GROUP ACTIVITY :-

1)Cockpit Instrumentation And Displays :-

Flight instruments are the instruments in the cockpit of an aircraft that provide
the pilot with data about the flight situation of that aircraft, such
as altitude, airspeed, vertical speed, heading and much more other crucial information in
flight. They improve safety by allowing the pilot to fly the aircraft in level flight, and make
turns, without a reference outside the aircraft such as the horizon. Visual flight rules (VFR)
require an airspeed indicator, an altimeter, and a compass or other suitable magnetic
direction indicator. Instrument flight rules (IFR) additionally require a gyroscopic pitch-bank
(artificial horizon), direction (directional gyro) and rate of turn indicator, plus a slip-skid
indicator, adjustable altimeter, and a clock. Flight into instrument meteorological
conditions (IMC) require radio navigation instruments for precise takeoffs and landings.
The term is sometimes used loosely as a synonym for cockpit instruments as a whole, in
which context it can include engine instruments, navigational and communication
equipment. Many modern aircraft have electronic flight instrument systems.Most regulated
aircraft have these flight instruments as dictated by the US Code of Federal Regulations, Title
14, Part 91. They are grouped according to pitot-static system, compass systems,
and gyroscopic instruments.

Pitot-static systems :
Instruments which are pitot-static systems use air pressure differences to determine speed
and altitude.
Altimeter : The altimeter shows the aircraft's altitude above sea-level
by measuring the difference between the pressure in a stack
of aneroid capsules inside the altimeter and the atmospheric pressure
obtained through the static system. The most common unit for altimeter
calibration worldwide is hectopascals (hPa), except for North America
and Japan where inches of mercury (inHg) are used.The altimeter is
adjustable for local barometric pressure which must be set correctly to
obtain accurate altitude readings, usually in either feet or meters. As the aircraft ascends, the
capsules expand and the static pressure drops, causing the altimeter to indicate a higher
altitude. The opposite effect occurs when descending. With the advancement in aviation and
increased altitude ceiling, the altimeter dial had to be altered for use both at higher and
lower altitudes. Hence when the needles were indicating lower altitudes i.e. the first 360-
degree operation of the pointers was delineated by the appearance of a small window with
oblique lines warning the pilot that he or she is nearer to the ground. This modification was
introduced in the early sixties after the recurrence of air accidents caused by the confusion in
the pilot's mind. At higher altitudes, the window will disappear.

Airspeed indicator :The airspeed indicator shows the aircraft's

speed relative to the surrounding air. Knots is the currently most used
unit, but kilometers per hour is sometimes used instead. The airspeed
indicator works by measuring the ram-air pressure in the aircraft's pitot
tube relative to the ambient static pressure. The indicated airspeed (IAS)
must be corrected for nonstandard pressure and temperature in order to
obtain the true airspeed (TAS). The instrument is color coded to indicate important
airspeeds such as the stall speed, never-exceed airspeed, or safe flap operation speeds.

Vertical speed indicator :The VSI (also sometimes called

a variometer, or rate of climb indicator) senses changing air pressure, and
displays that information to the pilot as a rate of climb or descent in feet
per minute, meters per second or knots.

Compass systems :
Magnetic compass :
The compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to magnetic north. Errors
include Variation, or the difference between magnetic and true direction,
and Deviation, caused by the electrical wiring in the aircraft, which requires
a Compass Correction Card. Additionally, the compass is subject to Dip
Errors. While reliable in steady level flight it can give confusing indications
when turning, climbing, descending, or accelerating due to the inclination of the Earth's
magnetic field. For this reason, the heading indicator is also used for aircraft operation, but
periodically calibrated against the compass.

Gyroscopic systems :
Attitude Indicator :The attitude indicator (also known as an artificial
horizon) shows the aircraft's relation to the horizon. From this the pilot can
tell whether the wings are level (roll) and if the aircraft nose is pointing
above or below the horizon (pitch) Attitude is always presented to users in
the unit degrees (°).The attitude indicator is a primary instrument for
instrument flight and is also useful in conditions of poor visibility. Pilots are trained to use
other instruments in combination should this instrument or its power fail.

Heading indicator :The heading indicator (also known as the

directional gyro, or DG) displays the aircraft's heading in compass points,
and with respect to magnetic north when set with a compass. Bearing
friction causes drift errors from precession, which must be periodically
corrected by calibrating the instrument to the magnetic compass.In many
advanced aircraft (including almost all jet aircraft), the heading indicator is
replaced by a horizontal situation indicator (HSI) which provides the same heading
information, but also assists with navigation.

Turn indicator : These include the Turn-and-Slip Indicator and the Turn
Coordinator, which indicate rotation about the longitudinal axis. They
include an inclinometer to indicate if the aircraft is in Coordinated flight, or
in a Slip or Skid. Additional marks indicate a Standard rate turn.The turn
rate is most commonly expressed in either degrees per second (deg/s)
or minutes per turn (min/tr).

Flight director systems :

These include the Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) and Attitude Director Indicator
(ADI). The HSI combines the magnetic compass with navigation signals and a Glide slope.
The navigation information comes from a VOR/Localizer, or GNSS. The ADI is an Attitude
Indicator with computer-driven steering bars, a task reliever during instrument flight.

Navigational systems :
Very-High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR):The VOR indicator instrument
includes a Course deviation indicator (CDI), Omnibearing Selector (OBS),
TO/FROM indicator, and Flags. The CDI shows an aircraft's lateral position
in relation to a selected radial track. It is used for orientation, tracking to or
from a station, and course nterception.On the instrument, the vertical
needle indicates the lateral position of the selected track. A horizontal
needle allows the pilot to follow a glide slope when the instrument is used
with an ILS.
Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB) :
The Automatic direction finder (ADF) indicator instrument can be a fixed-
card, movable card, or a Radio magnetic indicator (RMI). An RMI is
remotely coupled to a gyrocompass so that it automatically rotates the
azimuth card to represent aircraft heading.While simple ADF displays may
have only one needle, a typical RMI has two, coupled to different ADF
receivers, allowing for position fixing using one instrument.

Layout :
Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight instruments which give the pilot
information about the aircraft's attitude, airspeed, and altitude.

T arrangement :Most US aircraft built since the

1940s have flight instruments arranged in a
standardized pattern called the "T" arrangement.The
attitude indicator is in the top center, airspeed to the
left, altimeter to the right and heading indicator under
the attitude indicator. The other two, turn-coordinator
and vertical-speed, are usually found under the
airspeed and altimeter, but are given more latitude in
placement. The magnetic compass will be above the instrument panel, often on
the windscreen centerpost. In newer aircraft with glass cockpit instruments the layout of the
displays conform to the basic T arrangement.

Early history :
In 1929, Jimmy Doolittle became the first pilot to take off, fly and land an airplane using
instruments alone, without a view outside the cockpit. In 1937, the British Royal Air
Force (RAF) chose a set of six essential flight instruments which remain the standard panel
used for flying in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) for the next 20 years. They
were:
altimeter (feet)
airspeed indicator (knots)
turn and bank indicator (turn direction and coordination)
vertical speed indicator (feet per minute)
artificial horizon (attitude indication)
directional gyro / heading indicator (degrees)
This panel arrangement was incorporated into all RAF aircraft built to official
specification from 1938, such as the Miles Master, Hawker Hurricane, Supermarine Spitfire,
and 4-engined Avro Lancaster and Handley Page Halifax heavy bombers, but not the earlier
light single-engined Tiger Moth trainer, and minimized the type-conversion difficulties
associated with blind flying, since a pilot trained on one aircraft could quickly become
accustomed to any other if the instruments were identical.
This basic six set, also known as a "six pack",was also adopted by commercial aviation. After
the Second World War the arrangement was changed to: (top row) airspeed, artificial
horizon, altimeter, (bottom row) turn and bank indicator, heading indicator, vertical speed.
Further development :
In glass cockpits the flight instruments are shown on monitors. Primary flight display, is
given a central place on the panel, superseding the artificial horizon, often, with a horizontal
situation indicator next to it or integrated with the PFD. The indicated airspeed, altimeter,
and vertical speed indicator are displayed as moving "tapes" with the indicated airspeed to
the left of the horizon and the altimeter and the vertical speed to the right in the same layout
as in most older style "clock cockpits".
AVIATION COMMUNICATION AND AIR NAVIGATIONS SYSTEM:
Aviation communication refers to the conversing of two or more aircraft. Aircraft are
constructed in such a way that make it very difficult to see beyond what is directly in front of
them. As safety is a primary focus in aviation, communication methods such as wireless radio
are an effective way for aircraft to communicate with the necessary personnel. Aviation is an
international industry and as a result involves multiple languages. The International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) deemed English the official language of aviation. The industry
considers that some pilots may not be fluent English speakers and as a result pilots are
obligated to participate in an English proficiency test.

Background :
Aviation communication is the means by which aircraft crews connect with other aircraft and
people on the ground to relay information. Aviation communication is a crucial component
pertaining to the successful functionality of aircraft movement both on the ground and in
the air. Increased communication reduces the risk of an accident.
During the early stages of aviation, it was assumed that skies were too big and empty that it
was impossible that two planes would collide. In 1956 two planes famously crashed over the
Grand Canyon, which sparked the creation of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
Aviation was roaring during the Jet Age and as a result, communication technologies needed
to be developed. This was initially seen as a very difficult task: ground controls used visual
aids to provide signals to pilots in the air. With the advent of portable radios small enough to
be placed in planes, pilots were able to communicate with people on the ground. With later
developments, pilots were then able to converse air-to-ground and air-to-air. Today, aviation
communication relies heavily on the use of many systems. Planes are outfitted with the
newest radio and GPS systems, as well as Internet and video capabilities.
English is the main language used by the aviation industry; the use of aviation English is
regulated by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).

Early systems :
Flight was considered a foreign concept until the Wright
Brothers successfully completed the world's first human
flight in 1903. The industry grew rapidly and ground crews
initially relied on coloured paddles, signal flares, hand
signs, and other visual aids to communicate with incoming
and outgoing aircraft. Although these methods were
effective for ground crews, they offered no way for pilots to
communicate back. As wireless telegraphy technologies
developed alongside the growth of aviation during the first
decade of the twentieth century, wireless telegraph systems were used to send messages
in Morse code, first from ground-to-air and later air-to-ground. With this technology, planes
were able to call in accurate artillery fire and act as forward observers in warfare.
In 1911, wireless telegraphy was put into operational use in the Italo-Turkish War. In 1912,
the Royal Flying Corps had begun experimenting with "wireless telegraphy" in aircraft.
Lieutenant B.T James was a leading pioneer of wireless radio in aircraft. In the spring of 1913,
James had begun to experiment with radios in a B.E.2A. James managed to successfully
increase the efficiency of wireless radio before he was shot down and killed by anti-aircraft
fire on July 13, 1915.
Nonetheless, wireless communication systems in aircraft remained experimental and would
take years to successfully develop a practical prototype. The early radios were heavy in weight
and were unreliable; additionally, ground forces rarely used radio because signals were easily
intercepted and targeted by opposing forces. At the beginning of World War I, aircraft were
not typically equipped with wireless equipment. Instead, soldiers used large panel cut outs to
distinguish friendly forces. These cut outs could also be used as a directional device to help
pilots navigate back to friendly and familiar airfields.
In April 1915, Captain J.M. Furnival was the first person to hear a voice from the ground from
Major Prince who said, "If you can hear me now, it will be the first time speech has ever been
communicated to an aeroplane in flight." In June 1915, the world's first air-to-ground voice
transmission took place at Brooklands, United Kingdom, over about 20 miles. Ground-to-air
was initially by Morse code, but it is believed 2-way voice communications were available and
installed by July 1915. By early 1916, the Marconi Company in Britain started production of
air-to-ground radio transmitters/receivers which were used in the war over France.
In 1917, AT&T invented the first American air-to-ground radio transmitter. They tested this
device at Langley Field in Virginia and found it was a viable technology. In May 1917, General
George Squier of the U.S. Army Signal Corps contacted AT&T to develop an air-to-ground
radio with a range of 2,000 yards. By July 4 of that same year, AT&T technicians achieved two-
way communication between pilots and ground personnel.This allowed ground personnel to
communicate directly with pilots using their voices instead of Morse code. Though few of
these devices saw service in the war, they proved this was a viable and valuable technology
worthy of refinement and advancement.

World War II:

The development of radar in the mid-1930s proved a great
advance in air-to-ground communication. Radar could be used to
track planes in the air and determine distance, direction, speed
and even type of aircraft. This allowed for better air traffic control
as well as navigation aides for pilots. Radar also proved to be a
valuable tool in targeting for bombers. Radar stations on the coast
of Britain could aim two radar beams from separate locations on
the coast towards Germany. By aligning the two radar beams to
intersect over the desired target, a town or factory for example, an
aircraft could then follow one radar signal until it intersected with
the other where it would then know to drop bombs.
The Royal Air Force used the R1155/T1154 receiver/transmitter
combination in most of its larger aircraft, particularly the Avro
Lancaster and Short Sunderland. Single seat aircraft such as
the Spitfire and Hurricane were equipped mostly with the TR1143 set. Other systems
employed were Eureka and the S-Phone, which enabled Special Operations Executive agents
working behind enemy lines to communicate with friendly aircraft and coordinate landings
and the dropping of agents and supplies.

Error :
Communication error can occur between pilots and between pilots and air traffic controllers
due to inadequate information, unclear pronunciation or comprehensive misunderstanding.
The more information needing transfer, the more chance for error. Unclear pronunciation
could happen with non-English speakers. Sometimes lack of self-confidence and motivation
affects expression in communication. Misunderstanding happens with both native speakers
and non-native speakers through communication, so a standard aviation language is
important to improve this situation.
Sources of communication error come from: phonology (speech rate, stress, intonation,
pauses), syntax (language word patterns, sentence structure), semantics, and pragmatics
(language in context). Even though English is the international aviation language, native
English speakers still play a role in misunderstanding and situational awareness. Both the
ICAO and the Federal Aviation Administration use alternative phrases, which is confusing to
both native and non-native English speakers.
The biggest problem regarding non-native English speakers' transmissions is speech rate. In
order to understand alternative and unfamiliar accents, people's rate of comprehension and
response slows down. Accents also affect transmissions because of the different
pronunciations across languages. Some of the earlier miscommunication issues included the
limitation of language-based warning systems in aircraft and insufficient English proficiency.
According to US department of transportation's report, errors between pilots and controllers
include:
Read-back/hear-back errors - the pilot reads back the clearance incorrectly and the
controller fails to correct the error - accounted for 47% of the errors found in this analysis.
No pilot read-back. A lack of a pilot read-back contributed to 25% of the errors found in
this analysis.
Hear-back Errors Type H - the controller fails to notice his or her own error in the pilot's
correct read-back or fails to correct critical erroneous information in a pilot's statement of
intent - accounted for 18% of the errors found in this analysis.
Generally, miscommunication is caused by mis-hearing by the pilots for 28%, pilot not
responding for 20%, controller mis-hearing for 15% and 10% that controllers do not
respond. Also, a professional research shows that 30% of the information will be lost during
the miscommunication.[18] Moreover, miscommunication exists in personnel with different
background of linguistics is shown to be one of the major problem in miscommunication to
cause aviation accidents. Avoiding or minimizing miscommunication could be achieved by
standardized debriefing or an interview process, and following a checklist to supplement
written data.

Air navigation:
The basic principles of air navigation are identical to general navigation, which includes the
process of planning, recording, and controlling the movement of a craft from one place to
another.[1]
Successful air navigation involves piloting an aircraft from place to place without getting lost,
not breaking the laws applying to aircraft, or endangering the safety of those on board or on
the ground. Air navigation differs from the navigation of surface craft in several ways;
Aircraft travel at relatively high speeds, leaving less time to calculate their position en route.
Aircraft normally cannot stop in mid-air to ascertain their position at leisure. Aircraft are
safety-limited by the amount of fuel they can carry; a surface vehicle can usually get lost, run
out of fuel, then simply await rescue. There is no in-flight rescue for most aircraft.
Additionally, collisions with obstructions are usually fatal. Therefore, constant awareness of
position is critical for aircraft pilots.
The techniques used for navigation in the air will depend on whether the aircraft is flying
under visual flight rules (VFR) or instrument flight rules (IFR). In the latter case,
the pilot will navigate exclusively using instruments and radio navigation aids such as
beacons, or as directed under radar control by air traffic control. In the former case, a pilot
will largely navigate using "dead reckoning" combined with visual observations (known
as pilotage), with reference to appropriate maps. This may be supplemented using radio
navigation aids or satellite based positioning systems.
Route planning :
The first step in navigation is deciding where one wishes to go. A private pilot planning a
flight under VFR will usually use an aeronautical chart of the area which is published
specifically for the use of pilots. This map will depict controlled airspace, radio navigation
aids and airfields prominently, as well as hazards to flying such as mountains, tall radio
masts, etc. It also includes sufficient ground detail – towns, roads, wooded areas – to aid
visual navigation. In the UK, the CAA publishes a series of maps covering the whole of the
UK at various scales, updated annually. The information is also updated in the notices to
airmen, or NOTAMs.
The pilot will choose a route, taking care to avoid controlled airspace that is not permitted
for the flight, restricted areas, danger areas and so on. The chosen route is plotted on the
map, and the lines drawn are called the track. The aim of all subsequent navigation is to
follow the chosen track as accurately as possible. Occasionally, the pilot may elect on one leg
to follow a clearly visible feature on the ground such as a railway track, river, highway, or
coast.

IFR planning :
Instrument flight rules (IFR) navigation is similar to visual flight rules (VFR) flight
planning except that the task is generally made simpler by the use of special charts that show
IFR routes from beacon to beacon with the lowest safe altitude (LSALT), bearings (in both
directions), and distance marked for each route. IFR pilots may fly on other routes but they
then must perform all such calculations themselves; the LSALT calculation is the most
difficult. The pilot then needs to look at the weather and minimum specifications for landing
at the destination airport and the alternate requirements. Pilots must also comply with all
the rules including their legal ability to use a particular instrument approach depending on
how recently they last performed one.
In recent years, strict beacon-to-beacon flight paths have started to be replaced by routes
derived through performance-based navigation (PBN) techniques. When operators develop
flight plans for their aircraft, the PBN approach encourages them to assess the overall
accuracy, integrity, availability, continuity, and functionality of the aggregate navigation aids
present within the applicable airspace. Once these determinations have been made, the
operator develops a route that is the most time and fuel efficient while respecting all
applicable safety concerns—thereby maximizing both the aircraft's and the airspace's overall
performance capabilities.
Under the PBN approach, technologies evolve over time (e.g., ground beacons become
satellite beacons) without requiring the underlying aircraft operation to be recalculated.
Also, navigation specifications used to assess the sensors and equipment that are available in
an airspace can be cataloged and shared to inform equipment upgrade decisions and the
ongoing harmonization of the world's various air navigation systems.

In flight :
Once in flight, the pilot must take pains to stick to plan, otherwise getting lost is all too easy.
This is especially true if flying in the dark or over featureless terrain. This means that the
pilot must stick to the calculated headings, heights and speeds as accurately as possible,
unless flying under visual flight rules. The visual pilot must regularly compare the ground
with the map, (pilotage) to ensure that the track is being followed although adjustments are
generally calculated and planned. Usually, the pilot will fly for some time as planned to a
point where features on the ground are easily recognised. If the wind is different from that
expected, the pilot must adjust heading accordingly, but this is not done by guesswork, but
by mental calculation – often using the 1 in 60 rule. For example, a two degree error at the
halfway stage can be corrected by adjusting heading by four degrees the other way to arrive in
position at the end of the leg. This is also a point to reassess the estimated time for the leg. A
good pilot will become adept at applying a variety of techniques to stay on track.
While the compass is the primary instrument used to determine one's heading, pilots will
usually refer instead to the direction indicator (DI), a gyroscopically driven device which is
much more stable than a compass. The compass reading will be used to correct for any drift
(precession) of the DI periodically. The compass itself will only show a steady reading when
the aircraft has been in straight and level flight long enough to allow it to settle.
Should the pilot be unable to complete a leg – for example bad weather arises, or the visibility
falls below the minima permitted by the pilot's license, the pilot must divert to another
route. Since this is an unplanned leg, the pilot must be able to mentally calculate suitable
headings to give the desired new track. Using the flight computer in flight is usually
impractical, so mental techniques to give rough and ready results are used. The wind is
usually allowed for by assuming that sine A = A, for angles less than 60° (when expressed in
terms of a fraction of 60° – e.g. 30° is 1/2 of 60°, and sine 30° = 0.5), which is adequately
accurate. A method for computing this mentally is the clock code. However the pilot must be
extra vigilant when flying diversions to maintain awareness of position.

Navigation aids :
Many GA aircraft are fitted with a variety of navigation aids, such as Automatic direction
finder (ADF), inertial navigation, compasses, radar navigation, VHF omnidirectional
range (VOR) and Global navigation satellite system (GNSS).
ADF uses non-directional beacons (NDBs) on
the ground to drive a display which shows the
direction of the beacon from the aircraft. The
pilot may use this bearing to draw a line on the
map to show the bearing from the beacon. By
using a second beacon, two lines may be drawn
to locate the aircraft at the intersection of the
lines. This is called a cross-cut. Alternatively, if
the track takes the flight directly overhead a
beacon, the pilot can use the ADF instrument
to maintain heading relative to the beacon,
though "following the needle" is bad practice,
especially in the presence of a strong cross
wind – the pilot's actual track will spiral in
towards the beacon, not what was intended. NDBs also can give erroneous readings because
they use very long wavelengths, which are easily bent and reflected by ground features and
the atmosphere. NDBs continue to be used as a common form of navigation in some
countries with relatively few navigational aids.
VOR is a more sophisticated system, and is still the primary air navigation system established
for aircraft flying under IFR in those countries with many navigational aids. In this system, a
beacon emits a specially modulated signal which consists of two sine waves which are out
of phase. The phase difference corresponds to the actual bearing relative to magnetic north
(in some cases true north) that the receiver is from the station. The upshot is that the
receiver can determine with certainty the exact bearing from the station. Again, a cross-cut is
used to pinpoint the location. Many VOR stations also have additional equipment called
DME (distance measuring equipment) which will allow a suitable receiver to determine the
exact distance from the station. Together with the bearing, this allows an exact position to be
determined from a single beacon alone. For convenience, some VOR stations also transmit
local weather information which the pilot can listen in to, perhaps generated by
an Automated Surface Observing System. A VOR which is co-located with a DME is usually a
component of a TACAN.

Flight navigator :
Civilian flight navigators (a mostly redundant aircrew position, also called 'air navigator' or
'flight navigator'), were employed on older aircraft, typically between the late-1910s and the
1970s. The crew member, occasionally two navigation crew members for some flights, was
responsible for the trip navigation, including its dead reckoning and celestial navigation.
This was especially essential when trips were flown over oceans or other large bodies of water,
where radio navigation aids were not originally available. (satellite coverage is now provided
worldwide). As sophisticated electronic and GNSS systems came online, the navigator's
position was discontinued and its function was assumed by dual-licensed pilot-navigators,
and still later by the flight's primary pilots (Captain and First Officer), resulting in a
downsizing in the number of aircrew positions for commercial flights. As the installation of
electronic navigation systems into the Captain's and FO's instrument panels was relatively
straight forward, the navigator's position in commercial aviation (but not necessarily military
aviation) became redundant. (Some countries task their air forces to fly without navigation
aids during wartime, thus still requiring a navigator's position). Most civilian air navigators
were retired or made redundant by the early 1980s.