Flight instruments are the instruments in the cockpit of an aircraft that provide the pilot with

information about the flight situation of that aircraft, such as altitude, speed and direction. The
flight instruments are of particular use in conditions of poor visibility, such as in clouds, when
such information is not available from visual reference outside the aircraft.

The term is sometimes used loosely as a synonym for cockpit instruments as a whole, in which
context it can include engine instrument, navigational and communication equipment.

Flight instruments
Most regulated aircraft have these flight instruments:

Altimeter

The altimeter shows the aircraft's altitude above sea-level by measuring the difference between
the pressure in a stack of aneroid capsules inside the altimeter and the atmospheric pressure
obtained through the static system. It is adjustable for local barometric pressure which must be
set correctly to obtain accurate altitude readings. As the aircraft ascends, the capsules expand as
the static pressure drops therefore causing the altimeter to indicate a higher altitude. The opposite
occurs when descending.

Attitude indicator

The attitude indicator (also known as an artificial horizon) shows the aircraft's attitude relative to
the horizon. From this the pilot can tell whether the wings are level and if the aircraft nose is
pointing above or below the horizon. This is a primary instrument for instrument flight and is
also useful in conditions of poor visibility. Pilots are trained to use other instruments in
combination should this instrument or its power fail.

Schempp-Hirth Janus-C glider Instrument panel equipped for "cloud flying". The turn and bank
indicator is top center. The heading indicator is replaced by a GPS-driven computer with wind
and glide data, driving two electronic variometer displays to the right.
Airspeed indicator

The airspeed indicator shows the aircraft's speed (usually in knots ) relative to the surrounding
air. It works by measuring the ram-air pressure in the aircraft's pitot tube. The indicated airspeed
must be corrected for air density (which varies with altitude, temperature and humidity) in order
to obtain the true airspeed, and for wind conditions in order to obtain the speed over the ground.

[edit] Magnetic compass

The compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to magnetic north. While reliable in steady
level flight it can give confusing indications when turning, climbing, descending, or accelerating
due to the inclination of the Earth's magnetic field. For this reason, the heading indicator is also
used for aircraft operation. For purposes of navigation it may be necessary to correct the
direction indicated (which points to a magnetic pole) in order to obtain direction of true north or
south (which points to the Earth's axis of rotation).

[edit] Heading indicator

The heading indicator (also known as the directional gyro, or DG; sometimes also called the
gyrocompass, though usually not in aviation applications) displays the aircraft's heading with
respect to magnetic north. Principle of operation is a spinning gyroscope, and is therefore subject
to drift errors (called precession) which must be periodically corrected by calibrating the
instrument to the magnetic compass. In many advanced aircraft (including almost all jet aircraft),
the heading indicator is replaced by a Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) which provides the
same heading information, but also assists with navigation

Turn indicator
The turn indicator (also known as turn and slip) displays direction of turn and rate of turn.
Internally mounted inclinometer displays 'quality' of turn, i.e. whether the turn is correctly
coordinated, as opposed to an uncoordinated turn, where in the aircraft would be in either a slip
or a skid. The original turn and bank indicator was replaced in the late 1960s and early 1970s by
the newer turn coordinator, which is responsive to roll as well as rate of turn. The turn and bank
indicator is seen typically in aircraft manufactured only prior to that time, or in gliders
manufactured in Europe.

Vertical speed indicator

The VSI (also sometimes called a variometer, or rate of climb indicator) senses changing air
pressure, and displays that information to the pilot as a rate of climb or descent in feet per
minute, meters per second or knots.

Additional panel instruments that may not be found in smaller aircraft

Course deviation indicator

The CDI is an avionics instrument used in aircraft navigation to determine an aircraft's lateral
position in relation to a track, which can be provided by a VOR or an Instrument Landing
System.

This instrument can also be integrated with the heading indicator in a horizontal situation
indicator.

Radio Magnetic Indicator

An RMI is generally coupled to an automatic direction finder (ADF), which provides bearing for
a tuned Non-directional beacon (NDB). While simple ADF displays may have only one needle, a
typical RMI has two, coupled to different ADF receivers, allowing for position fixing using one
instrument.
Layout

Six basic instruments in a light twin-engine airplane arranged in a "basic-T". From top left:
airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, altimeter, turn coordinator, heading indicator, and vertical
speed indicator

Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight instruments which give the pilot
information about the aircraft's attitude, airspeed, and altitude.

T arrangement

Most aircraft built since about 1953 have four of the flight instruments located in a standardized
pattern called the T arrangement. The attitude indicator is in the top center, airspeed to the left,
altimeter to the right and heading indicator under the attitude indicator. The other two, turn-
coordinator and vertical-speed, are usually found under the airspeed and altimeter, but are given
more latitude in placement. The magnetic compass will be above the instrument panel, often on
the windscreen centerpost. In newer aircraft with glass cockpit instruments the layout of the
displays conform to the basic T arrangement.

Basic Six

In 1937 the British Royal Air Force (RAF) chose a set of six essential flight instruments[1] which
would remain the standard panel used for flying in Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC)
for the next 20 years. They were:

 altimeter (feet)
 airspeed indicator (knots)
 turn and bank indicator (turn direction and coordination)
 vertical speed indicator (feet per minute)
 artificial horizon (attitude indication)
 directional gyro / heading indicator (degrees)

This panel arrangement was incorporated into every RAF aircraft, from the light single engined
Tiger Moth trainer, to the 4-engined Avro Lancaster heavy bomber, and minimized the type-
conversion difficulties associated with Blind Flying, since a pilot trained on one aircraft could
quickly become accustomed to any other if the instruments were identical.

This Basic Six set, also known as a "six pack",[2] was also adopted by commercial aviation. After
the Second World War the arrangement was changed to: (top row) airspeed, artificial horizon,
altimeter, (bottom row) radio compass, direction indicator, vertical speed.

Further development

Of the old basic six instruments, the turn and bank indicator is now obsolete. The instrument was
included, but of little use in the first generation of jet airliners. It was removed on many aircraft
prior to the glass-cockpits became available. With improved artificial horizon, including gyros
and flight directors, the turn and bank indicator became needless. But the other five flight
instruments, somtemes known as "the big five", are still included in all cockpits. The way of
displaying them has changed over time though. In glass cockpits the flight instruments are shown
on monitors. But the display is not showed by numbers, but as images of analog instruments. The
artificial horizon is given a central place in the monitor, with a heading indicator just below
(usually this is displayed only as a part of the compass). The indicated airspeed, altimeter, and
vertical speed indicator are displayed as columns. The two latters to the right of the horizon and
the first to the left. In the same pattern as in most older style "clock cockpits".

Different significance and some other instrumentation

However all five instruments are not equally important. Only the artificial horizon (or gyro-
horizon) is imperative. In good weather conditions small aircraft can be landed without the use of
any instrument, called visual landing. Due to this all passenger airliners are equipped with a third
gyro-horizon (apart from those on the captain and flight officer instrumentation) even in the
modern glass-cockpits. On the other hand the vertical speed indicator, or VSI, is more of "a good
help" than absolutely essential. On jet aircraft it displays the vertical speed in thousands of feet
per minute, usually in the range -6 to +6. The heading indicator (or compass) can be used for
navigation, but it is indeed a flight instrument as well. It's needed to control the adjustment of the
heading, to be the same as the heading of the landing runway. Indicated airspeed, or IAS, is the
second most important instrument and indicates the airspeed very accurately in the range of 45 to
250 knots. At higher altitude a MACH-meter is used instead, to prevent aircraft from overspeed.
An instrument called true airspeed, or TAS, exists on some aircraft. TAS shows airspeed in knots
in the range from 200 knots and higher. (It's like the MACH-meter not really a flight instrument)
The altimeter displays the altitude in feet, but must be corrected to local air pressure at the
landing airport. The altimeter may be adjusted to show an altitude of zero feet on the runway, but
far more common is to adjust the altimeter to show the actual altitude when the aircraft has
landed. In the latter case pilots must keep the runway height in mind. However a radio altimeter
(displaying the altitude to the ground if lower than around 2000–2500 feet) has been standard for
decades. This instrument is however not among the "big five", but must still be considered as a
flight instrument.