cleavage bedding 1. **What are primary structures in geology?

- A) Structures formed during

28. **Which geological structure is definedmetamorphism
by mineral alignment like gneissosity?**
- B) Sedimentary or igneous structures
- A) Graded bedding formed before deformation
- B) Fold - C) Faults formed by tectonic forces
- C) Cleavage - D) Joints within rock bodies
- D) Gneiss banding

2. **Which structure can serve as a way-up

29. **A vertical line in structural geology indicator in geology?**
has:** - A) Faults
- A) No trend - B) Primary structures
- B) A strong dip - C) Folds
- C) A horizontal axis - D) Secondary structures
- D) A plunging structure

3. **Primary structures can reveal:**

 - A) Environmental conditions at the time - B) Scour-and-fill structures
of deformation
- C) Folds
- B) Stratigraphic sequences
- D) Joints
- C) Fault orientations
- D) Mineral composition
8. **Cross-bedding is commonly associated
with:**
4. **What indicates the direction of - A) Desert sand dunes
younging in geological beds?**
- B) Fault zones
- A) Angle of repose
- C) Ocean currents
- B) Paleocurrent direction
- D) Mud cracks
- C) Younging vector
- D) Fault strike
9. **What does a slumping structure
indicate?**
5. **If two beds are younging in opposite - A) A tectonic fault
directions, it indicates:**
- B) Sliding downslope
- A) An unconformity
- C) Volcanic eruption
- B) A fault
- D) Oceanic subduction
- C) A folded sequence
- D) A volcanic layer
10. **Penecontemporaneous structures are
formed:**
6. **Raindrop imprints are primary - A) After lithification
structures formed on:**
- B) Before deposition
- A) Fault planes
- C) After deposition but before lithification
- B) Top surfaces of beds
- D) During tectonic activity
- C) Bottom surfaces of beds
- D) Internal bedding planes
11. **Which of the following is an example
of a penecontemporaneous structure?**
7. **Which structure is a primary feature - A) Pillow lavas
found at the base of beds?**
- B) Dykes
- A) Ripple marks
- C) Slumps
 - D) Columnar joints - D) Mineral formation

12. **Mud cracks form due to:** 16. **Which of the following stresses results
in shortening of rock bodies?**
- A) Subaerial exposure and drying of clays
or silts - A) Shear stress
- B) Intense tectonic pressure - B) Differential stress
- C) Volcanic eruptions - C) Tensional stress
- D) Faulting - D) Compressional stress

13. **Which type of unconformity 17. **The principle of original horizontality

represents a break in deposition without angularsuggests that:**
discordance?**
- A) Rocks form in a tilted position
- A) Nonconformity
- B) Sedimentary layers are deposited
- B) Angular unconformity horizontally
- C) Disconformity - C) All rocks are formed at the same time
- D) Concordant contact - D) Only igneous rocks follow this principle

14. **Which principle states that inclusions 18. **Tensional stress tends to:**
are older than the host rock?**
- A) Shorten rock bodies
- A) Principle of Cross-Cutting
- B) Cause rotational faults
- B) Principle of Original Horizontality
- C) Pull apart rock bodies
- C) Principle of Inclusion
- D) Increase rock density
- D) Principle of Younging

19. **Which type of stress causes a sliding

15. **Deformation in geological terms refers
motion similar to cards moving relative to each
to:** other?**
- A) Erosion of rock layers - A) Uniform stress
- B) All changes in form and size of a rock - B) Shear stress
body
- C) Compressional stress
- C) Sedimentation
- D) Tensional stress
 24. **A nonconformity is an unconformity
between:**
20. **Uniform stress differs from differential
stress because it:** - A) Sedimentary layers of different ages
- A) Occurs at tectonic boundaries - B) Metamorphic and sedimentary rocks
- B) Affects only sedimentary rocks - C) Volcanic and sedimentary rocks
- C) Is applied equally in all directions - D) Intrusive and extrusive rocks
- D) Always causes folding
25. **An example of a discordant structure
is:**
21. **Columnar joints are typically
associated with:** - A) A sill
- A) Sedimentary rocks - B) A dyke
- B) Igneous rocks - C) Cross-bedding
- C) Metamorphic rocks - D) Columnar joints
- D) Foliated rocks
26. **Principle of lateral continuity implies
that rock layers extend:**
22. **What type of structure is formed by
desiccation or drying of sedimentary layers?** - A) Vertically only
- A) Cleavage - B) Horizontally and thin out at the edges
- B) Columnar joints - C) In isolated patches
- C) Mud cracks - D) Only within oceanic basins
- D) Graded bedding
27. **Which stress is responsible for folding
and shortening rock layers?**
23. **Large-scale cross-bedding with
erosional scours is often found in:** - A) Shear stress
- A) Muddy environments - B) Tensional stress
- B) Coastal areas - C) Differential stress
- C) Desert dunes - D) Compressional stress
- D) River channels
28. **What is the main significance of
primary structures in geology?**
 - A) Indicating tectonic activity - D) No change in volume
- B) Understanding sedimentary
environments
3. **Which of the following defines
- C) Identifying fault zones translation in rigid-body deformation?**
- D) Measuring stress in rocks - A) Rotation without moving the body
- B) Change in shape and size
29. **Structures that form after lithification - C) Movement from one place to another
are classified as:** without rotation
- A) Penecontemporaneous - D) Compression of a rock body
- B) Igneous
- C) Primary 4. **What type of deformation occurs when
particles move along parallel paths?**
- D) Secondary
- A) Rotation
- B) Translation
30. **Groove casts are typically found on:**
- C) Distortion
- A) Top of lava flows
- D) Pure shear
- B) Bottom of sedimentary beds
- C) Fault planes
5. **What is described by the term 'strain'?
- D) Intrusive bodies

1. **What is rigid-body deformation? **

- A) Deformation involving only rotation
- A) Change in shape without translation
- B) Change in the shape or size of a rock
- B) Change in size and shape due to stress
- C) Movement where a rock mass remains - C) Movement of tectonic plates
intact
- D) Homogeneous deformation
- D) Folding and fracturing of rocks

6. **What happens during dilation? **

2. **What does non-rigid body deformation
- A) Volume remains the same
result in? **
- B) Change in volume but not shape
- A) Rotation only
- C) Particles rotate around an axis
- B) Translation only
- D) Pure translation occurs
- C) Dilation and distortion
 7. **Distortion can be defined as:** 11. **How do strain ellipses relate to stress?
- A) Deformation without volume change
- A) They indicate no relation to stress
- B) Rigid body movement
- B) They are used to measure only
- C) Deformation that involves volume
rotation
change only
- C) They provide reference for shape
- D) Distortion without any changes in line
change
lengths
- D) They are unrelated to geologic
mapping
8. **What is an example of pure distortion?
**
12. **What happens to lines during
- A) Translating a car
rotational strain?**
- B) Compressing a paste
- A) They do not rotate at all
- C) Rotating around a fixed axis
- B) They rotate without any strain
- D) Expansion without shape change
- C) They may rotate with changes in
position
9. **What defines homogeneous strain?** - D) They become shorter
- A) Lines before deformation are not
parallel after
13. **Which term describes deformation
- B) Straight and parallel lines remain theaffecting a non-rigid body uniformly?**
same after deformation
- A) Heterogeneous strain
- C) Rigid rotation of a body
- B) Homogeneous strain
- D) Increase in volume without change in
- C) Pure shear
shape
- D) Simple shear

10. **What is an example of non-rotational

strain?** 14. **What is coaxial strain?**
- A) Simple shear - A) Rotation without translation
- B) Pure shear - B) Non-rotational pure shear
- C) Dilation - C) Simple shear involving dilation
- D) Rotation around a fixed point - D) Strain with incremental steps
 - A) Determines the type of translation
only
15. **During simple shear, what type of
strain occurs?** - B) Distinguishes rigid from non-rigid
deformation
- A) Coaxial
- C) Helps identify homogeneous strain
- B) Non-coaxial
only
- C) Pure
- D) Is irrelevant to geological structures
- D) Irrotational

20. **A stress ellipsoid relates to strain

16. **How is 'finite strain' defined?** ellipsoids how?**
- A) Strain with no incremental changes - A) They are independent of each other
- B) The final state of strain with multiple - B) Stress axes match the strain axes
possible paths exactly
- C) Pure shear without any prior rotation - C) There is an inverse relationship
- D) Distortion involving no volume change - D) They indicate volume change

17. **What does irrotational strain imply?** 21. **What characterizes inhomogeneous
- A) The strain axes rotate strain?**

- B) The strain axes remain fixed - A) Uniform strain

- C) There is no change in body shape - B) Parallel lines remain parallel

- D) It only applies to pure shear - C) Irregular deformation

- D) Dilation without distortion

18. **What happens during homogeneous

deformation?** 22. **What describes rotational strain?**
- A) Parallel lines become curved - A) Non-coaxial simple shear
- B) Straight lines remain straight - B) Coaxial pure shear
- C) Irregular shapes form - C) No movement of particles
- D) Strain occurs without dilation - D) Change in volume only

19. **What is the significance of the scale of 23. **Which of these results in a change of
observation?** shape but not volume?**
 - A) Dilation - C) Pure shear deformation only
- B) Distortion - D) Homogeneous deformation
- C) Rigid-body rotation
- D) Pure translation 28. **What type of deformation preserves
the original line length and angles?**
- A) Non-rigid deformation
24. **In which case is strain considered
rotational?** - B) Pure shear
- A) No change in shape occurs - C) Rigid-body rotation
- B) The body moves along parallel paths - D) Dilation
- C) Strain axes rotate after deformation
- D) Only dilation is involved 29. **During heterogeneous strain:**
- A) The body retains a uniform structure
25. **What type of strain is simple shear?** - B) Strain is evenly distributed
- A) Irrotational - C) Circles may become ellipses
- B) Coaxial - D) No change in internal structure occurs
- C) Rotational
- D) Non-deformational 30. **Which is an example of non-coaxial
strain?**
- A) Pure shear
26. **A body that changes position without
rotation or strain experiences:** - B) Rotational simple shear
- A) Simple shear - C) Homogeneous deformation
- B) Pure shear - D) Irrotational strain
- C) Translation
1. What does the term "deformation" refer
- D) Dilation to in the context of the passage?
a. The process of rock formation
b. Changes in the original form and/or size of
a rock body
27. **A strain path refers to:**
c. The movement of tectonic plates
- A) Only the final state of strain d. The mineral composition of rocks

- B) The series of increments leading to 2. Which type of stress tends to shorten a

final strain rock body?
a. Tensional
b. Shear rocks
c. Compressional d. To determine the age of rock formations
d. Uniform
8. What happens to the lengths of material
3. What is the difference between rigid and lines parallel to the principal strains
non-rigid deformation? during strain?
a. Rigid deformation involves a change in a. They remain unchanged.
size, while non-rigid does not. b. They increase in length.
b. Rigid deformation preserves shape, while c. They decrease in length.
non-rigid results in changes in shape and size. d. They can either increase or decrease
depending on the stress.
c. Rigid deformation occurs at high
temperatures, while non-rigid occurs at low 9. Which of the following statements about
temperatures. the stress ellipsoid is true?
d. Rigid deformation only happens in brittle a. It represents only compressive stresses.
materials, while non-rigid occurs in ductile b. It is always in a state of equilibrium.
materials. c. It has a direct relationship with the strain
ellipsoid.
4. According to the passage, what causes d. It can be used to determine the maximum
rocks to begin deforming? and minimum stress directions.
a. Changes in temperature
b. The presence of water 10. Under what condition does rigid
c. Stresses greater than their own strength deformation occur?
d. Exposure to air a. When the rock mass changes size but not
shape
5. What is the principal stress axis denoted b. When the rock mass is intact and does not
as \sigma_1? change size or shape
a. Minimum stress axis c. When the rock mass is subjected to
b. Intermediate stress axis extreme heat
c. Maximum stress axis d. When the rock is fractured into multiple
d. Average stress axis pieces

6. Which of the following describes shear 11. How are normal and shear forces
stress? mathematically expressed in the passage?
a. Component of stress perpendicular to a a. F_s = F \cos \theta and F_n = F \sin \theta
plane b. F_s = F \sin \theta and F_n = F \cos \theta
b. The overall force applied to a given area c. F_s = F \tan \theta and F_n = F \cot \theta
c. Component of stress parallel to a plane d. F_s = F + F_n
d. The average stress across multiple planes
12. What does the term "strain path" refer
7. What is a strain ellipsoid used for in the to in the context of the passage?
study of deformation? a. The maximum stress direction
a. To measure the temperature of rocks b. The series of incremental strains leading to
b. To estimate shape change from an assumed the final state
initial sphere c. The history of rock formation
c. To analyze the mineral composition of d. The relationship between stress and strain
13. Which type of stress is associated with 3. **What does a positive extension (ε > 0)
elongating or pulling apart a rock unit? indicate?**
a. Compressional
b. Uniform - A) Shortening
c. Tensional
- B) Compression
d. Shear
- C) Elongation
14. What is the definition of dilation as
mentioned in the passage? - D) Shear
a. Change in shape of a rock body
b. A rotational movement of rocks
c. Change in size, either positive or negative 4. **What is represented by \( s = \frac{ℓ}
d. The overall structure of tectonic plates {ℓ_o} \)?**
15. What is indicated by the term "shear - A) Volumetric strain
zone" in the context of the passage?
a. A region where no deformation occurs - B) Stretch
b. An area experiencing high compressive - C) Reciprocal quadratic elongation
stress
c. A specific type of fault where shear stress - D) Angular shear
is dominant
d. A zone where only rigid deformation takes
place 5. **What type of shape does the strain
ellipsoid form when axially symmetric
1. **What does longitudinal strain measure?
extension occurs?**
**
- A) Oblate spheroid
- A) Change in angle
- B) Prolate spheroid
- B) Change in volume
- C) Sphere
- C) Change in length per length
- D) Cube
- D) Change in temperature

6. **What is the typical effect of increasing

2. **What is the formula for calculating
temperature on rock deformation?**
extension (ε)?**
- A) Increases brittleness
- A) \( \frac{ℓ}{ℓ_o} \)
- B) Decreases ductility
- B) \( \frac{(ℓ-ℓ_o)}{ℓ} \)
- C) Increases ductility
- C) \( \frac{(ℓ-ℓ_o)}{ℓ_o} \)
- D) Has no effect
- D) \( ℓ_o - ℓ \)
7. **Which of the following is an example of 11. **What is the purpose of a Flinn diagram
competent rock?** in strain analysis?**
- A) Shale - A) Measure rock brittleness
- B) Slate - B) Plot axial ratios for shape and intensity
- C) Basalt - C) Determine rock color
- D) Phyllite - D) Show temperature changes

8. **What is the term for deformation that 12. **What type of deformation is described
occurs without volume change?** by Hooke's Law?**
- A) Volumetric strain - A) Plastic
- B) Simple shear - B) Elastic
- C) Pure shear - C) Brittle
- D) Dilation - D) Ductile

9. **What describes a reciprocal strain 13. **What happens to a rock body under
ellipse?** brittle deformation?**
- A) Ellipse with long axis parallel to the - A) It flows
original circle
- B) It fractures
- B) Ellipse with short axis perpendicular to
- C) It stretches
the strain ellipse
- D) It compresses
- C) Circle that remains unchanged after
deformation
- D) Ellipse formed by elongation alone 14. **What property of a rock determines
whether it deforms under great or low
stress?**
10. **In homogeneous deformation, what
- A) Ductility
happens to initially straight lines?**
- B) Elastic limit
- A) Become curved
- C) Competence
- B) Break
- D) Strain rate
- C) Stay straight
- D) Rotate
15. **What does the strain rate (ε̇) 19. **In which type of strain does one axis of
represent?** the strain ellipsoid remain the same as
before deformation?**
- A) Total amount of strain
- A) Simple shear
- B) Change of strain with time
- B) Plane strain
- C) Rock strength
- C) General strain
- D) Pressure applied to the rock
- D) Dilation

16. **What effect does confining pressure

have on deformation?** 20. **What is characteristic of ductile rocks?
**
- A) Increases rock brittleness
- A) They break at less than 3-5% strain
- B) Reduces ductility
- B) They fracture easily under stress
- C) Increases ductility
- C) They can sustain 5-10% strain without
- D) Does not affect deformation
breaking
- D) They remain completely elastic under
17. **How is plastic deformation all conditions
characterized?**
- A) Temporary and recoverable
21. **What is the relationship between
- B) Permanent and non-recoverable stress (σ) and strain (ε) described by Hooke’s
- C) Quick and reversible Law?**

- D) Instantaneous fracture - A) σ = ε / E
- B) σ = Eε

18. **What does 'γ' represent in strain - C) ε = σ / E

measurement?** - D) ε = Eσ
- A) Volumetric strain
- B) Shear strain (angular change) 22. **What describes the shape change from
- C) Longitudinal extension a sphere to a pancake-like form in strain?**

- D) Stretch - A) Simple shear

- B) General strain
- C) Pure shear
- D) Angular shear
 - A) Low temperature
23. **What is meant by 'strain markers'?** - B) High strain rate
- A) Natural indicators of volume change - C) High confining pressure
- B) Features used to measure deformation - D) Brittle conditions
- C) Layers that resist any form of strain
- D) Stress points in the rock 28. **Which feature does NOT typically act
as a strain marker?**
- A) Pebbles
24. **What is an indicator of plastic
deformation?** - B) Ooids
- A) Return to original shape after stress is - C) Granite blocks
removed
- D) Fossils
- B) Fracture upon deformation
- C) Permanent shape change
29. **What does the strain ratio \( R_s \)
- D) No change in shape represent?**
- A) Ratio of initial to final volume
25. **What kind of deformation is - B) Ratio of maximum to minimum stretch
considered elastic?**
- C) Volume of strain ellipse
- A) Irreversible
- D) Change in angle between lines
- B) Permanent
- C) Reversible
30. **What is the typical Young’s modulus
- D) Non-measurable range for crustal rocks?**
- A) 1-5 Pa
26. **What is the unit of strain rate?** - B) 10-11 Pa
- A) Time (T) - C) 1,000-10,000 Pa
- B) Length per time (L/T) - D) 100-200 Pa
- C) Time inverse (T⁻¹)
- D) Dimensionless

27. **Which of these processes typically

increases ductility?**