AFCS Assignment no.

1
Flight Director Systems

A Flight Director System (FDS) is one in which the display of pitch and roll
attitudes and heading of an aircraft are integrated with such radio
navigation systems as automatic direction finding (ADF), very high-
frequency omnidirectional range (VOR), and instrument landing system
(ILS) to perform a total directive command function. It also provides for the
transmission of attitude and navigational data to an AFCS so that in
combination they can operate as an effective flight guidance system.

ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR(ADI):

It provides information on an aircraft's pitch and roll attitude and Commands related to
an aircraft position with respect to glide slope (GS) and localizer (LOC) beams
transmitter by an ILS.

▪ This indicator of digital flight instruments are also provided with warning flags
and a ball-in-tube indicator provides indication of slip during turns.
▪ The symbol representing the aircraft is fixed and is and this referenced against a
moving 'sky/ground' background tape on which are presented a horizon line, and
 markings spaced at a specified number of degrees to indicate pitch-up and
pitch-down attitudes.
▪ The tape is positioned around two rollers which, on being driven by a servomotor
and gear train, move the tape up or down as appropriate to the pitch attitudes.

GS and LOC indicators: Located on the left and bottom of the attitude display; consist
of a scale and pointer responding to beam deviation signals from VHF radio navigation
receivers.
GS scale: Pointers indicate deviation from beam; dots represent specific deviation
degree
LOC scale: Single dot on either side of centre position; dots represent 1 degree of
aircraft deviation.
Rising runway symbol: Represents runway during approach and touches fixed aircraft
symbol at touchdown.
Red warning flags: GS and LOC indicators have flags indicating valid signal reception.

Additional warning flags: "GYRO" for VGU power loss or attitude reference circuit failure
"COMPUTER" for input failures to the computer, instrument amplifier, and ADI.

Attitude Indicator Background:

❖ Some attitude indicators are caged.

Newer instruments do not have these restrictive tumble limits; therefore, they do not
have a caging mechanism

 The top half of the instrument dial and horizon disc is blue, representing the sky;
and the bottom half is brown, representing the ground
  Displays pitch from artificial horizon line in degrees (long lines: 10°, short: 5°)
 Displays roll from bank index in degrees (10°, 20°, 30°, 60°)
 Important for IFR but only minimal importance in VFR flight as the outside world
is your attitude indicator
 Pendulous vanes act undesirably with a turn because G's are not felt down the
axis of rotation causing precession
 Must erect itself, on the ground it uses gravity, in the air it uses pendulous vanes
 Designed for a 360° roll and 85° pitch

Command Bars:

• Command bars, provide the commands relating to the changes that are to be
made to manoeuvre an aircraft into required pitch and/or roll attitudes.
• They are driven by servomotors that receive their input signals from the pitch
and roll channels of the computer via the instrument amplifier.

The above diagrammatic sketch determines two bars which move up or down together
to represent pitch commands and left or right to represent roll commands such that the
ADI displays. When the commands being generated by the computer are satisfied, the
bars take up a position coincident with the top of the fixed aircraft symbol.

❖ The ADI displays the information in two ways:

1. As a primary attitude reference
 2. As command attitude changes.

❖ The system which comprises of 2 indicators

1. Flight director
2. Course deviation indicator / horizontal situation indicator.
The ADI enables a miniature aircraft symbol to represent above and below centre line to
Prove that the vertical beam (glide path) signal and horizontal beam (localizer signal) is
monitored by the relevant ILS receiver channels.
The ADI Enables the working and sensing with respect to the aircraft symbol and the
aircraft reaches the maximum utilisation and its command bars are fully satisfied and
aligned.

HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (HSI)

• This indicator represents a pictorial plan view of an aircraft's situation in the

horizontal plane in the form of its heading.
• VOR/LOC deviation, and data relating to flight to and from a VOR station.
 • In addition, it displays deviations from the GS beam and distance from a
distance measuring equipment (DME) station.

• The aircraft symbol is fixed at the centre of the display, and it indicates the
position and heading of an aircraft in relation to the compass card and the
VOR/LOC deviation bar.
• This bar is also sometimes called a lateral deviation bar. Selector knobs at the
bottom corners of the indicator permit the setting of a desired magnetic heading
and a VOR/LOC course.

HEADING DISPLAY:
❖ The primary display element of the indicator is that related to an aircraft's magnetic
heading and so it is integrated with a magnetic heading reference system (MHRS).
HSI are equipped with controls which determine and monitor aircraft headings and
other attitude commands
❖ HSI display related with the aircraft lateral position with respect to VOR station and
localizer in ILS station. Deflection related to fly left and fly right commands
corresponds to the deviation signals as indicated on the HSI instruments.
❖ the main associated function are as follows;

To-from indicators:
Indication of whether an aircraft is flying to or from a station is provided by an arrow-
shaped marker that is positioned by a dc metre moment.

❖ Arrow-shaped Marker: Indicates the direction relative to the VOR station.

❖ Meter Movement: Positioned by signals from a phase comparator circuit when the
VOR station frequency is tuned in.
❖ To the Station: The marker points in the direction of the course marker, indicating
the aircraft is flying towards the VOR station.
❖ From the Station: The marker deflects 180°, indicating the aircraft is flying away
from the VOR station.

HSI (Horizontal Situation Indicator): Some systems have two separate meter
movements and arrow-shaped markers for more detailed navigation information

LOC mode:
When the FDS is operating in the LOC mode, the HSI functions in the same manner as
that just described for the VOR mode, but with two exceptions.

Firstly, the output to the meter movement controlling the deviation bar results from
amplitude comparison of signals either side of localizer beam centre.
Secondly, the to-from arrow remains out of view since no to-from signals are
transmitted in the LOC mode

Warning flags:
Warning flags are provided in a HSI to indicate the glide slope (GS) and localizer (LOC)
and VOR signals which are conveyed and indicated in the Digital Flight instruments.

DME indicator:
This indicator receives signals from the interrogator of distance measuring equipment
(DME) carried in an aircraft and displays the distance in nautical miles to be flown to as
selected DME ground station. If the system is not valid the indicator display is obscured
by an electrically operated shutter.

Radio altitude:
In some HSI an indicator light is provided and is connected to a radio altimeter system
such that it illuminates when an aircraft reaches a specified minimum altitude, referred
to as a ‘decision height’, during the final stage of an automatically controlled approach.

RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI):

To save space in the instrument panel and to consolidate related information into one
easy to use location, the radio magnetic indicator (RMI) has been developed. It is widely
used. The RMI combines indications from a magnetic compass, VOR, and ADF into one
instrument
Radio magnetic indicator in addition to magnetic heading data it also displays the
magnetic bearing of an aircraft with respect to ground base transmitting station of radio
navigation systems the RMI gives the information by means of fixed lubber line such
that the appropriate bearing signals are achieved respectively.

1. Lubber Line: A marker on the instrument dial indicating the aircraft’s heading.
2. VOR Receiver: Uses a solid pointer to show the magnetic direction to a VOR
station.
3. ADF (Automatic Direction Finder): Uses a hollow pointer to indicate the
magnetic bearing to an NDB (Non-Directional Beacon).
4. Flux Gate Compass: Continuously adjusts the azimuth card to keep the aircraft
heading at the top, reducing pilot workload. It helps in showing the relative
positions of VOR and ADF stations to the aircraft.
5. Push Buttons: Allow conversion of pointers to either ADF or VOR for flexible
navigation.

The flux gate compass is an electromagnetic device that senses the Earth’s magnetic
field to provide a stable heading reference. This technology helps in reducing errors and
improving the accuracy of navigation systems in aircraft.
ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEM:

An Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) is a flight deck instrument

display system in which the display technology used is electronic rather
than electromechanical. Similar to traditional flight directors system but
more sophisticated. Integrated with digital computer based navigation
systems

Early EFIS systems portray information using cathode ray tube (CRT)
technology. Later instrument displays are presented on multi-colour liquid-
crystal display (LCD) screens, which replace some or all of the conventional
flight instruments for both pilots.
→ Each system includes
 A typical EFIS system comprises a Primary Flight Display (PFD)
(Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator (EADI)) and an Electronic
Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI) (Navigation Display). In some
designs the two displays are integrated into one.
 Control panel
 Symbol generator (SG)
 Remote light sensor unit

In a typical system, six colours are assigned for the display of the many
symbols, failure annunciators, messages and other alphanumeric information,
and are as follows:

• White - Display of present situation information.

• Green - Display of present situation information where contrast with white

symbols is required, or for data having lower priority than white symbols.

• Magenta - All 'fly to information such as flight director commands.

deviation pointers, active flight path lines.

• Cyan - Sky shading on an EADI and for low-priority information such as

non-active flight plan map data.

• Yellow - Ground shading on an EADI, caution information display such

as failure warning flags, limit and alert annunciators and fault messages.

• Red - For display of heaviest precipitation levels as detected by the

weather radar.
Primary Flight Display (PFD)/ Electronic Attitude
Direction Indicator (EADI):

• Integration of Information: Combines data from multiple electromechanical

instruments into a single display. It consists of an electronic display that
includes the attitude indicator, the altimeter, the airspeed indicator, the vertical
speed indicator, the heading indicator and the slip and skid indicator.
• Evolution: Transitioned from a basic attitude indicator/flight director on a CRT to
an Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator (EADI).
• Comprehensive Display: Shows essential flight parameters such as altitude,
attitude, airspeed, rate of climb, and heading.
• Additional Information: Includes autopilot and auto-throttle engagement
status, flight director modes, and approach status.
 • This may include some additional data such as: ILS deviation scales, Flight
mode annunciator, Radio altimeter, Navigation and communication
frequencies.
• Flight Director Guidance: Provides lateral and vertical guidance for various
flight phases, including approach and missed approach.
• Reduced Pilot Workload: Simplifies manual flight and enhances flight
monitoring with autopilot engaged by displaying all necessary information on
one instrument.
In most cases, guidance is provided on the PFD to assist the pilot in following an
Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS).

Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI)

The EADI is an advanced version of attitude and electric attitude indicators.

In addition to displaying the aircraft’s attitude, numerous other situational
flight parameters are displayed. Most notable are those that relate to
instrument approaches and the flight director command bars. Annunciation of
active systems, such as the AFCS and navigation systems, is typical.

The concept behind an EADI is to put all data related to the flight situation
in close proximity for easy observation by the pilot. Most EADIs can be
switched between different display screens depending on the preference of the
pilot and the phase of flight. EADIs vary from manufacturer to manufacturer
and aircraft to aircraft. However, most of the same information is displayed.
EADIs can be housed in a single instrument housing or can be part of an
electronic instrument display system. One such system, the electronic flight
instrument system (EFIS), uses a cathode ray tube EADI display driven by a
signal generator. Large-screen glass cockpit displays use LCD technology to
display EADI information as part of an entire situational display directly in
front of the pilot in the middle of the instrument panel. Regardless, the EADI
is the primary flight instrument used for aircraft attitude information during
instrument flying and especially during instrument approaches. It is almost
always accompanied by an electronic horizontal situation indicator (EHSI)
located just below it in the display panel.
Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator
(EHSI)/Navigation Display (ND)

The EHSI is an evolved version of the horizontal situation indicator (HSI),

which was born from the gyroscopic direction indicator or directional gyro.
The HSI incorporates directional information to two different navigational
aids, as well as the heading of the aircraft. The EHSI does this and more. Its
primary purpose is to display as much useful navigational information as
possible.

The Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI), often referred to as the

Navigation Display (ND), replaces a number of different instruments found on a
conventional aircraft instrument panel, and may be used to depict some or all of
the following information:

• heading flown;
• heading or track selected;
• bearing to or from a navigation beacon (VHF Omnidirectional Radio Range
(VOR), Distance Measuring Equipment (DME));
• lateral deviation from a selected track;
• ground speed, distance and time to go;
• aeronautical map;
• weather information;

➢ Shows navigational information in PLAN, MAP, VOR, and ILS modes.

PLAN mode: Fixed map of flight plan with selected navigational aids and
destination airport.
MAP mode: Detailed moving map background with active/inactive navigational
aids, airports, and waypoints. Can show weather radar information and other air
traffic with TCAS integration.
VOR view: Traditional focus on selected VOR/navigational station with compass
rose and deviation pointer.
ILS mode: Shows aircraft's relation to ILS approach aids and runway.
Displays pertinent information like distance, arrival time, and wind direction.

Engine Indicating and Crew Are Alerting system

(EICAS)

In respect of EICAS, engine operating data is displayed on its CRT units, thereby
eliminating the need for traditional instruments. The data, as well as those relevant to
other systems, are not necessarily always on display but in the event of malfunctions
occurring at any time, the flight crew's attention is drawn to them by an automatic
display of messages in the appropriate colours.

The basic system comprises two display units, a control panel, and two computers
supplied with analog and digital signals from engine and system sensors The
computers are designated 'Left' and 'Right', and only one is in control at a time; the
other is on 'standby', and in the event of failure it may be switched in either manually or
automatically. Operating in conjunction with the system are discrete caution and
warning lights, standby engine indicators and a remotely-located panel for selecting
maintenance data displays. The system provides the flight crew with information on
primary engine parameters (full- time), with secondary engine parameters and
advisory/caution/ warning alert messages displayed as required.

Seven colours are produced by the CRTs and they are used as follows:

White - All scales, normal operating range of pointers, digital readouts.

Red - Warning messages, maximum operating limit marks on scales, and
digital readouts.
Green - Thrust mode readout and selected EPR/N, speed marks or target
cursors
Blue - Testing of system only.

Yellow - Caution and advisory messages, caution limit marks on scales,

digital readouts.

Magenta - During in-flight engine starting, and for cross-bleed messages.

Cyan - Names of all parameters being measured (e.g. N, oil pressure, TAT,
etc.) and status marks or cues.

Display modes

EICAS is designed to categorize displays and alerts according to function

and usage, and for this purpose there are three modes of displaying
information:
(i) operational, (ii) status, and (iii) maintenance.
Modes (i) and (ii) are selected by the flight crew on the display select
panel,

while mode (iii) is selected on the maintenance panel which is for the use
of engineers only.

Alert messages
The system continuously monitors a large number of inputs (typically over
400) from engine and airframe systems' sensors and will detect any
malfunctioning of systems. If this should occur, then appropriate
messages are generated and displayed on the upper display unit in a
sequence corresponding to the level of urgency of action to be taken. Up to
11 messages can be displayed, and at the following levels:

Level A Warning requiring immediate corrective action. They are displayed

in red. Master warning lights are also illuminated, and aural warnings (e.g.
fire bell) from a central warning system are given.

Level B Cautions requiring immediate crew awareness and possible

action. They are displayed in amber, and also by message caution lights.
An aural tone is also repeated twice.
Level C Advisories requiring crew awareness. Also displayed in amber. No
caution lights or aural tones are associated with this level.
 Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring
(ECAM)

In modern aircraft, safety is of the utmost importance. In order to

ensure that a flight is safe, pilots need to have access to a vast
amount of information about the aircraft’s systems and
performance. This is where the Electronic Centralised Aircraft
Monitor, or ECAM, comes in. It is a computer system that
provides pilots with real-time information about the aircraft’s
various systems, allowing them to make informed decisions and
take appropriate actions if necessary.
The ECAM system, displays systems' operation in checklist and
schematic form, and as this was a concept based on the view
that engine data need to be displayed during the whole of a flight,
traditional instruments were retained in the Airbus A310.
The Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor (ECAM) is the Airbus
version of an enhanced Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting
System (EICAS) system. It presents data on the Engine/Warning
Display (E/WD) and the System Display (SD) inclusive of:
• Primary engine indications, fuel quantity, flap and slat
position
• Warning and caution alerts, or memos
• Synoptic diagrams of aircraft systems, and status
messages
• Permanent flight data

ECAM and EICAS are similar in that they are both electronic systems that
monitor aircraft systems and alert pilots to system failures. The main
difference is that while both systems display system information to pilots,
ECAM will also list the actions required to deal with a failure. Once an action
has been taken (making a selection on the overhead panel, for example) that
action disappears from the list.